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Climate change and rapid urbanization pose significant challenges to the conservation and management of agricultural heritage systems, including decline in agricultural land, loss of labor, and ecosystem degradation. Although existing studies have proposed general strategies with theoretical guidance and specific strategies for particular systems to promote the conservation of agricultural heritage systems, there remains a large knowledge gap in effective and differentiated management strategies at the regional level. This is especially so in China because of the clear regional differences in the natural and socioeconomic conditions of the widely distributed China Nationally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (China-NIAHS). In this study, we integrated multi-source data and spatial analysis to reveal the distribution characteristics of existing China-NIAHS and proposed differentiated management strategies. Results show that there are four clustering distribution zones of China-NIAHS, i.e., the northwest clustering zone west of the Heihe-Tengchong Line (Zone I), the clustering belt with ‘Northeast-Hebei-Shandong’ as core (Zone II), the Yangtze River Delta clustering zone (Zone III), and the Hunan-Chongqing-Yunnan-Guizhou clustering zone (Zone IV). Different management strategies are proposed for the China-NIAHS in each clustering zone. Specifically, Zone I should focus on maintaining their ecological functions and services, while Zone II should aim for livelihood supply, sustainable resource use, and ecological protection. For Zone III, rapid urbanization could become a positive driving force for China-NIAHS conservation through sustainable tourism and reasonable urban zoning. Zone IV should emphasize the mutual support between characteristic product development and the brand effect of the China-NIAHS. These findings will help establish regional and targeted management strategies for China-NIAHS and provide a reference for the conservation of agricultural heritage systems in other countries.

Organic cultivation methods would be a good alternative to conventional cultivation, avoiding the use of industrial fertilizer and reducing the risk of eutrophication, but its impacts on soil elemental composition and stoichiometry warrants to be clearly stated. This study was conducted to determine the effects of long‐term organic cultivation on soil elemental composition, stoichiometry, and C storing capacity and CO2emissions in the plant‐soil systems of jasmine (Jasminumspp.) and tea [Camellia sinensis(L.) Ktze.] plantations in Fujian and other regions in China. We examined the impact of organic cultivation on the concentrations, contents and stoichiometric relationships among C, N, P, and K. Organic cultivation was associated with lower plant N and P concentrations, and P mineralomasses and with higher total plant C/N, C/P, C/K, and N/P ratios and higher soil N and P concentrations and contents at some depths. Organic cultivation was thus associated with a shift of P from plants to soil and with a higher nutrient‐use efficiency in biomass production, mainly of P. Soil CO2emissions were higher under organic cultivation, but the soil was able to accumulate more C with no changes in C storage in plant biomass, suggesting that organic cultivation could increase the overall C sequestration, thereby mitigating climate change and enhancing soil nutrient content. Our results thus showed that the organic cultivation of jasmine and tea in Fujian can improve soil fertility and C accumulation, reduce the use of industrial fertilizers and phytosanitary products, and improve product quality without loss of economical profits. Core Ideas Jasmine and tea cultivation have a long history in Fujian and other regions in ChinaWe explored their organic cultivation for the future viability of these cropsOrganic cultivation increased nutrient‐use efficiencySoil was able to accumulate more C under organic cultivationOrganic cultivation improved soil fertility without affecting economic profits Jasmine and tea cultivation have a long history in Fujian and other regions in China We explored their organic cultivation for the future viability of these crops Organic cultivation increased nutrient‐use efficiency Soil was able to accumulate more C under organic cultivation Organic cultivation improved soil fertility without affecting economic profits

Although the urgency of their conservation has been recognized, Globally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (GIAHS) designated by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) since 2002 and China Nationally Important Agricultural Heritage Systems (China-NIAHS) certified by the Ministry of Agriculture (MOA) of China since 2012 are faced with questions as to why to conserve them, what is to be conserved, who should conserve them, and how? This paper attempts to clarify and respond to such questions focusing on the conservation of agricultural heritage systems in China based on a review of both theoretical and practical progress. Agricultural heritage systems exhibit a multitude of values for sustainable and equitable development and therefore should be conserved for both present and future generations. Unlike most conventional heritages, the conservation of agricultural heritage systems is a complex, systematic “engineering” in which both physical and biological components and associated socio-cultural processes should be conserved in a dynamic way. Farmers and heritage sites must benefit from the continuance of traditional agricultural production under the premise of ecological functions being sustained and traditional culture being inherited. For a more effective conservation, a multi-stakeholder process should be established involving governments at different levels, multi-disciplinary scientists, communities and farmers, and business enterprises as well as social organizations. As has been demonstrated, the conservation of agricultural heritage systems aims to promote the regional sustainable development, to improve the livelihood, food security and well-being of farm people, and to provide references for the development of modern agriculture in China.

Abstract: Besides crops, agriculture supplies all three major categories of ecosystem services (ES). However, agriculture also supplies an array of ecosystem dis-services (EDS) that may harm other ecosystems. The flows of ES and EDS are directly dependent on the management of agricultural ecosystems. The traditional method of Chinese agriculture, which supports sustainable agriculture, has been proven to increase ES and reduce EDS. However, there is a lack of a detailed understanding of the ES and EDS associated with traditional agriculture, and also of differences between traditional and modern agriculture. In this study, an investigation was conducted on the ecosystem services (ES) and ecosystem dis-services (EDS) of traditional and modern agriculture in Congjiang County, Guizhou Province, China. Afterwards, the economic values of ES and EDS were quantified experimentally and calculated based on the market price. The results show that: the net economic value of traditional rice-fish agriculture was 3.31×104 CNY·ha−1 (6.83 CNY = 1 USD as of July, 2009) and that of rice monoculture was 1.99×104 CNY·ha−1. Significant differences existed between traditional rice-fish and rice monoculture fields for their economic values of some ES or EDS. A benefit and cost analysis (BCA) model was used to adjust the conflict between the economic income and environmental loss from traditional and modern agriculture. The BCA model not only calculates the net income but also monetizes the EDS of the agricultural systems. The results showed that the net income of rice-fish agriculture was 1.94×104 CNY·ha−1 higher than that of rice monoculture. However, the benefit to cost ratio (BCR) of rice-fish agriculture was lower than that of rice monoculture, indicating that the traditional agricultural model was not the most optimized choice for farmers. The value of the rice-fish agriculture was much higher than that of the rice monoculture. Thus, when considering the benefits that rice-fish agriculture contributes to the largescale society, these agricultural methods needs to be utilized. Furthermore, the labor opportunity costs were calculated and the comprehensive value of rice monoculture was negative. Finally, the compensation standard was calculated based on the comprehensive benefit analysis. The lowest level was 1.09×103 CNY·ha−1, and the highest level was 1.21×104 CNY·ha−1.

China has a deep traditional culture and a long history, and is rich in traditional settlements (designated as “Famous Historic-Cultural Villages/Towns”, “Chinese Traditional Villages” by Chinese Government). To help people develop these traditional settlements to achieve the great goal of Chinese National Rejuvenation, Chinese scholar put forward the Cultural Landscape Genes of Traditional Settlements (CLGTS) in 2003. Since then, CLGTS theory has been employed to solve the issues of Chinese traditional settlements, such as the identification and regionalization of cultural landscape genes in traditional settlements, and the understanding of architectural features. Although CLGTS theory has made great strides in many application fields, there is still a lack of scientific findings in exploring the symbol mechanism from a perspective of semiotics. To explore this, we firstly examined the core features of CLGTS through a dialectical perspective. We analyzed two features of CLGTS in depth. First, CLGTS is the dialectical combination of macro settlement image and micro cultural factors of traditional settlements, material appearance and inherent traditional cultural implications, overall features and local self-renewal mechanisms, qualitative and quantitative methods, superiority of cultural factors and rich cultural connotation. Second, CLGTS is famous for its nonlinearity, self-organization, and self-iteration due to various spatial shapes and complex structures. Based on the above, we first proposed the concept of Symbolization Method of CLGTS (SM-CLGTS). Then, we further explored the key features, classification methods, and corresponding representation methods of CLGTS symbols. Finally, by using Visual C#.net program language, we developed a prototype system of the Traditional Landscape Genetic Symbol Database (TLGSD) to create and centrally manage CLGTS symbols. Test results show that TLGSD can meet the needs of constructing a CLGTS symbol database for a given region. This study is of great significance to explore and contribute to visualizing the CLGTS symbols.