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• The digital divide by municipal size persists and digital inclusion is not guaranteed. • Access to ICT does not automatically lead to greater use of technologies. • Satisfaction with ICT development is not related to the levels of ICT use. • Population profiles are identified regarding satisfaction with ICT development. • ICT public policies are not sufficient to retain and settle the population. Drawing on the findings of a survey administered to 514 inhabitants of the so-called hollowed-out Spain (la España vaciada, referring to the country's depopulated regions), this study provides a basis for assessing the effectiveness and impact of ICT-based public policies. The study facilitates so-called Rural Proofing , identifying the weaknesses on which the administration can focus to improve living conditions and so prevent the exodus from rural areas. The existence of a digital divide was corroborated, as was the presence of different population profiles related to satisfaction with ICT development. Digital inclusion is not guaranteed across all groups of population, while greater use of ICT is not associated with greater satisfaction. Furthermore, the levels of access, use and satisfaction with ICT development alone do not appear to be sufficient to deter depopulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Growth in investment in e-government may increase the use of e-government by citizens, but not proportionally. • Only a citizen-centred, well communicated and promoted policy can balance the levels of e-government supply and demand. • The use of e-government cannot prevent a decline in confidence, but it does appear to have an attenuating effect. • Greater levels of trust seem to encourage greater use of e-government. • The differences in use across countries in Europe are influenced by the digital divide due to income and education. Despite the significant amounts of public investment devoted to enhancing e-government over the last ten years, citizens' use of this service is still limited, posing a challenge to national governments. By analysing panel data derived from 27 European countries for the period 2010 to 2018, our work confirms that citizens' use of e-government services is influenced by supply-side e-government evaluations, citizens' trust in governments and the digital divide associated to income and education. Moreover, a longitudinal cluster analysis allows us to identify patterns of behaviour between the countries as regards the way those variables interact with the use of e-government services over time. Relevant practical implications derive from the research that can guide public policy in the area of e-government. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]