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Hydrogels are ideal materials to encapsulate cells, making them suitable for applications in tissue engineering and regenerative medicine. However, they generally do not possess adequate mechanical strength to functionally replace human tissues, and therefore they often need to be combined with reinforcing structures. While the interaction at the interface between the hydrogel and reinforcing structure is imperative for mechanical function and subsequent biological performance, this interaction is often overlooked. Melt electrowriting enables the production of reinforcing microscale fibers that can be effectively integrated with hydrogels. Yet, studies on the interaction between these micrometer scale fibers and hydrogels are limited. Here, we explored the influence of covalent interfacial interactions between reinforcing structures and silk fibroin methacryloyl hydrogels (silkMA) on the mechanical properties of the construct and cartilage-specific matrix production in vitro. For this, melt electrowritten fibers of a thermoplastic polymer blend (poly(hydroxymethylglycolide-co-e-caprolactone):poly(e-caprolactone) (pHMGCL:PCL)) were compared to those of the respective methacrylated polymer blend pMHMGCL:PCL as reinforcing structures. Photopolymerization of the methacrylate groups, present in both silkMA and pMHMGCL, was used to generate hybrid materials. Covalent bonding between the pMHMGCL:PCL blend and silkMA hydrogels resulted in an elastic response to the application of torque. In addition, an improved resistance was observed to compression (~3-fold) and traction (~40–55%) by the scaffolds with covalent links at the interface compared to those without these interactions. Biologically, both types of scaffolds (pHMGCL:PCL and pMHMGCL:PCL) showed similar levels of viability and metabolic activity, also compared to frequently used PCL. Moreover, articular cartilage progenitor cells embedded within the reinforced silkMA hydrogel were able to form a cartilage-like matrix after 28 days of in vitroculture. This study shows that hybrid cartilage constructs can be engineered with tunable mechanical properties by grafting silkMA hydrogels covalently to pMHMGCL:PCL blend microfibers at the interface.

Despite extensive research, current methods for creating three-dimensional (3D) silk fibroin (SF) scaffolds lack control over molecular rearrangement, particularly in the formation of β-sheet nanocrystals that severely embrittle SF, as well as hierarchical fiber organization at both micro- and macroscale. Here, we introduce a fabrication process based on electrowriting of aqueous SF solutions followed by post-processing using an aqueous solution of sodium dihydrogen phosphate (NaH2PO4). This approach enables gelation of SF chains viacontrolled β-sheet formation and partial conservation of compliant random coil structures. Moreover, this process allows for precise architecture control in microfiber scaffolds, enabling the creation of 3D flat and tubular macro-geometries with square-based and crosshatch microarchitectures, featuring inter-fiber distances of 400 μm and ∼97% open porosity. Remarkably, the crosslinked printed structures demonstrated a balanced coexistence of β-sheet and random coil conformations, which is uncommon for organic solvent-based crosslinking methods. This synergy of printing and post-processing yielded stable scaffolds with high compliance (modulus = 0.5–15 MPa) and the ability to support elastic cyclic loading up to 20% deformation. Furthermore, the printed constructs supported in vitroadherence and growth of human renal epithelial and endothelial cells with viability above 95%. These cells formed homogeneous monolayers that aligned with the fiber direction and deposited type-IV collagen as a specific marker of healthy extracellular matrix, indicating that both cell types attach, proliferate, and organize their own microenvironment within the SF scaffolds. These findings represent a significant development in fabricating organized stable SF scaffolds with unique microfiber structures and mechanical and biological properties that make them highly promising for tissue engineering applications.

Cardiac tissue engineering (cTE) has already advanced towards the first clinical trials, investigating safety and feasibility of cTE construct transplantation in failing hearts. However, the lack of well-established preservation methods poses a hindrance to further scalability, commercialization, and transportation, thereby reducing their clinical implementation. In this study, hypothermic preservation (4 °C) and two methods for cryopreservation (i.e., a slow and fast cooling approach to −196 °C and −150 °C, respectively) were investigated as potential solutions to extend the cTE construct implantation window. The cTE model used consisted of human induced pluripotent stem cell-derived cardiomyocytes and human cardiac fibroblasts embedded in a natural-derived hydrogel and supported by a polymeric melt electrowritten hexagonal scaffold. Constructs, composed of cardiomyocytes of different maturity, were preserved for three days, using several commercially available preservation protocols and solutions. Cardiomyocyte viability, function (beat rate and calcium handling), and metabolic activity were investigated after rewarming. Our observations show that cardiomyocytes’ age did not influence post-rewarming viability, however, it influenced construct function. Hypothermic preservation with HypoThermosol® ensured cardiomyocyte viability and function. Furthermore, fast freezing outperformed slow freezing, but both viability and function were severely reduced after rewarming. In conclusion, whereas long-term preservation remains a challenge, hypothermic preservation with HypoThermosol® represents a promising solution for cTE construct short-term preservation and potential transportation, aiding in off-the-shelf availability, ultimately increasing their clinical applicability.

Porous chitosan materials as potential wound dressings were prepared via dissolution of chitosan, nonsolvent-induced phase separation in NaOH–water, formation of a hydrogel, and either freeze-drying or supercritical CO2drying, leading to “cryogels” and “aerogels”, respectively. The hydrophilic drug dexamethasone sodium phosphate was loaded by impregnation of chitosan hydrogel, and the release from cryogel or aerogel was monitored at two pH values relevant for wound healing. The goal was to compare the drug-loading efficiency and release behavior from aerogels and cryogels as a function of the drying method, the materials’ physicochemical properties (density, morphology), and the pH of the release medium. Cryogels exhibited a higher loading efficiency and a faster release in comparison with aerogels. A higher sample density and lower pH value of the release medium resulted in a more sustained release in the case of aerogels. In contrast, for cryogels, the density and pH of the release medium did not noticeably influence release kinetics. The Korsmeyer–Peppas model showed the best fit to describe the release from the porous chitosan materials into the different media.

For the past two decades, atomic gold nanoclusters (AuNCs, ultrasmall clusters of several to 100 gold atoms, having a total diameter of <2 nm) have emerged as promising agents in the diagnosis and treatment of cancer. Owing to their small size, significant quantization occurs to their conduction band, which leads to emergent photonic properties and the disappearance of the plasmonic responses observed in larger gold nanoparticles. For example, AuNCs exhibit native luminescent properties, which have been well-explored in the literature. Using proteins, peptides, or other biomolecules as structural scaffolds or capping ligands, required for the stabilization of AuNCs, improves their biocompatibility, while retaining their distinct optical properties. This paved the way for the use of AuNCs in fluorescent bioimaging, which later developed into multimodal imaging combined with computer tomography and magnetic resonance imaging as examples. The development of AuNC-based systems for diagnostic applications in cancer treatment was then made possible by employing active or passive tumor targeting strategies. Finally, the potential therapeutic applications of AuNCs are extensive, having been used as light-activated and radiotherapy agents, as well as nanocarriers for chemotherapeutic drugs, which can be bound to the capping ligand or directly to the AuNCs via different mechanisms. In this review, we present an overview of the diverse biomedical applications of AuNCs in terms of cancer imaging, therapy, and combinations thereof, as well as highlighting some additional applications relevant to biomedical research.

In the past decade, stimuli-responsive hydrogels are increasingly studied as biomaterials for tissue engineering and regenerative medicine purposes. Smart hydrogels can not only replicate the physicochemical properties of the extracellular matrix but also mimic dynamic processes that are crucial for the regulation of cell behavior. Dynamic changes can be influenced by the hydrogel itself (isotropic vs anisotropic) or guided by applying localized triggers. The resulting swelling–shrinking, shape-morphing, as well as patterns have been shown to influence cell function in a spatiotemporally controlled manner. Furthermore, the use of stimuli-responsive hydrogels as bioinks in 4D bioprinting is very promising as they allow the biofabrication of complex microstructures. This perspective discusses recent cutting-edge advances as well as current challenges in the field of smart biomaterials for tissue engineering. Additionally, emerging trends and potential future directions are addressed.

Viscoelastic hydrogels are gaining interest as they possess necessary requirements for bioprinting and injectability. By means of reversible, dynamic covalent bonds, it is possible to achieve features that recapitulate the dynamic character of the extracellular matrix. Dually cross-linked and double-network (DN) hydrogels seem to be ideal for the design of novel biomaterials and bioinks, as a wide range of properties required for mimicking advanced and complex tissues can be achieved. In this study, we investigated the fabrication of chondroitin sulfate/hyaluronic acid (CS/HA)-based DN hydrogels, in which two networks are interpenetrated and cross-linked with the dynamic covalent bonds of very different lifetimes. Namely, Diels–Alder adducts (between methylfuran and maleimide) and hydrazone bonds (between aldehyde and hydrazide) were chosen as cross-links, leading to viscoelastic hydrogels. Furthermore, we show that viscoelasticity and the dynamic character of the resulting hydrogels could be tuned by changing the composition, that is, the ratio between the two types of cross-links. Also, due to a very dynamic nature and short lifetime of hydrazone cross-links (∼800 s), the DN hydrogel is easily processable (e.g., injectable) in the first stages of gelation, allowing the material to be used in extrusion-based 3D printing. The more long-lasting and robust Diels–Alder cross-links are responsible for giving the network enhanced mechanical strength and structural stability. Being highly charged and hydrophilic, the cross-linked CS and HA enable a high swelling capacity (maximum swelling ratio ranging from 6 to 12), which upon confinement results in osmotically stiffened constructs, able to mimic the mechanical properties of cartilage tissue, with the equilibrium moduli ranging from 0.3 to 0.5 MPa. Moreover, the mesenchymal stromal cells were viable in the presence of the hydrogels, and the effect of the degradation products on the macrophages suggests their safe use for further translational applications. The DN hydrogels with dynamic covalent cross-links hold great potential for the development of novel smart and tunable viscoelastic materials to be used as biomaterial inks or bioinks in bioprinting and regenerative medicine.

Biofabrication exploits additive manufacturing techniques for creating 3D structures with a precise geometry that aim to mimic a physiological cellular environment and to develop the growth of native tissues. The most recent approaches of 3D biofabrication integrate multiple technologies into a single biofabrication platform combining different materials within different length scales to achieve improved construct functionality. However, the importance of interfaces between the different material phases, has not been adequately explored. This is known to determine material's interaction and ultimately mechanical and biological performance of biofabricated parts. In this review, this gap is bridged by critically examining the interface between different material phases in (bio)fabricated structures, with a particular focus on how interfacial interactions can compromise or define the mechanical (and biological) properties of the engineered structures. It is believed that the importance of interfacial properties between the different constituents of a composite material, deserves particular attention in its role in modulating the final characteristics of 3D tissue‐like structures. Converged biofabrication allows the in vitro fabrication of biological constructs by precise combination of materials and cells. However, material's interactions, which are known to determine biofabricated constructs’ performance, have not been adequately investigated. This review examines the interface between different material phases in (bio)fabricated structures, with a particular focus on how interfacial interactions can define their mechanical and biological properties.