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Climate change is the primary threat to coral reefs, causing catastrophic coral mortality on a global scale. Stressors such as ocean acidification limit calcium carbonate availability needed to build skeletons. A wealth of research has shown that climate stressors impair the ability of coral to produce and maintain their skeletons, thereby disrupting functions critical to maintaining coral health as well as threatening the ecologically significant framework for reef building. There are natural marginal and extreme environments however, where coral reefs thrive despite unfavourable conditions. These habitats provide a natural long-term setting to examine the impact of multiple interacting climate change factors on corals and understand the adaptations required by corals to inhabit these conditions. We review studies of coral skeletogenesis in extreme and marginal environments, with a particular focus on mangrove habitats due to their natural fluctuations in temperature, pH and oxygen, analogous to those projected under climate change models. The changes in coral skeletal morphology under stress are described as are the techniques used to visualise these changes. In marginal and extreme environments, corals experience lower calcification rates and produce more porous, less robust skeletons whilst maintaining normal rates of linear extension, suggesting the integrity of coral skeletons are likely to be threatened under future ocean conditions. The biomineralisation processes of corals inhabiting extreme and marginal environments remains an underexplored area of research and has the potential to yield valuable insights into how corals might adapt to climate change and the mechanisms that underlie their resilience to global environmental change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean warming and species exploitation have already caused large‐scale reorganization of biological communities across the world. Accurate projections of future biodiversity change require a comprehensive understanding of how entire communities respond to global change. We combined a time‐dynamic integrated food web modeling approach (Ecosim) with previous data from community‐level mesocosm experiments to determine the independent and combined effects of ocean warming, ocean acidification and fisheries exploitation on a well‐managed temperate coastal ecosystem. The mesocosm parameters enabled important physiological and behavioral responses to climate stressors to be projected for trophic levels ranging from primary producers to top predators, including sharks. Through model simulations, we show that under sustainable rates of fisheries exploitation, near‐future warming or ocean acidification in isolation could benefit species biomass at higher trophic levels (e.g., mammals, birds, and demersal finfish) in their current climate ranges, with the exception of small pelagic fishes. However, under warming and acidification combined, biomass increases at higher trophic levels will be lower or absent, while in the longer term reduced productivity of prey species is unlikely to support the increased biomass at the top of the food web. We also show that increases in exploitation will suppress any positive effects of human‐driven climate change, causing individual species biomass to decrease at higher trophic levels. Nevertheless, total future potential biomass of some fisheries species in temperate areas might remain high, particularly under acidification, because unharvested opportunistic species will likely benefit from decreased competition and show an increase in biomass. Ecological indicators of species composition such as the Shannon diversity index decline under all climate change scenarios, suggesting a trade‐off between biomass gain and functional diversity. By coupling parameters from multilevel mesocosm food web experiments with dynamic food web models, we were able to simulate the generative mechanisms that drive complex responses of temperate marine ecosystems to global change. This approach, which blends theory with experimental data, provides new prospects for forecasting climate‐driven biodiversity change and its effects on ecosystem processes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • Coupled δ13C-δ44/40Ca isotope records and biocalcification crisis reveal acidification. • New paired δ13C-δ44/40Ca isotopes provide evidence for the severe ocean acidification. • Ocean acidification probably has a significant impact on the end-Triassic mass extinction. Oceanic acidification has long been suggested as a potential environmental trigger of marine ecosystem collapse in the Earth's history. However, evidence for oceanic acidification as an important controlling mechanism of the end-Triassic mass extinction is still limited. Here, the first coupled carbon- and calcium-isotope records across the Triassic-Jurassic transition are provided. The calcium isotope (δ44∕40Ca) profile from the Qiangtang Basin, eastern Tethys exhibits a prominent negative excursion of ∼0.3‰ at the Triassic-Jurassic (T-J) boundary, which is consistent with the onset of negative δ13C excursion, suggesting a possible relationship between large-scale volcanic eruption and calcium isotopic composition. The Ca isotope perturbation during the T-J boundary is interpreted to be triggered by a significant decrease in CaCO 3 burial related to CO 2 -induced ocean acidification. The coupled δ13C and δ44/40Ca records reveal that the carbon cycle perturbations controlled oceanic acidification and decreased carbonate burial. This provides robust evidence for the causal link between oceanic acidification, carbon cycle perturbation in response to Central Atlantic Magmatic Provence (CAMP), and the T-J boundary mass extinction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

One of the existential threats facing all species on planet earth is global warming. Its impact has already been felt in many parts of the world, but more severely in coastal areas containing marine ecosystems. The effects of climate change are adversely affecting the marine ecosystems of South Asia, posing considerable threats to biodiversity, fisheries, and the economic systems of the region. There is a significant shift in biodiversity, productivity, and functionality of these marine ecosystems due to increased sea temperatures, ocean acidification, and sea level rise. As a result of climate change, the region has been experiencing ecological changes, which have prompted an analysis of the resulting ecological alterations, including coral reef bleaching, changes to marine species migration patterns, and a decrease in fish populations. As a result of global warming, Pakistan has significant concerns regarding the persistence of marine life, which is crucial to its exports, and is also a significant part of its labour force. To mitigate this threat, several strategies are recommended, which address the government's weak policies and emphasize the support of international organizations. Taking precautions, it is now imperative to combat global warming's negative effects on marine life. This study highlights climate change as an imminent non-traditional threat with significant consequences for South Asia's marine biodiversity and marine life. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is already having profound effects on biodiversity, but climate change adaptation has yet to be fully incorporated into area‐based management tools used to conserve biodiversity, such as protected areas. One main obstacle is the lack of consensus regarding how impacts of climate change can be included in spatial conservation plans. We propose a climate‐smart framework that prioritizes the protection of climate refugia—areas of low climate exposure and high biodiversity retention—using climate metrics. We explore four aspects of climate‐smart conservation planning: (1) climate model ensembles; (2) multiple emission scenarios; (3) climate metrics; and (4) approaches to identifying climate refugia. We illustrate this framework in the Western Pacific Ocean, but it is equally applicable to terrestrial systems. We found that all aspects of climate‐smart conservation planning considered affected the configuration of spatial plans. The choice of climate metrics and approaches to identifying refugia have large effects in the resulting climate‐smart spatial plans, whereas the choice of climate models and emission scenarios have smaller effects. As the configuration of spatial plans depended on climate metrics used, a spatial plan based on a single measure of climate change (e.g., warming) will not necessarily be robust against other measures of climate change (e.g., ocean acidification). We therefore recommend using climate metrics most relevant for the biodiversity and region considered based on a single or multiple climate drivers. To include the uncertainty associated with different climate futures, we recommend using multiple climate models (i.e., an ensemble) and emission scenarios. Finally, we show that the approaches we used to identify climate refugia feature trade‐offs between: (1) the degree to which they are climate‐smart, and (2) their efficiency in meeting conservation targets. Hence, the choice of approach will depend on the relative value that stakeholders place on climate adaptation. By using this framework, protected areas can be designed with improved longevity and thus safeguard biodiversity against current and future climate change. We hope that the proposed climate‐smart framework helps transition conservation planning toward climate‐smart approaches. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean acidification (OA) can affect marine bivalves at various levels of biological organization. Yet, little effort has been devoted to understanding how OA affects the reproductive events of marine bivalves during multiple cycles of maturation. Here, we tested sex-specific reproductive responses of Manila clams (Ruditapes philippinarum) to OA during gonadal rematuration. Under acidified conditions, both male and female clams exhibited delayed gonadal rematuration following spawning and impairments in gonadal tissues, which can be likely ascribed to lowered concentrations of hormones and vitellogenin. The findings indicate that marine bivalves experience significant declines in reproductive capacity as a result of OA during their reproductive cycles, with clear sex-specific differences. Consequently, it is essential to consider sex-specific reproduction responses of marine bivalves to OA when developing conservation strategies and forecasting population sustainability in a rapidly acidifying marine environment. • Impacts of ocean acidification on bivalve gonadal rematuration were examined. • Sex can significantly affect physiological performances under acidified conditions. • Females are more vulnerable to OA than males during gonadal rematuration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated differences in total biomass (ash-free dry weight) of the periphyton and autotrophic biomass (chlorophyll-a content) of benthic diatoms in the absence or presence (No Grazer vs With Grazer) of two invertebrate grazers (Stichopus cf. horrens and Trochus maculatus) under simulated ambient (PRESENT), independent ocean acidification (OA) and warming (OW), and their combination (FUTURE) over an eight-day period. In the absence of a grazer, there were no significant differences in the average of the total and autotrophic biomass among treatments for both experiments. Stichopus significantly reduced the total and autotrophic biomass after 1 day, except under OW. Trochus significantly reduced the total biomass in the OA and OW treatments after 5 days, and the autotrophic biomass in the OA treatment after 1 and 5 days of grazing. In treatments where total and autotrophic biomass were not reduced, nutrients from the fecal matter and metabolic wastes of grazers seemingly stimulated the regeneration of microalgal biomass. The amount of fecal matter produced also affected the rate of microalgal renewal. In addition, due to the unexpected difference in seawater nutrient concentration during the two experiments, comparison of primary production under PRESENT was done to tease out nutrient effects. In PRESENT, autotrophic biomass was higher in Experiment 1 than Experiment 2, which was likely influenced by differences in nutrient concentrations. Results of this study elucidate underlying mechanisms in microalgal interactions with biotic and abiotic factors in tropical systems under changing ocean conditions. • Periphyton was not affected by acidification and warming as nutrients are replete. • Direct effects of acidification and warming on grazers indirectly affected periphyton. • Differences in fecal production of grazers affected rate of periphyton regeneration. • Complex multiple factor interactions are important considerations for future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent decades, global oceanic dissolved oxygen (DO) levels have been consistently declining, leading to a notable increase in hypoxic zones. However, comprehensive information on the current trends of DO in Jinhae Bay remains scarce. This study investigated the long-term variations in bottom dissolved oxygen (DO) in Jinhae Bay, specifically focusing on recurring occurrences of oxygen-deficient water (ODW) in August, coinciding with the lowest average DO levels with the most stratified water. ODW events predominantly manifested in the inner bay, while the outer bay exhibited fewer instances due to robust water exchange processes. Analysis of the Low DO group revealed higher surface temperature and salinity, indicating diminished oxygen solubility compared to the High DO group. Lower Chemical oxygen demand (COD) and chlorophyll- a (Chl- a) values in the Low DO group suggested enhanced bacterial decomposition and subdued photosynthesis, in contrast to the High DO group. Over the last 25 years, Jinhae Bay has experienced a discernible decline in bottom DO concentrations. Contrastingly, surface temperature has exhibited a consistent upward trend, notably accelerating in the last 12 years, indicating reduced oxygen solubility. Notably, a substantial reduction in bottom DO levels was observed in the outer bay, previously considered less susceptible to hypoxic conditions. Furthermore, a concurrent decrease in pH highlights the urgency for a comprehensive investigation encompassing both summer hypoxia and seawater acidification, crucial for protecting Jinhae Bay's ecosystem from further deterioration. [Display omitted] • DO in Jinhae Bay declined significantly over 25 years, particularly in August. • Increasing surface temperature accelerated oxygen inventory decrease. • A second sharp DO drop occurred in less hypoxia-prone open area. • pH decrease paralleled long-term DO reduction over 25 years. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the impact of ocean acidification on the photodegradation of three microplastics (MPs): polypropylene (PP), expanded polystyrene (EPS), and ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), under accelerated UV radiation at three pH levels (i.e., 8.1, 7.8, and 7.5), simulating marine conditions. The acidification system simulated current and projected future environmental conditions. As expected, an increase in partial pressure of CO2, total inorganic carbon, bicarbonate ion, and CO2 resulted in more acidic pH levels, with the reverse being true for the carbonate ion. Structural changes of MPs were evaluated, revealing that all weathered samples underwent higher degradation rate compared to the virgin samples. The oxidation state and crystallinity of PP and EVA MPs were higher in samples exposed to the lowest pH, whereas no significant increase in the degradation rate of EPS samples was observed. Saltwater acidification in this study contributed to enhance the photo-oxidation of MPs depending on their polymeric composition. [Display omitted] • Microplastic photodegradation was affected by pH condition in artificial seawater. • Photo-oxidation in PP and EVA microplastics increased with lowest pH condition. • pH reduction enhances PP and EVA microplastic´s crystallinity. • Expanded polystyrene was more resistant to degradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hypoxia and acidification are universal environmental issues in coastal seas, especially in large river dominated shelves, and the East China Sea shelf is a typical case among them. However, the responses of status of hypoxia and acidification in coastal seas to the extremes of river discharges are still to be revealed. This study surveyed the influences of a summer drought on the status of hypoxia and acidification on the inner East China Sea shelf off the Changjiang estuary. In August of 2023 during a summer drought, carbonate system parameters and dissolved oxygen (DO) were surveyed on the East China Sea shelf off the Changjiang estuary. As expected, dissolved inorganic carbon (DIC) removal (up to >40 μmol kg−1) and DO over-saturation (up to >110 %) accompanied by high pH (up to >8.15) in the surface water were observed. However, low DO (32–172 μmol kg−1), low pH (7.63–8.04) and low saturation state index of aragonite (Ω Ar) (1.34–3.06) in the bottom water were observed. Relationships of Excess DIC with DO consumption, and pH and Ω Ar with Excess DIC indicated that the hypoxia and acidification in the bottom water was due mainly to the remineralization of the marine-sourced organic matter. Nevertheless, both hypoxia and acidification were mitigated, i.e. the hypoxic area was smaller, the minimum DO concentration, pH and saturation state index of aragonite were higher in August of 2023 than under the general summer condition. The lower Changjiang discharge (∼60 % of the long-term monthly average) mitigated eutrophication of the East China Sea shelf and decreased the phytoplankton biomass in the surface water and subsequently the hypoxia and acidification in the bottom water. However, acidification of the bottom water on the East China Sea shelf was still severe even during the summer drought. Regulating the anthropogenic impact on the coastal marginal seas is still urgently needed to mitigate the acidification status. [Display omitted] • Monthly average discharge of the Changjiang in summer of 2023 was ~60% of the long-term summer monthly average. • Field observation found mitigated hypoxia and acidification in the bottom water of the inner East China Sea shelf off the Changjiang estuary in August of 2023 during the summer drought. • Lowered organic carbon remineralization as a result of the lowered phytoplankton biomass supported by lower riverine input mitigated hypoxia and acidification in August of 2023. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the toxic effects of different zinc (Zn) concentrations (natural seawater, 25 μg/L, and 100 μg/L) under two CO 2 concentrations (410 ppmv, and 1000 ppmv) on Ulva lactuca. A significant decrease in the relative growth rate of U. lactuca was observed with an increase in Zn concentration under the low CO 2 treatment condition, and we observed a notable decrease at 100 μg/L Zn under the high CO 2 treatment condition. Moreover, the net photosynthetic rate increased when thalli were cultured under 25 and 100 μg/L Zn under the high CO 2 treatment condition. The concentrations of chlorophyll a and b were significantly increased under 100 μg/L Zn and the high CO 2 treatment conditions. Malondialdehyde content decreased under high CO 2 treatment conditions, compared with the low CO 2 treatment conditions, regardless of the Zn concentration. These findings suggest that ocean acidification may alleviate the toxic effects of Zn pollution on U. lactuca. [Display omitted] • The growth of Ulva lactuca was decreased with Zn increase under low CO 2 condition. • Ocean acidification alleviated the toxic effect of Zn concentration on Ulva lactuca. • Ulva 's response to metal pollutants amid ocean acidification is explored in this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This conference report synthesises the discussions and lessons learnt from a workshop with international and local experts and practitioners held in Nouméa, New Caledonia (France, Oceania) from 17th to 21st of October 2022. The workshop was part of a larger transdisciplinary process aimed to anticipate and react to marine heatwaves, coastal erosion and sea level rise as well as ocean deoxygenation and acidification in Fiji and New Caledonia. Drawing on the seven resilience principles, this report stressed the need to incorporate multiple perspectives in finding new pathways for comprehensive sustainable climate change adaptation and marine policy in Fiji and New Caledonia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global change is impacting the oceans in an unprecedented way, and multiple lines of evidence suggest that species distributions are changing in space and time. There is increasing evidence that multiple environmental stressors act together to constrain species habitat more than expected from warming alone. Here, we conducted a comprehensive study of how temperature and aragonite saturation state act together to limit Limacina helicina, globally distributed pteropods that are ecologically important pelagic calcifiers and an indicator species for ocean change. We co‐validated three different approaches to evaluate the impact of ocean warming and acidification (OWA) on the survival and distribution of this species in the California Current Ecosystem. First, we used colocated physical, chemical, and biological data from three large‐scale west coast cruises and regional time series; second, we conducted multifactorial experimental incubations to evaluate how OWA impacts pteropod survival; and third, we validated the relationships we found against global distributions of pteropods and carbonate chemistry. OWA experimental work revealed mortality increases under OWA, while regional habitat suitability indices and global distributions of L. helicina suggest that a multi‐stressor framework is essential for understanding pteropod distributions. In California Current Ecosystem habitats, where pteropods are living close to their thermal maximum already, additional warming and acidification through unabated fossil fuel emissions (RCP 8.5) are expected to dramatically reduce habitat suitability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined the effects of solar light driven plastic degradation on carbon chemistry in the coastal waters of eastern Arabian Sea along the west coast of India. The research was conducted through experimental incubations exposed to natural sunlight at multiple locations between December 2023–February 2024. Photodegradation induced a significant pH decrease (up to 0.38 ± 0.02) between controls and plastic incubations ranging from 8.17 ± 0.01 to 7.54 ± 0.02 with the highest variation in the Mumbai coast ranging from 8.13 ± 0.01 to 7.75 ± 0.03. pH variations are primarily caused by the leaching of organic acids and CO 2 release during solar irradiated incubation. Plastic leaching due to natural light irradiation and subsequent changes in the water chemistry is of prime significance with dissolved organic carbon (DOC) leaching of 0.002–0.03% of plastic weight into the coastal waters. Our estimations suggest 15–75 metric tonnes (MT) of DOC release per year by plastic pollution in the eastern Arabian Sea coastal waters. Further, the fluorescent dissolved organic matter (FDOM) fragmentation, a part of DOC, may act as an organic source of synthetic contaminants and would promote heterotrophic microbial action in the coastal waters. Photodegradation of plastic and the interaction of natural DOC and plastic-derived DOC resulted in longer wavelengths FDOM, which may affect the penetration of photosynthetically active radiation in the water column, thereby impacting primary production. Finally, future research work focussing on the role of plastic pollution in coastal ocean acidification and vice-versa is essential and will be increasingly intense in the upcoming decades. [Display omitted] • Dissolved organic carbon leaching corresponds to 0.002–0.03% of aged plastics weight. • PH decreases as a consequence of plastic photodegradation. • Plastic pollution may release 15–75 MT DOC year−1 in the studied coastal waters. • Plastic-derived longer wavelengths FDOM becomes a source of secondary pollution. • Warming and ocean acidification may intensify the plastic photodegradation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the Industrial Revolution, increasing atmospheric CO 2 concentrations have had a substantial negative impact influence on coastal ecosystems because of direct effects including ocean acidification and indirect effects such as extreme rainfall events. Using a two-factor crossover indoor simulation experiment, this study examined the combined effects of acidification and hyposaline stress on Thalassia hemprichii. Seawater acidification increased the photosynthetic pigment content of T. hemprichii leaves and promoted seagrass growth rate. Hyposaline stress slowed down seagrass growth and had an impact on the osmotic potential and osmoregulatory substance content of seagrass leaves. Acidification and salinity reduction had significant interaction effects on the photosynthesis rate, photosynthetic pigment content, chlorophyll fluorescence parameters, and osmotic potential of T. hemprichii , but not on the growth rate. Overall, these findings have shown that the hyposaline stress inhibitory effect on the T. hemprichii physiological performance and growth may be reduced by acidification. • Thalassia hemprichii highly adapts to acidification and hyposalinity environments. • Acidification and hyposalinity had interaction effects on physiology of the seagrass. • Acidification and hyposalinity had no interaction effects on growth of the seagrass. • Acidification mitigates the inhibitory effects of hyposaline stress for the seagrass. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Decreasing ocean surface pH, called ocean acidification (OA), is among the major risks for marine ecosystems due to human-driven atmospheric p CO 2 increase. Understanding the molecular mechanisms of adaptation enabling marine species to tolerate a lowered seawater pH could support predictions of consequences of future OA scenarios for marine life. This study examined whether the ATP-binding cassette (ABC)-like gene slr2019 confers tolerance to the marine cyanobacterium Halomicronema metazoicum to low seawater pH conditions (7.7, 7.2, 6.5) in short- and long-term exposures (7 and 30 d). Photosynthetic pigment content indicated that the species can tolerate all three lowered-pH conditions. At day 7, slr2019 was up-regulated at pH 7.7 while no changes were observed at lower pH. After 30-d exposure, a significant decrease in slr2019 transcript levels was observed in all low-pH treatments. These first results indicate an effect of low pH on the examined transporter expression in H. metazoicum. [Display omitted] • The involvement of ABC transporters in bacterial acid stress resistance was tested. • The Cyanobacterium H. metazoicum demonstrated tolerance towards low pH environments. • The ABC slr2019 -like gene is differentially expressed under low pH conditions. • A new RNA extraction method for H. metazoicum mattes was developed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated the health conditions of the Mediterranean mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis recruited in the CO 2 vents system of Castello Aragonese at Ischia Island (Mediterranean Sea). Individuals of M. galloprovincialis were sampled in three sites along the pH gradient (8.10, 7.7 and up to <7.4). Untargeted metabolomics and biochemical endpoints related to energetic metabolism, oxidative stress/damage, neurotoxicity and immune defense were analyzed. Corrosion of the valves occurred at low pH. A separation of the metabolome was observed along the pH gradient. Metabolites belonging to amino acids, nucleosides, lipids and organic osmolytes were significantly reduced in the organisms from the most acidified sites. The content of reactive oxygen species and the activity of glutathione peroxidase were reduced in organisms from the acidified sites compared to ambient pH, and no oxidative damage was induced. Overall results suggested the presence of an energy cost underpinning long-term survival in acidified conditions for this species. [Display omitted] • First investigation of Mytilus galloprovincialis from the CO 2 vents of Castello Aragonese • Strong corrosion of valves in organisms living at lower pH • Content of amino acids, nucleotides, lipids and organic osmolytes reduced at lower pH • No significant effects on most biochemical parameters in relation to pH variation • Energy expenditure underpinning survival under acidified conditions [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We employed a meta-analysis to determine if the presumed resilience of decapods to ocean acidification extends to all biological aspects, environments, and life stages. Most response categories appeared unaffected by acidification. However, certain fitness-related traits (growth, survival, and, to some extent, calcification) were impacted. Acid-base balance and stress response scaled positively with reductions in pH, which maintains homeostasis, possibly at the cost of other processes. Juveniles were the only stage impacted by acidification, which is believed to reduce recruitment. We observed few differences in responses to acidification among decapods inhabiting contrasting environments. Our meta-analysis shows decapods as a group slightly to moderately sensitive to low pH, with impacts on some biological aspects rather than on all specific life stages or habitats. Although extreme pH scenarios may not occur in the open ocean, coastal and estuarine areas might experience lower pH levels in the near to medium future, posing potential challenges for decapods. Meta-analysis of the effect of ocean acidification on decapods. Right: effect of acidification on main categories (physiology, behavior, life history) of life stages (embryos, larvae, juvenile, adults) of decapods. Left: effect of acidification on secondary categories. The slopes correspond to the relationship between effect sizes and ∆pH. Arrows show the effect and its direction, equal symbol (=) depicts the absence of net changes. The photo of Ovalipes trimaculatus was kindly provided by Dr. Nahuel Farias. [Display omitted] • Predicted level of ocean acidification is a threat for calcifier marine invertebrates. • Decapods, thought debatable, are presumably resilient. • Our meta-analysis revealed few impacts that mainly vary across biological traits. • Effect sizes little vary depending on the life stages and environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean acidification has become increasingly severe in coastal areas. It poses emerging threats to coastal organisms and influences ecological functioning. Donax faba , a dominant clam in the intertidal zone of the Bay of Bengal, plays an important role in the coastal food web. This clam has been widely consumed by the local communities and also acts as a staple diet for shorebirds and crustaceans. In this paper, we investigated how acidified conditions will influence the physiology, biochemical constituents, and energetics of Donax faba. Upon incubation for 2 months in lowered pH 7.7 ± 0.05 and control 8.1 ± 0.05 conditions, we found a delayed growth in the acidified conditions followed by decrease in calcium ions in the clam shell. Although not significant, we found the digestive enzymes showed a downward trend. Total antioxidant was significantly increased in the acidified condition compared to the control. Though not significant, the expression level of MDA and antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT, GST, GPX, and APX) showed increasing trend in acidified samples. Among nutrients such as amino acids and fatty acids, there was no significant difference between treatments, however, showed a downward trend in the acidified conditions compared to control. Among the minerals, iron and zinc showed significant increase in the acidified conditions. The above results suggest that the clam growth, and physiological energetics may have deleterious effects if exposed for longer durations at lowered pH condition thereby affecting the organisms involved in the coastal food web. [Display omitted] • Daily growth rate & calcium concentration have significantly decreased in acidified condition. • Total antioxidants and antioxidant enzymes showed an upward tendency. • Nutrient composition in clams has altered in acidified condition compared to control. • Prolonged exposure to OA will cause deleterious effects on clams thereby upsetting the intertidal food chain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Seaweeds are ecosystem engineers that can serve as habitat, sequester carbon, buffer ecosystems against acidification, and, in an aquaculture setting, represent an important food source. One health issue regarding the consumption of seaweeds and specifically, kelp, is the accumulation of some trace elements of concern within tissues. As atmospheric CO 2 concentrations rise, and global oceans acidify, the concentrations of elements in seawater and kelp may change. Here, we cultivated the sugar kelp, Saccharina latissima under ambient (~400 μatm) and elevated p CO 2 (600–2400 μatm) conditions and examined the accumulation of trace elements using x-ray powder diffraction, sub-micron resolution x-ray imaging, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry. Exposure of S. latissima to higher concentrations of p CO 2 and lower pH caused a significant increase (p < 0.05) in the iodine and arsenic content of kelp along with increased subcellular heterogeneity of these two elements as well as bromine. The iodine-to‑calcium and bromine-to‑calcium ratios of kelp also increased significantly under high CO 2 /low pH (p < 0.05). In contrast, high CO 2 /low pH significantly reduced levels of copper and cadmium in kelp tissue (p < 0.05) and there were significant inverse correlations between concentrations of p CO 2 and concentrations of cadmium and copper in kelp (p < 0.05). Changes in copper and cadmium levels in kelp were counter to expected changes in their free ionic concentrations in seawater, suggesting that the influence of low pH on algal physiology was an important control on the elemental content of kelp. Collectively, these findings reveal the complex effects of ocean acidification on the elemental composition of seaweeds and indicate that the elemental content of seaweeds used as food must be carefully monitored as climate change accelerates this century. • Exposure of S. latissima to higher concentrations of p CO 2 caused a significant increase in the content and subcellular heterogeneity of iodine and arsenic in kelp. • The iodine-to‑calcium and bromine-to‑calcium ratios of kelp increased significantly under high CO 2. • High CO 2 significantly reduced levels of copper and cadmium in kelp tissue. • The elemental content of seaweeds used as food should be carefully monitored as climate change accelerates this century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global ocean, the largest single ecosystem in the world, is in continuous decline due to increasing human pressures. New challenges, such as ocean warming and deoxygenation, ocean acidification, plastic pollution, and unsustainable use of marine resources, have no borders and boundaries. However, the recently adopted 2023 BBNJ Agreement does not recognise the high seas decline as a common concern of humankind - a legal notion/concept and treaty-based principle for internationally shared problems such as biodiversity loss and climate change. This article attempts to define the common concern of humankind by examining its legal basis, enshrinement and effect, as it still lacks a generally accepted legal definition. This article aims to propose why the high seas decline should be recognised as a common concern of humankind and to explore the underlying legal and regulatory implications of this notion for the conservation of the high seas. It is suggested that the common concern of humankind, which highlights the shared obligations and responsibilities with respect to common problems facing humankind, has both theoretical and operational significance in promoting international cooperation to address current and future ocean governance challenges. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Antioxidant responses of juvenile sole exposed to seawater acidification (SA) and Cd were investigated. SA increased lipid peroxidation (LPO) in the fish, independent of Cd concentrations. Cd at medium and high levels inflated LPO under no or moderate SA conditions. This effect was absent under high SA levels, due to SA effect exceeding and obscuring Cd effect. SA and Cd collaborated to provoke LPO, with SOD and CAT being stimulated to defend against oxidative stress, while those related to GSH redox cycle were inhibited under SA exposure. Responses of GSH-related antioxidants to Cd impact varied contingent on their interactions with SA. This defensive strategy was insufficient to protect fish from increased LPO. Antioxidants responded more sensitively to SA than Cd exposure. GSH, GR, SOD and CAT are sensitive biomarkers for SA conditions. The findings offer insights into assessing fish's antioxidant defense strategy under Cd and SA circumstances in natural habitats. [Display omitted] • Both SA and Cd induce oxidative stress and boost LPO in tongue sole. • SA amplifies oxidative stress and intensifies LPO in fish by interacting with Cd. • Antioxidants exhibit a higher sensitivity to SA compared to Cd exposure. • Escalating levels of stressors enhance the integrated antioxidant response. • Sensitive biomarkers for oxidant stress by SA and Cd exposure are identified. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean acidification (OA) is a global environmental concern, and submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) is a potentially process that enhances OA. This review summarizes the relationship between two types of constituents carried by SGD into China's seawater and OA. 1) Current research predominantly concentrates on constituent fluxes from SGD, neglecting its ecological impacts on carbon and nutrients budgets, as well as the mechanisms between carbon and nutrients. 2) Uncertainties persist in SGD research methods and acidification characterization. 3) There's a need to enhance quantitative research methods of SGD-OA, particularly in areas with intricate biogeochemical processes. Effective identification methods are crucial to quantify SGD's contribution to OA. Investigating core scientific questions, including SGD's impact on OA rates and scales, is paramount. While the primary focus is on SGD-OA research in China, insights gained from novel perspectives could have broader value for coastal management globally. [Display omitted] • Uncertainties exist in SGD and coastal acidification characterization. • Relative paucity of studies on SGD input carbon at different scales in China. • Consider coupling of SGD-carried nutrients and carbon to coastal acidification. • Consider conducting qualitative and quantitative studies on SGD and acidification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Continuous emissions of anthropogenic CO 2 are changing the atmospheric and oceanic environment. Although some species may have compensatory mechanisms to acclimatize or adapt to the changing environment, most marine organisms are negatively influenced by climate change. In this study, we aimed to understand the compensatory mechanisms of the Antarctic clam, Laternula elliptica , to climate-related stressors by using archived shells from 1995 to 2018. Principal component analysis revealed that seawater p CO 2 and salinity in the Antarctic Ocean, which have increased since the 2000's, are the most influential factors on the characteristics of the shell. The periostracum thickness ratio and nitrogen on the outermost surface have increased, and the dissolution area (%) has decreased. Furthermore, the calcium content and mechanical properties of the shells have not changed. The results suggest that L. elliptica retains the mechanism of protecting the shell from high p CO 2 by thickening the periostracum as a phenotype plasticity. [Display omitted] • We analyzed archival shells of the Antarctic clams in response to climate change. • Seawater p CO 2 and salinity in the Antarctic Ocean have increased since the 2000's. • Shell dissolution decreased over time while total shell thickness remained constant. • The calcium content and mechanical properties of the shell remained unchanged. • Shell integrity was retained by thickening the organic layer enriched with nitrogen. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Solutions to the climate crisis are not ahistorical. • Both social and technical processes explain their rise (or fall) on the agenda. • Thinking about ocean CDR closely co-evolved with scientific understandings of global climate change. • Ocean CDR methods have followed cycles of hype, controversy and disappointment. • Key sociotechnical configurations and narrative changes explain the new hype around ocean CDR. While the ocean has long been portrayed as a victim of climate change, threatened by ocean warming and acidification, it is now increasingly framed as a key solution to the climate crisis. In particular, the promising carbon sequestration potential of the ocean is being emphasised. In this paper, we seek to historicise the practices, discourses and actors that have constructed the ocean as a climate change solution space. We conceptualise the debate about the mitigation potential of the ocean as a contested site of governance, where varying actors form alliances and different sociotechnical narratives about climate action play out. Using an innovative quali-quantitative methodology which combines scientometrics with document analysis, observational fieldwork, and interviews, we outline three historical phases in the history of ocean carbon sequestration that follow recurring cycles of hype, controversy and disappointment. We argue that the most recent hype around ocean carbon sequestration was not triggered by a technological breakthrough or a reduction in scientific uncertainty, but by new socio-technical configurations and coalitions. We conclude by showing that how climate change solutions are put on the agenda and become legitimised is both a scientific and political process, linked to how science frames the climate crisis, and ultimately, its governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Reef‐building corals, like many long‐lived organisms, experience environmental change as a combination of separate but concurrent processes, some of which are gradual yet long‐lasting, while others are more acute but short‐lived. For corals, some chronic environmental stressors, such as rising temperature and ocean acidification, are thought to induce gradual changes in colonies' vital rates. Meanwhile, other environmental changes, such as the intensification of tropical cyclones, change the disturbance regime that corals experience. Here, we use a physiologically structured population model to explore how chronic environmental stressors that impact the vital rates of individual coral colonies interact with the intensity and magnitude of disturbance to affect coral population dynamics and cover. We find that, when disturbances are relatively benign, intraspecific density dependence driven by space competition partially buffers coral populations against gradual changes in vital rates. However, the impact of chronic stressors is amplified in more highly disturbed environments, because disturbance weakens the buffering effect of space competition. We also show that coral cover is more sensitive to changes in colony growth and mortality than to external recruitment, at least in open populations, and that space competition and size structure mediate the extent and pace of coral population recovery following a large‐scale mortality event. Understanding the complex interplay among chronic environmental stressors, mass‐mortality events, and population size structure sharpens our ability to manage and to restore coral‐reef ecosystems in an increasingly disturbed future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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• Ocean acidification is commonly framed as a problem of carbon dioxide emissions concurrent to climate change. • This framing has been effective at mobilising action at the domestic level in the United States. • This framing has resulted in misaligning the problem of ocean acidification with regime mandates at the international level. • To mobilise action at the international level a reframing of ocean acidification is warranted. Ocean acidification has long been framed by its epistemic community as a problem of carbon dioxide emissions that is concurrent to climate change. Framing ocean acidification in this way has been effective at garnering policy action at the domestic level in the United States. It is argued, however, in this paper that this framing has been counterproductive at the international level, resulting in two main impediments to the international governance of this issue. Firstly, defining ocean acidification as a concurrent problem to climate change, rather than as an impact of it, has resulted in the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change being interpreted as containing no obligation to address ocean acidification. Secondly, focussing almost solely on the reduction of global emissions of carbon dioxide as the only global solution to ocean acidification has resulted in ocean and biodiversity-related regimes that do not have the mandate to regulate CO 2 emissions as being viewed as without the recourse to respond. Through an examination of the causes and consequences of ocean acidification and the general objectives of existing multilateral environmental agreements, a set of alternative problem frames are developed in this paper that could be deployed to mobilize action under existing environmental regimes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Rights of nature tribunals are hearing cases on behalf of a range of ecosystems. • The cases rely on novel temporal strategies to bring attention to slow violence. • The result is a rescaling of dominant spatio-temporal frames. • These frames encourage more robust forms of environmental accountability. In his 2011 Slow Violence and the Environmentalism of the Poor , Rob Nixon argues that the 'slow violence' of environmental collapse - the too often 'invisible' violence that unfolds over decades or even centuries, from the acidification of the oceans to the radioactivity of depleted uranium – represents a formidable representational challenge for contemporary environmental activists. In an era in which 'the media venerate the spectacular and when public policy is shaped primarily around perceived immediate need', the challenges of making visible the 'staggeringly discounted casualties' associated with environmental destruction are both substantial and urgent (2011: 3). Based on ethnographic research with rights of nature activists in Peru and Australia, this paper analyses the narrative and performative strategies that are increasingly being experimented with at Rights of Nature Tribunals to subvert, extend, and otherwise complexify the spatio-temporalities of mainstream environmental policy making. Drawing on recent work in feminist posthumanism and post-colonial eco-criticism, I argue that these temporal tactics, while still largely marginal to hegemonic policy blocs, are raising important questions about the scalar habits and assumptions that continue to anchor much environmental policy-making. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This review has been undertaken to understand the effectiveness of ocean acidification on oceanic micronutrient metal cycles (iron, copper and zinc) and its potential impacts on marine biota. Ocean acidification will slow down the oxidation of Fe(II) thereby retarding Fe(III) formation and subsequent hydrolysis/precipitation leading to an increase in iron bioavailability. Further, the increased primary production sustains enzymatic bacteria assisted Fe(III) reduction and subsequently the binding of weaker ligands favours the dissociation of free Fe(II) ions, thus increasing the bioavailability. The increasing p CO 2 condition increases the bioavailability of copper ions by decreasing the availability of free CO 3 2− ligand concentration. The strong complexation by dissolved organic matter may decrease the bioavailable iron and zinc ion concentration. Since ocean acidification affects the bioavailability of essential metals, studies on the uptake rates of these elements by phytoplankton should be carried out to reveal the future scenario and its effect on natural environment. [Display omitted] • Impact of ocean acidification on speciation of bioavailable metals is reviewed. • Iron bioavailability is increased with acidified waters. • Metal bioavailability is altered by strong organic ligand complexation. • Metal uptake studies should be carried out with dominant phytoplankton species. • Ocean acidification poses a significant risk in coastal marine ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies addressed ocean acidification (OA) effects on marine life, whereas its effects on sedimentary organic matter (OM) have received less attention. We investigated differences in OM features in sediments from unvegetated and seagrass (Posidonia oceanica) beds in a shallow hydrothermal area (Aeolian Archipelago, Mediterranean Sea), under natural (8.1–8.0) and acidified (7.8–7.9) conditions. We show that a pH difference of −0.3 units have minor effects on OM features in unvegetated sediments, but relevant consequences within acidified seagrass meadows, where OM quantity and nutritional quality are lower than those under natural pH conditions. Effects of acidified conditions on OM biogeochemistry vary between unvegetated and seagrass sediments, with lower C degradation rates and longer C turnover time in the former than in the latter. We conclude that OA, although with effects not consistent between unvegetated and vegetated sediments, can affect OM quantity, composition, and degradation, thus having possible far-reaching consequences for benthic trophic webs. [Display omitted] • A −0.3 pH units difference causes minor effects on unvegetated sediments organic matter • Acidification slows down organic C degradation in unvegetated sediments • Acidification stimulates organic C in seagrass sediments • Acidification will affect benthic trophic webs under worsening ocean scenarios [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effects of ocean acidification (OA) and warming on the physiological processes of many marine species have been well documented. However, far less is known about the impacts of these global variables on chemical communication. In this study, we identified the barnacle waterborne settlement pheromone (BWSP) of Balanus albicostatus as adenosine (Ado). Our results showed that neither elevated temperature (30 °C vs. ambient 26 °C) nor elevated pCO 2 (1000 μatm vs. ambient 400 μatm) significantly affected the release of Ado from B. albicostatus adults. Exposure to elevated temperature and OA did not impair larval cue perception for settlement in B. albicostatus ; however, OA inhibited settlement under elevated temperature in the absence/presence of BWSP, and elevated temperature induced larval settlement only in the presence of BWSP under ambient pCO 2 condition. These results provided important insights into barnacle aggregation behavior in changing oceans and may help to predict the consequences of climate change on barnacle populations. [Display omitted] • Barnacle waterborne settlement pheromone (BWSP) was identified as adenosine. • Ocean acidification (OA) inhibited barnacle settlement under elevated temperature. • Elevated temperature induced settlement under BWSP and ambient pCO 2. • Elevated temperature and OA did not affect adult release of adenosine in barnacles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Echinoderms with high levels of magnesium (Mg) in their skeletons may be especially sensitive to ocean acidification, as the solubility of calcite increases with its Mg content. However, other structural characteristics and environmental/biological factors may affect skeletal solubility. To better understand which factors can influence skeletal mineralogy, we analyzed the Mg content of Antarctic echinoderms from Deception Island, an active volcano with reduced pH and relatively warm water temperatures, and Livingston Island. We found significant interclass and inter- and intraspecific differences in the Mg content, with asteroids exhibiting the highest levels, followed by ophiuroids and echinoids. Specimens exposed to hydrothermal fluids showed lower Mg levels, which may indicate local environmental effects. These patterns suggest that environmental factors such as seawater Mg2+/Ca2+ ratio and temperature may influence the Mg content of some echinoderms and affect their susceptibility to future environmental changes. • This is the first assessment of the Mg content in echinoderms from Deception and Livingston Islands. • Echinoderms showed interclass as well as inter- and intraspecific differences in their Mg content. • The sea stars displayed the highest Mg content levels, followed by the brittle stars and sea urchins. • The Mg content of echinoderms inhabiting Deception Island may be influenced by local environmental conditions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurately constraining the natural variability of the carbonate system is essential for evaluating long-term changes in coastal areas, which result from the absorption of anthropogenic CO 2. This is particularly important given the significant variation in physical and biological processes in these regions. In this regard, the analysis of surface carbonate chemistry in the Yellow Sea was conducted using discrete seawater samples obtained from the Socheongcho Ocean Research Station (37.423°N, 124.738°E) between 2017 and 2022. Our bottle data and sensor pH measurements revealed considerable seasonal variations of aragonite saturation state (Ω AR), typically ranging from 1.6 to 3.9. These variations are particularly pronounced during the summer and early winter. Our dataset serves as a baseline for understanding the long-term changes in ocean acidification in the Yellow Sea, the complex biogeochemical processes in coastal areas, and their impact on ocean acidification. • Aragonite saturation (Ω AR) in the Yellow Sea showed significant seasonal fluctuations. • Seasonal trends in Ω AR were shaped by physical mixing and biological production. • The dynamic nature highlights the importance of continuous monitoring. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Acidification and deoxygenation are major threats to ocean environments. Despite the possibilities of their co-occurrence, little is known about their interactive effects on marine organisms. The effects of low pH and low dissolved oxygen (DO) on the early life stages of the coastal fish Sillago japonica were investigated. Twenty-five experimental treatments fully crossed in five levels of pH 7.6–8.1 and DO 50–230 μmol/kg (20–100 % saturation degree) were tested, and hatching rate of the embryos and survivability of the larvae after 24 h at 25 °C were investigated. Low DO treatment significantly affected the embryos and larvae compared to low pH treatment. The 50 % lethal concentration of DO showed the highest value at pH 7.6 and the lowest value at pH 7.7 and 7.9 for embryos and larvae, respectively. Therefore, effects of deoxygenation on fishes were alleviated under acidified condition around pH 7.7–7.9. [Display omitted] • Effects of the interaction between ocean acidification and deoxygenation were evaluated using 25 experimental conditions. • Deoxygenation affected more than acidification, but the effects were alleviated under acidified condition around pH 7.7–7.9. • S. japonica , may have physiological tolerance to deoxygenation at some level of acidification. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate change is acidifying and warming our oceans, at an unprecedented rate posing a challenge for marine invertebrates vital across the globe for ecological services and food security. Here we show it is possible for resilience to climate change in an ecologically and economically significant oyster without detrimental effects to the energy budget. We exposed 24 pair-mated genetically distinct families of the Sydney rock oyster, Saccostrea glomerata to ocean acidification and warming for 4w and measured their resilience. Resilience was identified as the capacity to defend their acid-base balance without a loss of energy available for Scope for Growth (SFG). Of the 24 families, 13 were better able to defend their acid-base balance while eight had no loss of energy availability with a positive SFG. This study has found oyster families with reslience against climate change without a loss of SFG, is an essential mitigation strategy, in a critical mollusc. [Display omitted] • Climate change is acidifying and warming oceans. • Building resilience of marine species will be essential to ensure their persistence. • Resilience to climate change in oysters was identified in a large-scale experiment as the capacity to defend acid-base balance and have a positive Scope for Growth. • Only 8 of 24 g enetically distinct family lines of this economically and ecologically important oyster species had resilience. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ocean Acidification (OA) and Ocean Warming (OW) represent major climate stressors that may disrupt species interactions. However, despite the knowledge about the impacts of OA and OW on the performance of individual species, it is still unclear how biological interactions can be modified by the combined effects of these stressors. Consequently, in this study, we assess the effects of changes in temperature (12 °C and 20 °C) and p CO 2 (500 and 1600 μatm) levels in seawater, along with the presence/absence of waterborne cues from the predator crab Homalaspis plana on the physiological and behavioural performance of the snail Tegula atra. Snail consumption rate was positively affected by OW and negatively by predator cues whereas absorption efficiency (AE) was positively affected by OW without interactions among these stressors. Oxygen uptake of snails reared in OW conditions was greater than those in control conditions, but only at control p CO 2 levels. When p CO 2 level was also raised, the positive effect of warmer temperature on oxygen uptake was reduced. While biomass was negatively affected by OW, OA and predator cues, without interactions. In the presence of predator cues the self-righting times of snails were significantly slower in individuals reared at OW conditions. Additionally, OA and OW conditions do not affect the prey hunting, efficiency (consumption) and preference, and claw strength of the predatory crab. These results indicate that OA and OW affect physiological and behavioral traits of snails but no the predatory behavior of crab. This environmentally-induced decoupling of co-evolutionary predator-prey dynamics may have important consequences on the structure and stability of coastal communities and ecosystems under the influence of climate change. [Display omitted] • Ocean acidification (OA) and warming (OW) alter predator-prey interactions. • OW, OA and predator cues affected snails' traits. • OW, OA and predator cues increase self-righting time of snails. • OW and predator cues affected consumption rate of snails. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The increasing prevalence of antibiotics in seawater across global coastal areas, coupled with the ocean acidification induced by climate change, present a multifaceted challenge to marine ecosystems, particularly impacting the key physiological processes of marine organisms. Apoptosis is a critical adaptive response essential for maintaining cellular homeostasis and defending against environmental threats. In this study, bay scallops Argopecten irradians irradians were exposed to multiple antibiotics (sulfamethoxazole, tetracycline, oxytetracycline, norfloxacin, and erythromycin, each at a concentration of 1 μg/L) combined with/without acidic seawater (pH 7.6) for 35 days. The single and interactive effects of the two stressors on apoptosis and the underlying mechanisms in hemocytes of A. irradians irradians were determined through flow cytometry analysis, comet assay, oxidative stress biomarkers analysis, and transcriptome analysis. Results showed that apoptosis could be triggered by either AM exposure or OA exposure, but through different pathways. Exposure to AM leads to mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage, which in turn triggers apoptosis via a series of cellular events in both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways. Conversely, while OA exposure similarly induced apoptosis, its effects are comparatively subdued and are predominantly mediated through the intrinsic pathway. Additionally, the synergistic effects of AM and OA exposure induced pronounced mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damages in the hemocytes of A. irradians irradians. Despite the evident cellular distress and the potential initiation of apoptotic pathways, the actual execution of apoptosis appears to be restrained, which might be attributed to an energy deficit within the hemocytes. Our findings underscore the constrained tolerance capacity of A. irradians irradians when faced with multiple environmental stressors, and shed light on the ecotoxicity of antibiotic pollution in the ocean under prospective climate change scenarios. • Both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways involved in AM-induced apoptosis. • OA-induced apoptosis mainly dependent on intrinsic pathway. • Apoptosis is restrained by co-exposure of AM and OA perhaps due to energy deficit. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humans have been a driving force behind climate change and extinctions for hundreds of years. Since the first steps out of Africa, man has been wreaking havoc upon the environment. As technology advanced in the Industrial Revolution, populations boomed, and consumption and demand went up. As a result we have been pillaging the natural world with little thought of the future. Our throwaway society, with its convenience products, is raising its head from the waters of our oceans and spilling onto our shores, as global warming, pollution, species extinction and ocean acidification begin to show in every corner of the world. The alarming facts that illuminate what is happening now and what is to come are generally presented in scientific reports and the media in numerical form, which can alienate the individual. The numbers are so large that it seems impossible for one to make a difference. I hope to challenge this idea and bring statistics to individuals using art, specifically sculpture, so they may reach an understanding and realisation may be reached. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]