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The COVID‐19 pandemic has created major challenges globally. The social work and human services profession has been required to rapidly respond to policy and social changes. This research aimed to understand how the pandemic has affected social work and human services staff within Melbourne, Victoria. In this paper, we analyse the practice and policy implications of these responses, and outline learning for the human services sector. We draw on interviews with social work and human services practitioners, exploring their experiences during the pandemic, including social and economic impacts on service users and agencies, and organisational and practice changes. Participants highlight compliance requirements, digitalisation of services, loss of social connection for service users and service impacts. In addition, participants highlight how people from low socioeconomic backgrounds were immensely affected throughout COVID‐19 lockdowns. However, this research also identifies service benefits, resulting from the rapid adjustments made by agencies that need further exploration for future practice. This article highlights how, despite the challenges posed by COVID‐19, agencies and workers developed innovative responses to this crisis. Drawing on these insights can help to understand how such initiatives can be implemented in the future. This article contributes to knowledge about innovation in a time of crisis.

In 2020-21 the Victorian state government in Australia imposed 262 days of sustained lockdown on Melbourne’s population in a bid to contain the COVID pandemic. These lockdowns, among the longest in the world, affected young people especially. Children were subjected to months of curfews, home schooling using digital platforms and severe travel. Nonetheless some children engaged repeatedly in autonomous and well co-ordinated efforts to construct dirt jumps and ride their bikes in urban public parklands in eastern Melbourne. This article is mindful of a long tradition of scholarly work tracing the ways young people have used public space, and contested ‘adultist’ representations of them and regulations affecting the use of public space. We address three questions: Why and how did children design, construct and use dirt bike jumps during the COVID pandemic in public parklands? How did Victorian local councils and others like police, older residents and mainstream media respond to children’s construction of DIY dirt jumps? How were these spontaneous DIY dirt jumps understood by Victorian local councils? Adopting a composite case study method and employing a relational perspective, we draw on images, participant observation, field notes, documents and webpage analysis to answer the research questions. We document how children used urban parklands to hang out, to onstruct and use bike jumps during the lockdowns. We show how they challenged adult representations of themselves and public space which depicted their bike riding and the jump making as anti-social and illegal. Meanwhile local governments continued through the COVID-19 pandemic to proclaim the value of ‘youth participation.’ When that youth participation involved young people initiating and managing projects themselves, their conduct was deemed unlawful as councils continued denying them any meaningful opportunities to exercise autonomy, or have say in important policy decisions. In the final section of the article say why providing insider accounts of what happens is useful for good policy-making and professional practice.

We show how policy discourses construct consumer choice, performance measurement and quality standards as key technologies in the marketisation of disability services and aged care in Australia. The emergence of performance outcome measurement and increased consumer access to these through diverse consumer facing and interactive platforms enables the state to “govern at a distance” through the management and shaping of outcome indicators rather than delivery of services. The state does this by creating market competition and establishing outcomes which reflect the construction people using services as informed and rational consumers rather than citizens. This construction and operationalisation frame marketisation as a rational solution to broken systems, assume choice is unproblematic and ignore diverse capacities to access and use information, resource differentials and contextual variables such as market maturity and service availability. The benign marketisation of human services thus discriminates against those who are already marginalised and disadvantaged unless equity strategies are clearly in place.

Access to public space is critically important for young people, providing key opportunities for self-expression, independence, identity development and relationship building. The Covid-19 pandemic has profoundly affected how young people can engage with public spaces. In Melbourne, Australia, young people have experienced 262 days in lockdown, contributing to escalating anxiety and depression, social isolation, physical health impacts and increased exposure to family conflict and family violence. Throughout this time, there has been a proliferation of young people constructing DIY dirt jumps across Melbourne. This article analyses this unstructured production of public space, focusing on one case study and drawing from council responses. I suggest that through this practice, young people challenge adult interpretations of public space, intentionally or unintentionally, resisting adult control of public space at a time when young people have been denied opportunities for independence and autonomy.

The COVID‐19 pandemic is both a health and an economic crisis. Economically, lockdowns across Australia have devastated business and industry, creating immediate spikes in under‐ and unemployment. These impacts intersect with the precarious labour market of casualised and "gig" economy work, where young workers constitute an established and substantial group. While negatively impacting upon many young people’s lives, in recent decades precarious employment has also been normalised for young people as they are encouraged to understand themselves as self‐reliant and entrepreneurial in their working lives. Yet, these workers have been largely abandoned in the government’s economic response to COVID‐19. The economic impact and government response to the pandemic substantially disadvantage young people. This article analyses the impact of new government initiatives: the "JobKeeper" wage subsidy scheme, "JobSeeker" payments and early access to superannuation, "JobMaker" economic recovery plan and the redesign of university fees. These initiatives compound preexisting youth policy of low welfare levels, youth wages and high university fees to economically burden young people. Contrasting the repeated expression of anything pandemic related as "unprecedented", we argue that the economic abandonment of young people in the immediate COVID‐19 crisis continues a decades‐long precedent in Australia of economically disadvantaging young people.

The COVID-19 pandemic has created economic crises and considerable loss of employment throughout the world. In the Australian context, social distancing restrictions and business closures contributed to a dramatic increase in unemployment, with 780,000 people losing work within weeks of the first COVID-19 outbreaks. Job losses were concentrated in casualised industries such as retail, recreation, arts and culture, hospitality, and accommodation. We examine policy discourses framing independent work, entrepreneurial workers and flexible work relations as essential for ‘economic recovery’, where this means business flexibility, productivity and future economic prosperity. We draw on these framings to show how the equation of flexible work relations and productivity underpins the Australian Government’s response to unemployment caused by the pandemic, as reflected in policy announcements and proposed changes to industrial relations law. In these proposals, constructions of ‘job creation’ and ‘economic recovery’ rationalise industrial relations changes that further empower business, through conflating public and business interest. At the same time, ensuing labour market deregulation and the changing profile of business renders the very idea of ‘jobs’ tendentious.JEL Codes:J08, J28, J31, J38

Expanding the activity of wide bandgap semiconductors from the UV into the visible range has become a central goal for their application in green solar photocatalysis. The hybrid plasmonic/semiconductor system, based on silver nanoparticles (Ag NPs) embedded in a film of CeO2, is an example of a functional material developed with this aim. In this work, we take advantage of the chemical sensitivity of free electron laser (FEL) time-resolved soft X-ray absorption spectroscopy (TRXAS) to investigate the electron transfer process from the Ag NPs to the CeO2film generated by the NPs plasmonic resonance photoexcitation. Ultrafast changes (<200 fs) of the Ce N4,5absorption edge allowed us to conclude that the excited Ag NPs transfer electrons to the Ce atoms of the CeO2film through a highly efficient electron-based mechanism. These results demonstrate the potential of FEL-based TRXAS measurements for the characterization of energy transfer in novel hybrid plasmonic/semiconductor materials.

Light absorption and charge transport in oxide semiconductors can be tuned by the introduction, during deposition, of a small quantity of foreign elements, leading to the improvement of the photoelectrocatalytic performance. In this work, both unmodified and vanadium-modified TiO2thin films deposited by radio-frequency magnetron sputtering are investigated as photoanodes for photoelectrochemical water splitting. Following a structural characterization by X-ray diffraction, atomic force microscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy, photoelectrocatalysis is discussed based on ultrafast transient absorbance spectroscopy measurements. In particular, three different pump wavelengths from UV to the visible range are used (300, 390, and 530 nm) in order to cover the relevant photoactive spectral range of modified TiO2. Incident photon-to-current conversion efficiency spectra show that incorporation of vanadium in TiO2extends water splitting in the visible range up to ≈530 nm, a significant improvement compared to unmodified TiO2that is active only in the UV range ≲390  nm. However, transient absorbance spectroscopy clearly reveals that vanadium accelerates electron–hole recombination upon UV irradiation, resulting in a lower photon-to-current conversion efficiency in the UV spectral range with respect to unmodified TiO2. The new photoelectrocatalytic activity in the visible range is attributed to a V-induced introduction of intragap levels at ≈2.2 eV below the bottom of the conduction band. This is confirmed by long-living transient signals due to electrons photoexcited into the conduction band after visible light (530 nm) pulses. The remaining holes migrate to the semiconductor–electrolyte interface where they are captured by long-lived traps and eventually promote water oxidation under visible light.

ABSTRACTThe PhD by Publication offers doctoral students an opportunity to focus on publishing during their candidature. A considerable body of literature has explored questions of legitimacy, consistency and quality of this model of scholarship, while students have reflected on how this approach helped build a publishing track record and develop skills associated with writing scholarly articles [Jackson, D. (2013). Completing a PhD by publication: A review of Australian policy and implications for practice. Higher Education Research & Development, 32(3), 355–368; Robins, L., & Kanowski, P. (2008). PhD by publication: A student’s perspective. Journal of Research Practice, 4(2), 1–20]. However, there is a need to explore how this approach both shapes and reflects the student experience of doctoral studies. This auto-ethnographical article analyses my own experience of the PhD by Publication. On the one hand, this method suited my multidisciplinary research topic and approach to research and assisted the flexibility and creativity of my research. On the other, I began to view my value as a researcher and the value of my research, in terms of the quantitative performance metrics of research in output, citation counts and h-index. Concept of performativity, I analyse how the PhD by Publication potentially reshapes what it is to be a doctoral student, and how the value of doctoral students is construed by themselves and others within their university.

Whole-house emission rates and indoor loss coefficients of formaldehyde and other volatile organic compounds (VOCs) were determined from continuous measurements inside a net-zero energy home at two different air change rates (ACHs). By turning the mechanical ventilation on and off, it was demonstrated that formaldehyde concentrations reach a steady state much more quickly than other VOCs, consistent with a significant indoor loss rate attributed to surface uptake. The first order loss coefficient for formaldehyde was 0.47 ± 0.06 h–1at 0.08 h–1ACH and 0.88 ± 0.22 h–1at 0.62 h–1ACH. Loss rates for other VOCs measured were not discernible, with the exception of hexanoic acid. A factor of 5.5 increase in the ACH increased the whole-house emission rates of VOCs but by varying degrees (factors of 1.1 to 3.8), with formaldehyde displaying no significant change. The formaldehyde area-specific emission rate (86 ± 8 μg m–2h–1) was insensitive to changes in the ACH because its large indoor loss rate muted the impact of ventilation on indoor air concentrations. These results demonstrate that formaldehyde loss rates must be taken into account to correctly estimate whole-house emission rates and that ventilation will not be as effective at reducing indoor formaldehyde concentrations as it is for other VOCs.

We investigated the effects of ultrafast laser excitation of Au nanoparticles (NPs) having strong interparticle electromagnetic coupling by irradiating the NPs either at interband or plasmon-resonance wavelengths (13–100 J/m2fluence regime). We observed that interband excitation is significantly more efficient than plasmonic excitation in reshaping, coalescing, and ultimately sublimating the NPs, despite the light-absorption cross section of interband excitation being almost half that of plasmonic irradiation. We ascribed this to the different localizations of radiation-induced heat sources in the strongly coupled NPs in the two cases. Interband excitation induces homogeneous heat generation in Au, and so the conventional NP heating pathway is followed, eventually leading to overall melting, coalescence, and ablation of Au. Plasmonic irradiation, on the other hand, promotes strong localization of the heat sources within small energetic hot spots, a fact that we suggest may lead to nonthermal effects that melt and reshape the NPs only on the local scale, leaving the system otherwise relatively unscathed.

With the addition of nitrogen (N), agricultural soils are the main anthropogenic source of N2O, but high spatial and temporal variabilities make N2O emissions difficult to characterize at the field scale. This study used flux‐gradient measurements to continuously monitor N2O emissions at two agricultural fields under different management regimes in the inland Pacific Northwest of Washington State, USA. Automated 16‐chamber arrays were also deployed at each site; chamber monitoring results aided the interpretation of the flux gradient results. The cumulative emissions over the six‐month (1 April–30 September) monitoring period were 2.4 ± 0.7 and 2.1 ± 2 kg N2O‐N/ha at the no‐till and conventional till sites, respectively. At both sites, maximum N2O emissions occurred following the first rainfall event after N fertilization, and both sites had monthlong emission pulses. The no‐till site had a larger N2O emission factor than the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Tier 1 emission factor of 1% of the N input, while the conventional‐till site's emission factor was close to 1% of the N input. However, these emission factors are likely conservative. We estimate that the global warming potential of the N2O emissions at these sites is larger than that of the no‐till conversion carbon uptake. We recommend the use of chambers to investigate spatiotemporal controls as a complementary method to micrometeorological monitoring, especially in systems with high variability. Continued monitoring coupled with the use of models is necessary to investigate how changing management and environmental conditions will affect N2O emissions. Nitrous oxide (N2O) is a greenhouse gas and stratospheric ozone depleting substance that is emitted by soils. Agricultural soils tend to emit more N2O than natural soils due to the addition of nitrogen fertilizers. N2O emissions are not well understood on the scale of individual farms, as emissions are difficult to measure at this resolution because they are irregular over time and space. This variability is due to the dependence of N2O production and emission on soil properties, that is, moisture, nitrogen, and the microbiome. In this study we monitored N2O emissions from two agricultural fields under different tillage regimes using two complementary methods: the flux‐gradient technique and automated chambers. The flux‐gradient technique measures N2O emissions at the field scale, which is relevant to agronomic management. Using both techniques together improves confidence in our results, which give us information on total N2O emissions from these fields, as well as the relationships between N2O emissions and rainfall, temperature, and carbon dioxide respiration. Total emissions from 1 April to 30 September 2015 were 2.4 ± 0.7 and 2.1 ± 0.2 kg N2O‐N/ha at the no‐ and conventional‐till sites, respectivelyN2O fluxes had similar responses to temperature and precipitation at both sitesHigh spatial variability at both sites (CVs > 140%) limited the ability of the chamber systems to characterize field‐scale N2O emissions

Im Juli 2016 wies China einen Schiedsspruch des Internationalen Schiedshofs in Den Haag zurück, der den chinesischen „historischen“ Anspruch auf Riffe und Felsen im Südchinesischen Meer als nicht mit dem Völkerrecht vereinbar erklärte. Umfangreiche chinesische Landgewinnungsprojekte, die seit 2013 in den Spratly- und Paracel-Inselgruppen begannen, und die anschließende Militarisierung dieser künstlichen Inseln hatten zuvor bereits internationale Kritik auf den Plan gerufen und die gleichfalls Anspruch erhebenden Nachbarstaaten alarmiert. Viele Analysen haben seither versucht, Chinas kompromissloses Verhalten unter Rückgriff auf die historische, symbolische oder wirtschaftliche Bedeutung des Südchinesischen Meeres für die chinesische Gesamtstrategie zu erklären. In diesem Aufsatz werden hingegen einige häufig übersehene militärstrategische Faktoren beleuchtet. Diese deuten darauf hin, dass China einen kohärenten Ansatz verfolgt, um jederzeit ein umfassendes Echtzeit-Lagebild in einem Seegebiet zu schaffen, das aufgrund mehrerer kritischer Militäreinrichtungen auf der Insel Hainan einen Schlüsselfaktor für die militärische Modernisierung und die nukleare Abschreckungsstrategie Chinas darstellt.

Resonant Auger spectra of ethene molecule have been measured with vibrational resolution at several excitation energies in the region of the C1s−11b2g(π*) resonance. The main features observed in the experiment have been assigned and are accurately interpreted on the basis of ab initio multimode calculations. Theory explains the extended vibrational distribution of the resonant Auger spectra and its evolution as a function of the excitation energy by multimode excitation during the scattering process. As a result, the resonant Auger spectra display two qualitatively different spectral features following the Raman and non-Raman dispersion laws, respectively. Calculations show that two observed thresholds of formation of non-Raman spectral bands are related to the “double-edge” structure of the X-ray absorption spectrum.

The objective was to determine the efficacy of a vermifiltration system that treats liquid cattle manure to alter methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), ammonia (NH3) emissions, and nutrient composition (potassium-K; phosphorus-P; nitrogen-N). Liquid manure was sampled as it entered the worm-bed (influent) and as it exited from the worm-bed (effluent) to measure changes in nutrient composition. Worm-bed surface fluxes of CH4and N2O were measured in real-time for three distinct environmental temperatures (0 ˚C, 10 ˚C, and 20 ˚C) to examine seasonal variation at several locations in the 3.64 ha worm-bed using isolation chambers and cavity ring-down spectrometry. NH3flux was measured from the chambers using a ChemComb 3500 Speciation Collection Cartridge and coated honeycomb denuders. NH3samples were eluted within 4 h of collection and stored at -20 ˚C until colorimetric analysis. Duplicate NH3measurements were made for each chamber location at each temperature. Examination of the influx and efflux data indicates reductions of 25% in K, 96% in P, 99% in total suspended solids, 92% in volatile solids, and 92% in total Kjeldahl N. Chamber CH4concentrations at 0 ˚C (0.51 to 1.18 ppm) tended to be less at 10 ˚C (2.17 to 2.67 ppm) and 20 ˚C (1.6 to 2.45 ppm) but were not different across temperatures (P <.077) and reflected ambient concentrations (2.44 ppm). N2O concentrations at 0 ˚C (157.00 to 224.00 ppb) and 10 ˚C (86.3 to 176.5 ppb) were not different than ambient (358.5 ppb), but at 20 ˚C (400.0 to 655.0 ppb) concentrations tended to be greater (P <0.07). NH3concentrations at 0 ˚C (0.06 to 0.33 ppm) and 20 ˚C (1.35 and 2.21 ppm) were not different but at 10 ˚C (11.8 to 28.7 ppm) were greater (P <0.05). Fluxes were calculated for each sampling period. During 0 ˚C flux densities were 1.61 ± 0.17 mg· m-2·day-1for N2O, 2.5 0.57mg m-2·day-1for CH4, and 0.007± 0.00 mg m-2· day-1for NH3. At 20°C flux densities were 1.98± 0.63 mg· m-2day-1for N2O, 2.88± 0.755 mg m-2· day-1for CH4, and 25.4 ± 0.0 mg· m-2· day-1for NH3.Flux calculations and extrapolation of emission rates to the entire system indicates that vermifiltration is an effective strategy to alter nutrient concentrations and reduce CH4emissions but not emissions of N2O and NH3.

Cropland is an important land cover influencing global carbon and water cycles. Variability of agricultural carbon and water fluxes depends on crop species, management practices, soil characteristics, and climatic conditions. In the context of climate change, it is critical to quantify the long‐term effects of these environmental drivers and farming activities on carbon and water dynamics. Twenty site‐years of carbon and water fluxes covering a large precipitation gradient and a variety of crop species and management practices were measured in the inland Pacific Northwest using the eddy covariance method. The rain‐fed fields were net carbon sinks, while the irrigated site was close to carbon neutral during the winter wheat crop years. Sites growing spring crops were either carbon sinks, sources, or neutral, varying with crops, rainfall zones, and tillage practices. Fluxes were more sensitive to variability in precipitation than temperature: annual carbon and water fluxes increased with the increasing precipitation while only respiration increased with temperature in the high‐rainfall area. Compared to a nearby rain‐fed site, irrigation improved winter wheat production but resulted in large losses of carbon and water to the atmosphere. Compared to conventional tillage, no‐till had significantly lower respiration but resulted in slightly lower yields and water use efficiency over 4 years. Under future climate change, it is expected that more carbon fixation by crops and evapotranspiration would occur in a warmer and wetter environment. Croplands play an important role in global carbon and water cycles. Agricultural carbon and water budgets are affected by crop species, management practices, and climatic and soil conditions. In the context of climate change, it is critical to investigated the long‐term effects of these environmental drivers and farming activities on carbon and water dynamics. Carbon and water budgets covering a large precipitation gradient and a variety of crop species and management practices were measured in the inland Pacific Northwest (iPNW) region. Winter wheat growing under the rain‐fed conditions had more net carbon gain versus the irrigated conditions. Sites growing spring crops were either uptaking or emitting carbon, or in carbon balance annually. The annual net carbon gain magnitudes increased in the following order: spring garbanzo, spring barely, spring pea, spring canola, spring wheat, potatoes, and winter wheat. Irrigation can improve crop production but result in large losses of carbon and water to the atmosphere. Adoption of no‐till can mitigate CO2emissions but may cause lower yields and water use efficiency. Carbon and water dynamics are more sensitive to variability in precipitation than temperature in the iPNW. Under future climate change, more carbon fixation by crops and evapotranspiration would occur in a warmer and wetter environment. The rain‐fed fields were net carbon sinks, while the irrigated site was close to carbon neutral during the winter wheat crop yearsCompared to conventional tillage, no‐till had significantly lower respiration but resulted in lower yields and water use efficiencyFluxes were more sensitive to variability in precipitation than temperature; GPP and ET would increase in a warmer and wetter environment

The article discusses Serco, a massive corporation in Australia that has been religiously awarded by the Australian government to handle more than 90% of its contracts and franchises which include immigration detention centers, traffic management, and military health support. It mentions issues relating to staff management, working conditions, and the awarding of Acacia prison management contract in 2006 when prison management of Serco UK is found to be institutionally mean and squalid.

Space and mirror charge effects in time-resolved photoemission spectroscopy can be modeled to obtain relevant information on the recombination dynamics of charge carriers. We successfully extracted from these phenomena the reneutralization characteristic time of positive charges generated by photoexcitation in CeO2-based films. For the above-band-gap excitation, a large fraction of positive carriers with a lifetime that exceeds 100 ps are generated. Otherwise, the sub-band-gap excitation induces the formation of a significantly smaller fraction of charges with lifetimes of tens of picoseconds, ascribed to the excitation of defect sites or to multiphoton absorption. When the oxide is combined with Ag nanoparticles, the sub-band-gap excitation of localized surface plasmon resonances leads to reneutralization times longer than 300 ps. This was interpreted by considering the electronic unbalance at the surface of the nanoparticles generated by the injection of electrons, via localized surface plasmon resonance (LSPR) decay, into CeO2. This study represents an example of how to exploit the space charge effect in gaining access to the surface carrier dynamics in CeO2within the picosecond range of time, which is fundamental to describe the photocatalytic processes.

Defects studies have been performed on nitrided GaAs with deep level transient spectroscopy (DLTS) and photoluminescence (PL) measurements. Thin nitrided GaAs was formed by the irradiation of nitrogen electron cyclotron resonance (ECR) plasma at various substrate temperatures ranging from room temperature to 600°C. Two electron deep levels, N1 ( E c − 0.13 eV) and N2 ( E c − 0.58 eV), related to thermal assisted nitridation induced defects were observed in the GaAs nitrided at 600°C while no additional point defects were generated at nitridation temperatures up to 450°C. Several deep levels such as N1 and N2 are also found to be remarkably reduced by rapid thermal annealing at 750°C without any significant surface degradations. From analysis of the trap concentration and its variations with anneal temperature, the nitridation temperature of 450°C followed by rapid thermal annealing at around 750°C is found to be the optimum condition for nitridation without the generation of thermally assisted nitrogen plasma-induced defects. The V As related complex and low energy ion beam induced defects are discussed as the probable sources for the N1 and N2 level defects, respectively.

A new-low temperature dry oxidation process, unlike the presently used methods of wet chemical processing or high-temperature rapid thermal annealing, for the oxidation of porous silicon (PS) is described. In this process the active oxygen radical species from an electron cyclotron resonance plasma were employed for the first time to achieve room-temperature oxidation of PS. This process allows manipulation of the PS surface chemistry which has resulted in both the enhancement and stabilization of the photoluminescence (PL) intensity. These results are explained on the basis of a proposed model in which surface-induced processes incorporate oxygen atoms not only in the outermost Si-O-Si layer but also in the backbonded Si of PS. Furthermore, it is shown that this backbond oxidation is the main mechanism responsible for the enhancement and stabilization of the PL intensity.

A new compact ECR plasma source has been developed. The characteristics of this source and it's applications are discussed. Irradiation by oxygen radicals O*for the oxidation during deposition process was found to produce high quality superconducting thin films with increased characteristic temperatures. Hydrogen radical H*beam cleaning of GaAs substrate surfaces was achieved at temperatures as low as 100°C.

Hydrogen plasma beam irradiation effects on the surface reconstruction of GaAs substrates are investigated. Successful low temperature removal of the GaAs oxide layer using hydrogen plasma beam irradiation is carried out, and the subsequent reflection high energy electron diffraction (RHEED) observation of the reversible surface reconstruction changes is observed. This reversible surface reconstruction effect is explained in terms of the atomic hydrogen termination of the As dangling bonds.

Irradiation using oxygen radicals O*and ions O2+from an active ECR oxygen plasma source has been applied to the preparation of Y-Ba-Cu-O superconducting films. Irradiation by oxygen radicals O*was found to drastically improve the films characteristics over those prepared in the presence of oxygen ions O2+. This effect is considered to be as a result of enhanced and damage-less surface interactions due to oxygen radicals.