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Climate and land use changes are eroding biodiversity globally, and reptiles are highlighted as being particularly susceptible. In South Africa, global changes threaten the persistence of an assemblage of dwarf chameleons (Bradypodion) located in a biodiversity hotspot. We used ecological niche modelling to assess the combined effect of climate change and habitat transformation on these species and assessed their susceptibility in a vulnerability framework under optimistic and pessimistic change scenarios. Although our models showed a gain in suitable climatic space for all coastal species in some scenarios, considerable losses were predicted for most species under the most pessimistic change scenarios. Bradypodion ngomeense, for example is predicted to incur a complete loss of climatic suitability by 2050. The vulnerability framework predicts inland species to be more adversely affected by climate change than coastal species. However, no species show resilience to the combined effects of climate change and habitat transformation. Our models predicted a loss of climatically suitable habitat for most species in protected areas. These findings highlight the importance of a protected area network design to remain a step ahead of these anticipated changes.

ABSTRACTArboreal chameleons must navigate a complex, three-dimensional landscape consisting of trees, bushes and/or grasses of various sizes. This complexity equates to the microhabitat of chameleons, that is, the branches upon which they perch and through which they move. Therefore, chameleons rely on their ability to grip perches available to them, and this is evident by their specialised adaptations such as their prehensile tail and their grasping hands and feet. To date, ecological studies of chameleons have relied on gathering data on perch use only at night because locating chameleons during the daytime is extremely difficult. However, the night-time perch represents the sleeping perch of individuals, and this is not necessarily reflective of overall diel perch use. Many other arboreal reptiles are constrained to using thin perches at night, but by day their microhabitat is more variable, using thicker branches, limbs or tree trunks. To assess whether this well-entrenched paradigm (night-time perch use being constrained to thin perches) also extends to fully arboreal chameleons, daytime and night-time perch diameters were measured for the Cape Dwarf Chameleon, Bradypodion pumilum, and were compared using analyses of variance statistical approaches. Neither perch diameters nor variance in perch diameters differed between the two photoperiods, and the variance in diameters of perches used was remarkably high. Despite this variance, there was a significant, positive relationship between body size and the diameter of perches used. Unlike other reptiles, the results show that for B. pumilumthe night-time perch use is not different than diurnal perch use, and there appears to be a fairly wide range of perches used by chameleons of a given body size over both photoperiods. Nevertheless, the positive trend for chameleons of larger body sizes to choose larger perches than smaller chameleons implies that there are some upper and lower constraints for the diameters of perches used, possibly relating to their ability to effectively grip a range of perch sizes.

ABSTRACTIt is commonly recognised that natural history datasets contain locality errors that can compromise the utility of those datasets. However, another source of error in these datasets is taxonomic misidentifications, and this type of error is potentially common, particularly with regards to morphologically conservative species. For example, in the African skinks, the Trachylepis striataand T. variaspecies complexes each contain morphologically similar species that are commonly confused, despite being genetically distinct. Some species also are partly sympatric, and misidentifications are likely to be especially problematic in those areas. Using DNA barcoding, we assessed misidentification rates between species and applied the updated identifications to known distribution maps to examine whether those maps are accurate representations. Existing banked samples and newly collected samples were DNA barcoded using the mitochondrial 16S gene and supplemented with GenBank data. Identifications were made by matching sequences using haplotype networks that included material from near type localities. The barcode-based identifications were compared with the original identifications recorded for those samples. Taxonomic error was common, particularly in areas of presumed sympatry (error for T. striataspecies complex: 28%; T. variaspecies complex: 31%) and this resulted in inaccurately represented species distributions and areas of sympatry. Areas of sympatry were, however, confirmed for T. spilogaster/T. punctatissima, T. striata/T. punctatissimaand T. damarana/T. laevigata/T. varia. Our findings corroborate other studies that demonstrate taxonomic error in existing datasets is a significant, but typically unrecognised problem, particularly for morphologically conservative species. This has implications for the utility of historical collections, citizen science records and public databases used in the formulation of species distribution maps, but also for other downstream analyses that rely on these datasets.

Comprehensive assessments of species’ extinction risks have documented the extinction crisis1and underpinned strategies for reducing those risks2. Global assessments reveal that, among tetrapods, 40.7% of amphibians, 25.4% of mammals and 13.6% of birds are threatened with extinction3. Because global assessments have been lacking, reptiles have been omitted from conservation-prioritization analyses that encompass other tetrapods4–7. Reptiles are unusually diverse in arid regions, suggesting that they may have different conservation needs6. Here we provide a comprehensive extinction-risk assessment of reptiles and show that at least 1,829 out of 10,196 species (21.1%) are threatened—confirming a previous extrapolation8and representing 15.6 billion years of phylogenetic diversity. Reptiles are threatened by the same major factors that threaten other tetrapods—agriculture, logging, urban development and invasive species—although the threat posed by climate change remains uncertain. Reptiles inhabiting forests, where these threats are strongest, are more threatened than those in arid habitats, contrary to our prediction. Birds, mammals and amphibians are unexpectedly good surrogates for the conservation of reptiles, although threatened reptiles with the smallest ranges tend to be isolated from other threatened tetrapods. Although some reptiles—including most species of crocodiles and turtles—require urgent, targeted action to prevent extinctions, efforts to protect other tetrapods, such as habitat preservation and control of trade and invasive species, will probably also benefit many reptiles.

ABSTRACTThe mechanisms that underpin ecological speciation, morphological convergence and the evolution of ecological morphotypes (ecomorphs) in squamates have allowed for a better appreciation of the speciation process in chameleons. In particular, attention has been drawn to several populations of chameleons (Sauria, Chamaeleonidae, Bradypodion) from the Cape Fold Mountains, South Africa. Previous work suggested that these populations are genetically divergent, but with strong similarities in phenotype. Using an integrative taxonomic approach that accounts for genetic diversity, habitat and morphology, three of these populations are described as species. One population is from an isolated forest patch and is genetically different at the species level, but morphologically similar to Bradypodion damaranum(Boulenger, 1887) from forested areas in the Knysna region. Although not sister species, the two are in the same clade and probably diverged through vicariance of the forest. Two other populations are from fynbos habitat in adjacent mountain ranges (Tsitsikamma/Langkloof/Kouga mountains and Baviaanskloof Mountains) and are also morphologically similar, but genetically divergent at the species level. These two species are not sister taxa and are not in the same clade yet have a virtually identical phenotype presumably as the result of convergent evolution for the fynbos habitat. Within the context of morphological taxonomy, these populations have been difficult to evaluate. However, when viewed in the context of ecological speciation, convergence and morphological conservatism, the species boundaries are apparent, allowing for them to be described as new taxa.

ABSTRACTAlthough reproductive strategies are poorly documented in chameleons, sperm storage has been confirmed among some species for which male reproductive success may be maximised by increasing the number of females inseminated and/or preventing subsequent female copulation with rival males. Behaviour, such as mate searching, may enable males to maximise the number of mating opportunities with different partners and mate guarding may increase the likelihood that a male will sire offspring with a particular female. In this study, we investigated behavioural differences in movement (distance travelled) and perch choice between sexes of the Cape Dwarf Chameleon, Bradypodion pumilum, to offer data for a better understanding of mate searching and mate guarding behaviours. Wild chameleons were radio-tracked in 2010 (n = 8) and 2014 (n= 5) for approximately two weeks. The geographic location and perch height above ground were recorded multiple times per day to capture both the scale of movement and their perch use. Linear mixed effect models were used to assess differences between sexes. Our results indicated that females perched lower than males and moved shorter distances, offering support of a mate searching strategy in males. Ad hocfield observations revealed behaviours consistent with mate guarding by some males, and mate avoidance by some unreceptive females. Our results could indicate that males increase their reproductive fitness by using higher perches in both a mate guarding and mate searching context and moving further distances in search of receptive females.

ABSTRACTThe Angolan Adder, Bitis heraldica(Bocage, 1889), is endemic to the Angolan central plateau and is one of the most poorly known and rarely observed species of African snakes. The phylogenetic placement of B. heraldicawithin the four subgenera of the genus Bitis(Bitis, Macrocerastes, Calechidna, Keniabitis) has been problematic. The few recent taxonomic and phylogenetic revisions dealing with African viperids and the genus Bitishave not included this species, resulting in the default acceptance of B. heraldicaas member of the subgenus Calechidna, based on similar morphology and size. During a survey in Huambo Province, central Angola, we collected the first specimen of this species in the past 65 years, allowing us to examine its phylogenetic relationships to other Bitisusing multigene Bayesian and maximum likelihood analyses of all species of Bitis, except B. harenna. Contrary to expectations that B. heraldicais a member of the subgenus Calechidna, our results unambiguously place B. heraldicaamong members of the subgenus Macrocerastes, which contains the largest-bodied species of the genus. The placement of B. heraldicawithin Macrocerastesraises interesting questions about body-size evolution in viperids and contributes to a better understanding of biogeographic patterns in south-western Africa, and particularly Angola.

ABSTRACTThe Scaled Sandveld Lizard Nucras scalarisLaurent, 1964is a poorly known lacertid endemic to north-eastern Angola and is only known from the type series collected more than half a century ago. The original description provided a comprehensive morphological description, but there was a lack of information regarding its evolutionary relationships and habitat associations. A recent discovery of N. scalarisfrom Cusseque, Bié Province, on the central Angolan plateau provided the opportunity to address some knowledge gaps of this species. A phylogenetic analysis confirmed its distinctiveness at the species level. Despite a limited dataset, the analysis suggests that N. scalarisis sister to N. broadleyirather than N. lalandii,the latter having been assumed to be the sister species, because of morphological similarity between them. The new record of N. scalarisrepresents a range extension of more than 350 km to the southwest and extends the elevation range to 1 570 m above sea level, compared to previous known localities at about 1 300 m above sea level (Alto Cuílo and Alto Chicapa, in Lunda Sul Province). The specimen also provides new information on live coloration, as well as the habitat association of grassy shrubland that is dominated by geoxylic suffrutices (the so-called ‘underground forests’) characteristic of the Angolan Miombo Woodlands. This new information raises the question whether poor survey data have led to an under-estimation of faunal diversity in this peculiar and overlooked vegetation type, and reinforces the need for further surveys which could highlight the importance of this habitat.

ABSTRACTThere are notable examples of repeated evolution of ecomorphs within groups of closely related species, these are typically viewed as remarkable cases of natural selection. In most cases, directional selection for certain phenotypic traits under specific (and differing) environmental conditions is implicated. Differing ecomorphological forms for closely related species (or for populations within a species) have been documented for several lineages of South African dwarf chameleons (Bradypodion), although this pattern is not ubiquitous across the genus. Within one species, Bradypodion pumilum, two ecomorphs have been observed, these differ in terms of morphology, performance, ecology and habitat, yet genetic differences (mtDNA) were not apparent, with shared haplotypes across the ecomorphs. We investigated whether more sensitive genetic markers (eight microsatellite loci) would show population level structure between ecomorphs, which could indicate lack of gene flow across the ecological (habitat) boundary. Our results suggest that the two ecomorphs are distinct at a population level, implying that gene flow is absent or reduced and that the two ecomorphs are on separate evolutionary trajectories. Given that mtDNA could not detect population structure, we infer that the ecological boundary between ecomorphs is relatively recent in evolutionary history. The two ecomorphs are distinctive in terms of their morphology, ecology, habitat and functional traits, these differences are likely driven and maintained by reproductive isolation across the habitat boundary.

ABSTRACTPachydactylusis the most species-rich reptile genus in southern Africa. Most species are habitat specialists adapted to hyper-arid conditions of the Namibian and north-western South African xeric regions. Although a fair number of phylogenetic studies and taxonomic revisions have been published, some species still remain rather enigmatic. In the ten years since the taxonomic revision of the weberigroup, some of the species have not been recorded and our knowledge on their distribution, phylogenetic affinities, or intraspecific variability is limited or non-existent. Pachydactylus goodiis one such species. In this study, we report a newly discovered population of P. goodiin the Richtersveld National Park, South Africa, which considerably extends the known range of the species. In addition, the results of our phylogenetic analyses indicate that P. goodiis paraphyletic with respect to P. atorquatus. Although there is a striking colour polymorphism observed between these two species, the level of genetic differentiation within the goodi-atorquatusclade is comparable with intraspecific variability observed in other Pachydactylusspecies. As a result of these findings, which are further supported by morphological similarity of the two species, we conclude that they represent a single species and synonymise P. goodiwith P. atorquatus.

The spatial genetic structure of a species, and whether distinct genetic lineages are present, is strongly influenced by their biology and habitat requirements. Given habitat specificity and low vagility, many herpetofaunal species are reservoirs for high levels of cryptic diversity; chameleons are a case in hand. The common flap-necked chameleon Chamaeleo dilepishas a large range that spans much of sub-Saharan Africa. Within South Africa, the species is largely confined to the north-eastern and central areas of the country, and occurs from the coastal forests in southern KwaZulu-Natal westwards into Namibia. Their large range, together with anecdotal evidence that there is considerable morphological and phenotypic diversity across the range, suggests a questionable taxonomy with possible cryptic lineages. The aims of the present study were to investigate whether C. dilepisis genetically structured across parts of its South African range, and whether this species (as it currently stands) might include cryptic lineages. To this end, 72 C. dilepisindividuals sampled from four localities across South Africa (Gauteng, n= 2; KwaZulu-Natal, n= 2) were sequenced for two mitochondrial markers (ND4 and 16S). The phylogenetic results suggest that C. dilepisis indeed spatially structured. In addition, the large sequence divergence values between groups strongly suggests the presence of cryptic lineages and, pending the inclusion of more data from a larger geographic range, the group may be in need of a taxonomic revision.

ABSTRACTNothophrynePoynton, 1963 is a monotypic genus of frog, with the nominal species N. broadleyifound only on Mount Mulanje, in southern Malawi. Recent surveys in northern Mozambique, however, have uncovered at least four new species associated with four inselbergs (Mount Inago, Mount Namuli, Mount Ribáuè and Taratibu Hills). Previous phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial genes suggest that each mountain isolate has an endemic species of Nothophryne. Herein we provide a rediagnosis of the genus and comparative diagnoses of four new species based on new material.ZooBank— urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:19C53BF3-BA52-4CAE-933F-5BBEE0AF0457

ABSTRACTThe sub-Saharan African file snake genus Gonionotophisis currently comprised of 15 species. However, the concept of this genus has been confounded by morphological and genetic differences between the constituent taxa. Due to the dearth of DNA samples, a taxonomic assessment has been impractical to date. We therefore sequenced two mitochondrial and one nuclear marker (16S, cyt b, and c-mos) from 45 samples representing ten species of Gonionotophisto construct a molecular phylogeny using Bayesian and likelihood approaches. Four divergent and well-supported clades were recovered, including: (1) grantii + brussauxi; (2) poensis + stenophthalmus; (3) nyassae; and (4) capensis, chanleri, crossi, guiraliand savorgnani. Based on these results and morphological data, the genus Gonionotophisis restricted to the first clade, Mehelyais resurrected for the species in the second clade, and new genera are described for the remaining two clades.ZooBank—urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:A82CFAD6-E2E0-439E-90BB-9224E225426B

AbstractIntraspecific genetic diversity provides the basis for evolutionary change and is therefore considered the most fundamental level of biodiversity. Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and microsatellite loci are the markers most typically used in population-level studies; however, their patterns of genetic variation are not always congruent. This can result in different interpretations of the data, which can impact on management decisions, especially for threatened species. Consequently, in this study, we developed and analysed novel microsatellite markers for the Endangered Western Leopard Toad (WLT), Sclerophrys pantherina, and compared the results to previously published mtDNA data to compare the level of genetic diversity between the two molecular markers. The microsatellite evidence showed signs of a past bottleneck, yet relatively high levels of genetic diversity and low genetic differentiation between two sampling sites. In contrast, the mtDNA revealed moderate to low levels of diversity between sampling sites, and strong genetic differentiation. An explanation for the conflicting patterns may be that the current genetic signature, as depicted by the microsatellite data, is not yet reflected in the mitochondrial dataset; and, as such the data are depicting a timeline for genetic variation within the WLT. Both markers revealed important information about the two sampling sites, which can help inform conservation management of the species.

AbstractOn the Cape Peninsula, Capensibufo roseiis known from only two isolated breeding populations within Table Mountain National Park. Because of its declining state, there is an urgent need to understand the genetic diversity, population structure and patterns of movement of this species. To do this, 15 microsatellite primer pairs were designed, optimised and tested. Successful loci were screened for null alleles and genotyping errors and then analysed, specifically noting the number of alleles, allelic size range, observed and expected heterozygosities, deviations from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium (HWE) and linkage disequilibria. Bottleneck tests and analyses of molecular variance (AMOVA) were also conducted to gain insight into each population’s structure. Eleven primer pairs produced unambiguous polymerase chain reactions (PCR) products and scoreable bands, which were found to be polymorphic across both breeding populations. Deviations from HWE were detected owing to the presence of null alleles and inbreeding. Significant bottleneck signatures were detected for both populations and the AMOVA revealed significant differentiation between the two populations, indicating genetic structure at the population level.

AbstractPopulation genetic methods can be useful for understanding spatial genetic patterns, gene flow and diversity. While genetic markers such as gene sequences are useful for understanding broad scale phylogeographic patterns, microsatellite markers allow for inferences within species and on smaller spatial scales. Such data can then be used to glean information on biological processes at the landscape level. Because portions of southern Africa are predicted to be heavily impacted by climatic changes forecast for the next century, a better understanding of the biota at the species level would be beneficial for advancing knowledge on the southern African system. Therefore, we characterised 11 microsatellite markers for an arid adapted lacertid lizard, Pedioplanis lineoocellata, in order to obtain a microsatellite library for future studies. Five of 11 loci were out of Hardy-Weinberg (H-W) equilibrium, showing a homozygote excess. Frequency-based analysis suggested this is due to the presence of null alleles. We further investigated this using a model-based Bayesian approach to simultaneously estimate inbreeding, null alleles and random amplification failures. In contrast to the frequency-based approach, this method indicated that both inbreeding and random amplification failures, not null alleles, are the most significant components of the model for nine of 11 loci. Overall, the inbreeding coefficient was low, but not zero, suggesting that low levels of inbreeding contribute to H-W deviations. Finally, we examined whether population bottlenecks could be a factor in deviations from H-W using multiple methods, but found no evidence to suggest that bottlenecks have played a role.

AbstractAlthough multiple paternity and sperm storage are common in squamates, neither has been conclusively demonstrated in the chameleons (Chamaeleonidae). To examine whether these traits are present in chameleons, the Cape Dwarf Chameleon (Bradypodion pumilum) was investigated. This viviparous species inhabits a temperate climate in southern Africa, has aseasonal breeding, and can produce multiple clutches annually. Given this reproductive schedule, we hypothesised that females may mate opportunistically and store sperm, and that single clutches may have multiple sires. To examine this, six females and their clutches were genotyped using microsatellite markers, and assessed for multiple paternity. In addition, 46 females were assessed for sperm storage structures and presence of sperm in the oviduct. Multiple paternity was found in all six clutches, based on the presence of multiple alleles at all loci that could not be assigned to the mother. No evidence of specialised sperm storage structures was found, but sperm was present in the lumen of the posterior oviduct in 74% of females. While sperm storage cannot be concluded with finality, it seems likely to occur, rather assuming that three out of four of the females in the sample had mated just prior to capture. Furthermore, two post-partum females retained sperm in the oviducts after the delivery of a clutch, but in the absence of additional copulation. Given that this species has aseasonal reproduction, if sperm is indeed stored long-term, this combination of traits would be advantageous given the lack of defined breeding season and presumably low rates of mate encounter.

AbstractThe Cape Dwarf Chameleon, Bradypodion pumilum, is threatened by extensive habitat loss and transformation in the Western Cape Province of South Africa. As a result, the species exists as a collection of populations inhabiting an increasingly fragmented landscape within a critically endangered ecosystem. In this study we monitored microsatellite genetic variation in one of these populations of B. pumilumacross a three-year period. From the results of a temporary site-vacancy of adult chameleons during the study, we anticipated a significant shift in microsatellite allele frequencies. Using data from eight highly polymorphic loci we detected differences in the allelic composition of chameleons inhabiting the study site between pre- and post-site-vacancy periods (AMOVA RST= 0.017; P= 0.019). Results suggest that recolonisation by immigrant chameleons, from an adjacent vegetation fragment connected to the study site by corridors, caused the recorded shifts in allelic frequencies. Pairwise tests of year by year comparisons revealed significant shifts in allelic frequencies between years one and two and between one and three, but not between years two and three. Our findings highlight the susceptibility of small vertebrates to stochastic changes in the allelic composition of populations in a fragmented landscape, and can be useful for the development of biodiversity management in an increasingly fragmented habitat mosaic.

AbstractAmphisbaenians are enigmatic members of the subterranean herpetofauna with the majority of their diversity concentrated in South America and Africa. The largest family, Amphisbaenidae, occurs in South America and Africa, but the phylogenetic relationships among the genera are not clearly understood, especially for African taxa. We present a phylogeny based on two mitochondrial (16S and ND2) and two nuclear genes (CMOS and RAG1) with representatives of six of the nine African genera of Amphisbaenidae. Three African genera with keel and shovel head shapes occur in a single well-supported clade which is sister to all South American members of the Amphisbaenidae. The remaining three African genera (Chirindia, Cyniscaand Zygaspis) all with round heads fall outside this clade, although their positions are not well supported. Future challenges rest with sampling species not recorded from the field for decades.

Nadzikambia is a monotypic genus described to accommodate the Mulanje chameleon, N. mlanjensis. During herpetological surveys of isolated mountains in Mozambique a population of chameleons was discovered on Mount Mabu. It is referable to the genus Nadzikambia, but features of scalation, colouration and genetic divergence distinguish this population from N. mlanjensis. It is described as a new species, Nadzikambia baylissi, and represents the second species in the genus and the first record of the genus in Mozambique. Notes on reproduction in N. mlanjensis are appended. The discovery of the new species in a mid-altitude evergreen forest remnant on Mount Mabu emphasises the high conservation importance of the region, previously signalled by the discovery of a new species of forest viper (Atheris mabuensis), and a number of undescribed butterflies and freshwater crab species in the region.

Reptiles have an amazing diversity of life-history attributes ranging from the shortest- to longest-lived of vertebrate species. Estimating survival in wild populations is of key importance when understanding population dynamics and life-history evolution. However, data are lacking for a large and charismatic group of lizards, the chameleons. We conducted a Robust Design (RD) capture–mark–recapture (CMR) experiment on the Cape dwarf chameleon, Bradypodion pumilum,at two nested sites within the Cape Town Metropolitan Area, South Africa, in order to estimate survival and movement of adults in and around an isolated 3.5 ha patch of suitable habitat. Over a nine-week period, 97 individuals were identified in 379 captures from five primary capture sessions with three secondary events each. Analysis of CMR data provided evidence that smaller chameleons have a substantially lower survival per 10-day period than larger chameleons. RD analysis showed that males were more prone to temporary emigration than females, while open multi-strata analysis revealed that smaller chameleons more readily moved between the sites than larger chameleons. Our findings offer first important insights into chameleon survival and life-history dynamics, which suggest a more vagile subadult population and the possibility of male biased dispersal. Our results have implications for managing the conservation of threatened chameleon populations in highly fragmented urban habitats.

The Clicking Stream Frog (Strongylopus grayii) occurs throughout southern and eastern South Africa across summer, aseasonal and winter rainfall areas. Because of its contiguous distribution and extended breeding season this species might be expected to show a phylogeographic pattern of isolation by distance rather than divergent geographical lineages. To investigate population structure and make inferences about physical processes that have influenced gene flow in this species, two mitochondrial genes (ND2 and 16S) were sequenced for 64 frogs from across the distribution of the species. Phylogenetic analyses (parsimony and Bayesian) revealed two well-supported clades partitioning the range of this taxon, with one clade restricted to the northeast (summer rainfall) and the other restricted to the south (winter and aseasonal rainfall). The magnitude of sequence divergence between these clades is higher than expected, and is typical of levels of sequence divergence found among closely related species of pyxicephalid frogs. Phylogeographic analyses of sequence networks and spatial analysis of molecular variance (SAMOVA) revealed additional geographical structure within each of these lineages. This study demonstrates the effectiveness of climatic transitions as barriers to gene flow and as potential agents for vicariant speciation.

The niche concept implies that a relationship exists between a species and its environment, while macro-ecological theory suggests that an important attribute of a species' environment is climate. Thus, changes in climate could affect individual species, but also communities. Here, we analysed the potential impacts of climate change on dwarf chameleons. A niche-based modelling technique was used to predict current suitable climatic habitat for most Bradypodion species and for their phylogenetic clades. Additionally, the models were projected into the future (2080) using the IPCC climate change scenarios. All models for Bradypodion species and clades showed responses to predicted climate change, however, the degree and extent of these responses were individualistic. Most species responded with a contraction in predicated climatic suitability, but some registered an expansion or a shift. These results have important implications in understanding the vulnerability of biodiversity to climate change, and for the importance of considering the effects of predicted climatic shifts on the protection of biodiversity.

A new species of chameleon Kinyongia magomberae sp. nov. (the Magombera chameleon), is described from Magombera forest and the Vdzungwa Mountains National Park, south-central Tanzania. The species status is supported by phylogenetic analyses using mitochondrial and nuclear markers. The new chameleon is similar to K. tenuis and the more widespread Eastern Arc endemic K. oxyrhina in having a single rostral appendage. However, it can be distinguished from these two species by a shorter rostral appendage, which is different in shape and lacks a movable tip. K. magomberae sp. nov. is known from only two forest localities, the lowland and unprotected Magombera forest and the sub-montane Mwanihana forest within the Vdzungwa Mountains National Park. Phylogenetically, this taxon is sister to K. tenuis, and is part of a clade that also contains K. oxyrhina.

The use of automated grape harvesters in the Cape Wine Growing region has resulted in controversy regarding their effect on the chameleon Bradypodion pumilum. We investigated densities of B. pumilum during harvesting at a vineyard near Stellenbosch, South Africa. During dedicated surveys, no chameleons were found in vines, while vegetation surrounding the vines contained densities as high as 1.3 chameleons per 100 m of survey. In addition, the force required to remove ripe grapes was investigated and found to be substantially lower than that required to dislodge a chameleon. We conclude that the effect of automated grape harvesting on chameleons is negligible.

A new dwarf chameleon, Bradypodion atromontanum Branch, Tolley & Tilbury sp. nov., is described from mountain fynbos habitat in the Great Swartberg Mountains, Western Cape Province, South Africa. It is closest geographically to Bradypodion gutturale but distinguished by its smaller size, less tuberculate scalation, genetic divergence, and restriction to Mountain Fynbos habitat. Although its known distribution falls in the conserved Swartberg Nature Reserve, it should be classified as Vulnerable due to its very restricted range.

The evolutionary relationships and taxonomic status of dwarf chameleons in the eastern Cape Floristic Region is not well understood. Through a combination of field observations and mito-chondrial DNA sequencing (ND2 and 16S), it has become apparent that morphological and genetic evidence are often in conflict. In some instances, species that are morphologically quite different, show close genetic relationships, eg., Bradypodion taeniabronchum and B. ventrale. In other cases there are substantial genetic differences between lineages, with little morphological differentiation. For example, dwarf chameleons from the Kouga and the Baviaanskloof mountains were thought to represent a single undescribed species. However, chameleons from these two mountain ranges show large sequence divergence (6.8% for ND2) that is more than twice the value between B. taeniabronchum and B. ventrale. The evolutionary relationships within this group are reticulate in nature, making taxonomy difficult to resolve. Application of only mitochondrial data to resolve the taxonomy of this group is therefore insufficient, because mitochondrial DNA may only indicate historical isolation of lineages, and if used independently, may not be a good indicator of species definitions. Therefore our next step toward resolving the taxonomy of this group is the inclusion of nuclear DNA markers, in conjunction with a full morphological analysis.

The harbour porpoise (Phocoena phocoena)experiences high rates of incidental mortalityin commercial fisheries, and in some areasthese rates are sufficiently high to justifyconcern over population sustainability. Giventhe high incidental mortality, the resolutionof population structure will be important toconservation and management, but in the NorthAtlantic the relationships among many of theputative populations remain unclear. Aprevious genetic study demonstrated substantialgenetic differences between eastern and westernNorth Atlantic populations, however thelocation of this break remained unresolved. Inthe present study, we addressed this issue byincluding new samples from Iceland. Toinvestigate population structure, variation inthe mitochondrial DNA of 370 porpoises wascompared among six locations corresponding toseveral of the putative populations (Gulf ofMaine, Gulf of St. Lawrence, Newfoundland, WestGreenland, Iceland, Norway). The first 342base pairs of the control region were sequencedand genetic variation investigated by analysisof molecular variance (FSTandΦST) and χ2withpermutation. Although some fine scalepopulation structure was detected, porpoisesfrom Iceland were found to be more similar tothe western populations (W. Greenland, Gulf ofSt. Lawrence, Newfoundland, Gulf of Maine) thanto Norway. Furthermore, porpoises from Norwaywere different from all other regions. Thesepatterns suggest the existence of adiscontinuity between Iceland and Norway,possibly the result of isolating events causedby repeated range contractions and expansionsthroughout Quaternary glaciation events withinthe North Atlantic. These results suggest thatharbour porpoise populations within the NorthAtlantic are distinguishable, but patterns mustbe interpreted in light of their historicalbiogeography.

Differences in wing morphology are described for three Eurasian populations of Drosophila lummei. A truss network of wing characters was used to quantify wing size and shape for 149 individuals from Japan, Sweden and Russia. Sexual dimorphism in wing size and shape was not substantial, so the sexes were pooled and multivariate analyses conducted. Both principal components analysis and discriminant analysis of wing morphology revealed significant differences among all geographic groups. These differences indicate that morphometric analysis of wing characters can reliably discriminate between geographic groups and accurately classify individuals of the three Drosophila lummei populations. Principal components analysis also revealed that characters occurring in the same section of the wing formed correlated suites which corresponded to morphologically and functionally distinct areas of the wing. This study is unique because it detects subtle morphological differences within a single species of fruit fly across an intercontinental distribution.The results corroborate genetic studies in which geographic variation was found for inversion polymorphisms among spatially separated populations of Drosophila lummei.