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This study aims to systematically identify studies that evaluate lower extremity burn injury in the diabetic population, evaluate their clinical course and patient outcomes, and present a treatment algorithm tailored to diabetic burn patients. Our systematic review of the PubMed and Web of Science databases yielded 429 unique articles. After exclusion and inclusion criteria were applied, 59 articles were selected for evaluation. In diabetic patients, the thermal injury was largely a result of decreased awareness and education regarding heat therapies in the context of peripheral neuropathy. All noncase studies found that metrics such as hospital length of stay, ICU admission rates, rates of comorbidity, complication rates, scald injuries, infection rates, and cost of treatment were significantly increased in the diabetic burn population as compared to their nondiabetic counterparts. Where infection was present, microorganisms colonizing diabetic burn wounds were different than those found in the burn wounds of immunocompetent individuals. Operative intervention including split-skin graft, amputation, and debridement were more often utilized in diabetic burn patients. Foot burns in diabetic patients pose unique clinical risks to patients, and as such need to be an alternate treatment protocol to reflect their pathology. Education and training programs are crucial in the prevention of diabetic foot burns to avoid complications, protracted healing, and adverse outcomes. A unique algorithm can guide the unique treatment of this clinical entity.

While learning journals (LJs) have been shown to support self-regulated learning strategies, reflection and learning outcomes in academic contexts, few studies have investigated their relevance in vocational education. A mobile and online learning journal (MOLJ) was developed to support reflection on workplace experiences. However, acceptance of the mobile and online learning journal by apprentices and supervisors is not trivial. This study investigated how apprentices use the mobile and online learning journal and why they use it that way. The mobile and online learning journal was developed for apprentices in the field of bakery and contains a recipe book, a smartphone app to take pictures of workplace experiences, and a learning journal for reflection. Apprentices’ workplace supervisors have access to the mobile and online learning journal to provide support and feedback. A mixed method study was conducted with 16 apprentices. Indicators of their use of the mobile and online learning journal were recorded, while reasons for use were studied by questionnaires and semi-structured interviews. Four kinds of users of the mobile and online learning journal were identified: Multifunction users, picture takers, learning journal users, and overall low users. The most determining factors for the acceptance and use of the mobile and online learning journal by apprentices were their interest in the use of a smartphone at the workplace, their acceptance of reflection on workplace experiences through the mobile and online learning journal, and supervisors’ participation and provision of feedback. Promoting the use of learning journals by apprentices requires strong guidance in the design of the learning journal as well as support and feedback from supervisors. Taking pictures from the workplace proves useful for learning and sharing experience in vocational training.

Eosinophils are a class of granulocytes with pleiotropic functions in homeostasis and various human diseases. Nevertheless, they are absent from conventional single-cell RNA sequencing atlases owing to technical difficulties preventing their transcriptomic interrogation. Consequently, eosinophil heterogeneity and the gene regulatory networks underpinning their diverse functions remain poorly understood. We have developed a stress-free protocol for single-cell RNA capture from murine tissue-resident eosinophils, which revealed distinct intestinal subsets and their roles in colitis. Here we describe in detail how to enrich eosinophils from multiple tissues of residence and how to capture high-quality single-cell transcriptomes by preventing transcript degradation. By combining magnetic eosinophil enrichment with microwell-based single-cell RNA capture (BD Rhapsody), our approach minimizes shear stress and processing time. Moreover, we report how to perform genome-wide CRISPR pooled genetic screening in ex vivo-conditioned bone marrow-derived eosinophils to functionally probe pathways required for their differentiation and intestinal maturation. These protocols can be performed by any researcher with basic skills in molecular biology and flow cytometry, and can be adapted to investigate other granulocytes, such as neutrophils and mast cells, thereby offering potential insights into their roles in both homeostasis and disease pathogenesis. Single-cell transcriptomics of eosinophils can be performed in 2–3 d, while functional genomics assays may require up to 1 month.

Affordable innovations target customers with a low willingness or ability to pay. While researchers and practitioners increasingly recognise the importance of affordable innovation to society, we know little about the conditions under which individual innovators engage in affordable innovation rather than its counterpart: premium innovation. In our qualitative study of 55 innovators, we first uncover the individual and contextual factors that determine innovators' commitment to affordable and premium innovations. We also identify common combinations of factors that lead to different types of affordable and premium innovators. Finally, we highlight the conditions under which innovators move from affordable to premium innovations and from premium to affordable innovations. These results contribute to the innovation literature by showing that a conceptual distinction between affordable and premium innovations is necessary to understand individual innovative commitment and by explaining why innovators often choose premium innovations over socially relevant affordable innovations.

In the past decade, single-cell transcriptomics has helped to uncover new cell types and states and led to the construction of a cellular compendium of health and disease. Despite this progress, some difficult-to-sequence cells remain absent from tissue atlases. Eosinophils—elusive granulocytes that are implicated in a plethora of human pathologies1–5—are among these uncharted cell types. The heterogeneity of eosinophils and the gene programs that underpin their pleiotropic functions remain poorly understood. Here we provide a comprehensive single-cell transcriptomic profiling of mouse eosinophils. We identify an active and a basal population of intestinal eosinophils, which differ in their transcriptome, surface proteome and spatial localization. By means of a genome-wide CRISPR inhibition screen and functional assays, we reveal a mechanism by which interleukin-33 (IL-33) and interferon-γ (IFNγ) induce the accumulation of active eosinophils in the inflamed colon. Active eosinophils are endowed with bactericidal and T cell regulatory activity, and express the co-stimulatory molecules CD80 and PD-L1. Notably, active eosinophils are enriched in the lamina propria of a small cohort of patients with inflammatory bowel disease, and are closely associated with CD4+T cells. Our findings provide insights into the biology of eosinophils and highlight the crucial contribution of this cell type to intestinal homeostasis, immune regulation and host defence. Furthermore, we lay a framework for the characterization of eosinophils in human gastrointestinal diseases.

Targeted mass spectrometry-based platforms have become a valuable tool for the sensitive and specific detection of protein biomarkers in clinical and research settings. Traditionally, developing a targeted assay for peptide quantification has involved manually preselecting several fragment ions and establishing a limit of detection (LOD) and a lower limit of quantitation (LLOQ) for confident detection of the target. Established thresholds such as LOD and LLOQ, however, inherently sacrifice sensitivity to afford specificity. Here, we demonstrate that machine learning can be applied to qualitative PRM assays to discriminate positive from negative samples more effectively than a traditional approach utilizing conventional methods. To demonstrate the utility of this method, we trained an ensemble machine learning model using 282 SARS-CoV-2 positive and 994 SARS-CoV-2 negative nasopharyngeal swabs (NP swab) analyzed using a targeted PRM method. This model was then validated using an independent set of 200 positive and 150 negative samples and achieved a sensitivity of 92% relative to results obtained by RT-PCR, which was superior to a traditional approach that resulted in 86.5% sensitivity when analyzing the same data. These results demonstrate that machine learning can be applied to qualitative PRM assays and results in superior performance relative to traditional methods.

Skin cancer is highly prevalent but preventable, yet little research has been done on the challenges in generating political priority for skin cancer prevention. This qualitative study aimed to identify the political challenges to, facilitators of, and strategies to strengthen skin cancer prevention. The focus was on the case of Aotearoa New Zealand (NZ): a country with high skin cancer rates, but limited investment in primary prevention. Data sources included 18 national key informant interviews and documentary analysis. Data were analysed inductively for emerging themes and framed using a conceptual framework of political priority. Challenges to advocates for skin cancer primary prevention include limited resources and competing priorities. Political‐level challenges include a lack of quick results compared with other initiatives vying for political attention, lack of negative externalities and, in NZ, misalignment with health system priorities. Challenges in the evidence base include the perceived conflict of sun protection with Vitamin D and physical activity, the lack of data on the financial burden of skin cancer and relatively low temperatures in NZ. Facilitators include strong policy community cohesion and issue framing, and weak opposition. Promising strategies to strengthen skin cancer prevention in NZ could include network building, using framing that resonates with policy makers and addressing key knowledge gaps in NZ, such as the financial burden of skin cancer. Advocacy for skin cancer prevention faces challenges due to advocates’ limited resources, political challenges such as lack of quick results and gaps in evidence. Nonetheless, the initiative encounters little opposition and can be framed in ways that resonate with policy makers. Skin cancer is highly preventable, but advocates for prevention initiatives have struggled to gain political traction. This study identifies several strategies that could help raise the political profile for skin cancer prevention.

Objective:Skin fibrosis places an enormous burden on patients and society, but disagreement exists over methods to quantify severity of skin scarring. A suction cutometer measures skin elasticity in vivo, but it has not been widely adopted because of inconsistency in data produced. We investigated variability of several dimensionless parameters generated by the cutometer to improve their precision and accuracy.Approach:Twenty adult human subjects underwent suction cutometer measurement of normal skin (NS) and fibrotic scars (FS). Using Mode 1, each subject underwent five trials with each trial containing four curves. R0/2/5/6/7 and Q1/2/3 data were collected. Analyses were performed on these calculated parameters.Results:R0/2/5/6/7 and Q1/2 parameters from curves 1 to 4 demonstrated significant differences, whereas these same parameters were not significantly different when only using curves 2–4. Individual analysis of all parameters between curve 1 and every subsequent curve was statistically significant for R0, R2, R5, R6, R7, Q1, and Q2. No differences were appreciated for parameter Q3. Comparison between NS and FS were significantly different for parameters R5, Q1, and Q3.Innovation:Our study is the first demonstration of accurate comparison between NS and FS using the dimensionless parameters of a suction cutometer.Conclusions:Measured parameters from the first curve of each trial were significantly different from subsequent curves for both NS and FS. Precision and reproducibility of data from dimensionless parameters can therefore be improved by removing the first curve. R5, Q1, and Q3 parameters differentiated NS as more elastic than FS.

Diabetes mellitus (DM) complicates the treatment of burn injuries. Foot burns in diabetic patients are challenging problems with unfavorable outcomes. National-scale evaluations are needed, especially with regard to limb salvage. We aim to characterize lower-extremity burns in persons with DM and evaluate the likelihood of amputation. The National Trauma Data Bank (NTDB) was queried from 2007 to 2015 extracting encounters with primary burn injuries of the feet using International Classification of Diseases (ICD) 9th edition codes. Logistic regression modeled predictors of lower-extremity amputation. Covariables included age, sex, race/ethnicity, comorbidities including DM, % burn TBSA, mechanism, and region of burn center. Poisson regression evaluated temporal incidence rate changes in DM foot burns. Of 116,796 adult burn encounters, 7963 (7%) had foot burns. Of this group, 1308 (16%) had DM. 5.6% of encounters with DM foot burns underwent amputation compared to 1.5% of non-DM encounters (P< .001). Independent predictors of lower-extremity amputation included DM (odds ratio 3.70, 95% confidence interval 2.98–4.59), alcohol use, smoking, chronic kidney disease, and burn size >20%, African-American/black race, male sex, and age >40 years (all P< .01). The incidence of DM foot burns increased over the study period with an incidence rate ratio of 1.07 (95% confidence interval 1.05–1.10, P< .001). In conclusion, DM was associated with nearly a 4-fold increase in amputation after adjusting for covariables. Furthermore, the incidence of DM foot burns is increasing. Strategies for optimizing care in persons with DM foot burns are need to improve limb salvage.

Eosinophils are best known for their effector functions in settings of parasitic infection or allergen challenge, but have also increasingly been implicated in immune regulation at mucosal sites. Here, we show using bacterial infection and antigen challenge models that extrathymic Foxp3+regulatory T-cells that arise de novo in the context of bacterial infection require an intact eosinophil compartment. Mouse strains with a constitutive or conditional eosinophil deficiency, or with an eosinophil-specific ablation of Tgfb, lack bacterially induced neuropilin-negative, RORγt-positive gastrointestinal Treg populations in models of Helicobacter pylori, Helicobacter hepaticusand Citrobacter rodentiuminfection, as well as in the steady state colon and upon oral ovalbumin challenge. Treg priming in lymph nodes appears not to be impaired. Eosinophil-dependent tissue-resident Tregs express CTLA4, ICOS, CD39 and T-bet in addition to RORγt. Eosinophils reside in close proximity to Tregs in infected tissues, and specifically induce the expansion of newly formed Tregs, but not conventional T-cells in vivo and in vitro. TGF-β expression in eosinophils is induced by bacterial contact and during allergen exposure. Specific Tgfbablation in eosinophils and the associated Treg defects result in excessive T-cell responses in the examined Th2- but not Th1-polarized settings.

Eosinophils are best known for their effector functions in settings of parasitic infection or allergen challenge, but have also increasingly been implicated in immune regulation at mucosal sites. Here, we show using bacterial infection and antigen challenge models that extrathymic Foxp3+regulatory T-cells that arise de novo in the context of bacterial infection require an intact eosinophil compartment. Mouse strains with a constitutive or conditional eosinophil deficiency, or with an eosinophil-specific ablation of Tgfb, lack bacterially induced neuropilin-negative, RORγt-positive gastrointestinal Treg populations in models of Helicobacter pylori, Helicobacter hepaticusand Citrobacter rodentiuminfection, as well as in the steady state colon and upon oral ovalbumin challenge. Treg priming in lymph nodes appears not to be impaired. Eosinophil-dependent tissue-resident Tregs express CTLA4, ICOS, CD39 and T-bet in addition to RORγt. Eosinophils reside in close proximity to Tregs in infected tissues, and specifically induce the expansion of newly formed Tregs, but not conventional T-cells in vivo and in vitro. TGF-β expression in eosinophils is induced by bacterial contact and during allergen exposure. Specific Tgfbablation in eosinophils and the associated Treg defects result in excessive T-cell responses in the examined Th2- but not Th1-polarized settings.

Bei der Behandlung von Hirntumoren pädiatrischer und erwachsener Patienten stellt die Strahlentherapie eine regelhaft angewendete Behandlungsmodalität dar. Die Protonentherapie ist eine innovative Art der Bestrahlung, mit der die therapeutische Breite weiter verbessert werden soll. Aufgrund der technisch-physikalischen Besonderheiten kann mittels Protonentherapie eine bessere Normalgewebsschonung erreicht werden, während die Zielvolumenerfassung i. d. R. sehr ähnlich zur Standard-Photonentherapie ist. Dabei wird die biologische Strahlenwirkung unter Berücksichtigung eines Korrekturfaktors von 1,1 („relative biological effectiveness“, RBE) als vergleichbar angenommen. Bei kindlichen Hirntumoren ist die Indikation zur Protonentherapie i. d. R. aufgrund der erhöhten Strahlenempfindlichkeit des sich noch entwickelnden Nervengewebes sowie aufgrund bereits vorliegender vergleichender Daten gegeben, die eine geringere Toxizität der Protonentherapie im Vergleich zu Photonen zeigen. Pädiatrische Tumoren werden möglichst in klinischen Studien oder zumindest analog nach der Empfehlung von Referenzzentren behandelt. Trotz der zunehmend breiteren Anwendung der Protonentherapie bei Erwachsenen weltweit fehlen noch belastbare Studiendaten zur geringeren Toxizität im Normalgewebe für die meisten Tumorarten. Es muss untersucht werden, ob und in welchen Patientengruppen sich die veränderte Dosisverteilung in klinisch relevante Vorteile übersetzt und damit den erhöhten Aufwand bzw. die vermehrten Kosten einer Protonentherapie rechtfertigt. Translationaler Forschungsbedarf besteht auch bei der Identifikation von besonders profitierenden Subgruppen und der Integration biologischer Erkenntnisse, insbesondere zur Variabilität der Protonen-RBE, in die optimierte Bestrahlungsplanung.

Skin provides a critical protective barrier for humans that is often lost following burns, trauma, or resection. Traditionally, skin loss is treated with transfer of tissue from other areas of the body such as a skin graft or flap. Mechanical forces can provide powerful alternatives and adjuncts for skin replacement and scar modulation. This article first provides an overview of the various mechanical forces that affect fibroblasts, keratinocytes, endothelial cells, and adipocytes at the cellular and molecular level. This is followed by a review of the mechanical devices currently in clinical use that can substantially augment the restoration of skin integrity and reduce scarring. Methods described include tissue expanders, external volume expansion, negative-pressure wound therapy, and skin taping.

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Intravenous infusion of mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) is thought to be a viable treatment for numerous disorders. Although the intrinsic immunosuppressive ability of MSCs has been credited for this therapeutic effect, their exact impact on endogenous tissue-resident cells following delivery has not been clearly characterized. Moreover, multiple studies have reported pulmonary sequestration of MSCs upon intravenous delivery. Despite substantial efforts to improve MSC homing, it remains unclear whether MSC migration to the site of injury is necessary to achieve a therapeutic effect. Using a murine excisional wound healing model, we offer an explanation of how sequestered MSCs improve healing through their systemic impact on macrophage subpopulations. We demonstrate that infusion of MSCs leads to pulmonary entrapment followed by rapid clearance, but also significantly accelerates wound closure. Using single-cell RNA sequencing of the wound, we show that following MSC delivery, innate immune cells, particularly macrophages, exhibit distinctive transcriptional changes. We identify the appearance of a pro-angiogenic CD9+macrophage subpopulation, whose induction is mediated by several proteins secreted by MSCs, including COL6A1, PRG4, and TGFB3. Our findings suggest that MSCs do not need to act locally to induce broad changes in the immune system and ultimately treat disease.

Objective:To develop a novel approach for tissue engineering of soft-tissue flaps suitable for free microsurgical transfer, using an injectable nanofiber hydrogel composite (NHC) vascularized by an arteriovenous (AV) loop.Approach:A rat AV loop model was used for tissue engineering of vascularized soft-tissue flaps. NHC or collagen-elastin (CE) scaffolds were implanted into isolation chambers together with an AV loop and explanted after 15 days. Saphenous veins were implanted into the scaffolds as controls. Neoangiogenesis, ultrastructure, and protein expression of SYNJ2BP, EPHA2, and FOXC1 were analyzed by immunohistochemistry and compared between the groups. Rheological properties were compared between the two scaffolds and native human adipose tissue.Results:A functional neovascularization was evident in NHC flaps with its amount being comparable with CE flaps. Scanning electron microscopy revealed a strong mononuclear cell infiltration along the nanofibers in NHC flaps and a trend toward higher fiber alignment compared with CE flaps. SYNJ2BP and EPHA2 expression in endothelial cells (ECs) was lower in NHC flaps compared with CE flaps, whereas FOXC1 expression was increased in NHC flaps. Compared with the stiffer CE flaps, the NHC flaps showed similar rheological properties to native human adipose tissue.Innovation:This is the first study to demonstrate the feasibility of tissue engineering of soft-tissue flaps with similar rheological properties as human fat, suitable for microsurgical transfer using an injectable nanofiber hydrogel composite.Conclusions:The injectable NHC scaffold is suitable for tissue engineering of axially vascularized soft-tissue flaps with a solid neovascularization, strong cellular infiltration, and biomechanical properties similar to human fat. Our data indicate that SYNJ2BP, EPHA2, and FOXC1 are involved in AV loop-associated angiogenesis and that the scaffold material has an impact on protein expression in ECs.

Species of genus Chlamydiaare important pathogens of animals, with a worldwide distribution and broad host range. Some species, such as Chlamydia psittaci, also pose a zoonotic disease risk. Abortion is one of the many diseases that has been associated with chlamydial infections in animals, with most attention focused on the economic impacts to sheep production. The role of chlamydia in equine abortions is unknown. Using the family-specific 23S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) Chlamydiaceaereal-time PCR, we tested 169 formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded fetal membrane samples from 162 equine abortion cases collected between 2000 and 2018 in Switzerland. Two equine abortion cases (1.2%) tested positive for Chlamydiaceae. Further analyses by the species-specific 23S rRNA ArrayMate microarray and sequencing of a fragment of the 16S rRNA gene revealed C. abortusand C. psittaci. In both cases, equine herpesvirus 1 was also present, which might have been the abortion cause, alone or in synergy with Chlamydia. The prevalence of abortigenic chlamydial species in equine abortion cases in our study was significantly lower than rates described elsewhere. Zoonotic chlamydial agents present in equine fetal membranes nevertheless should be considered a potential risk to humans during foaling, abortion, or stillbirth.

Significance:The skin undergoes an inevitable degeneration as an individual ages. As intrinsic and extrinsic factors degrade the structural integrity of the skin, it experiences a critical loss of function and homeostatic stability. Thus, aged skin becomes increasingly susceptible to injury and displays a prolonged healing process.Recent Advances:Several studies have found significant differences during wound healing between younger and older individuals. The hypoxia-inducible factor 1-alpha (HIF-1α) signaling pathway has recently been identified as a major player in wound healing. Hypoxia-inducible factors (HIFs) are pleiotropic key regulators of oxygen homeostasis. HIF-1α is essential to neovascularization through its regulation of cytokines, such as SDF-1α (stromal cell-derived factor 1-alpha) and has been shown to upregulate the expression of genes important for a hypoxic response. Prolyl hydroxylase domain proteins (PHDs) and factor inhibiting HIF effectively block HIF-1α signaling in normoxia through hydroxylation, preventing the signaling cascade from activating, leading to impaired tissue survival.Critical Issues:Aged wounds are a major clinical burden, resisting modern treatment and costing millions in health care each year. At the molecular level, aging has been shown to interfere with PHD regulation, which in turn prevents HIF-1α from activating gene expression, ultimately leading to impaired healing. Other studies have identified loss of function in cells during aging, impeding processes such as angiogenesis.Future Directions:An improved understanding of the regulation of molecular mediators, such as HIF-1α and PHD, will allow for manipulation of the various factors underlying delayed wound healing in the aged. The findings highlighted in this may facilitate the development of potential therapeutic approaches involved in the alteration of cellular dynamics and aging.

AbstractMental health and wellbeing in veterinary students have become an important area of study, given the high levels of mental distress compared to other professions. Although research has identified poor mental health of veterinary students, few studies have examined positive factors such as self-compassion, which can have a favorable effect on mental health. The aim of this study was to examine self-reported symptoms of depression and factors influencing this construct, such as loneliness, self-compassion, and various demographic aspects in Swiss veterinary students. A sample of 374 Swiss veterinary students completed online measures including a demographic questionnaire, the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale-Revised (CESD-R), a short form of the University of California Loneliness Scale (UCLA-9), and the short form of the Self-Compassion Scale (SCS-SF). Results showed that 54.3% of the students were above the CESD-R cut-off score for depression, indicating a higher likelihood to suffer from depression. Results from the backward selection linear regression showed loneliness to be a risk factor, while self-compassion and rural upbringing were protective of depression. Findings suggest that Swiss veterinary students are highly burdened and may benefit from interventions aimed at reducing loneliness and improving self-compassion.

Significance:Fibrosis and scar formation pose a substantial physiological and psychological burden on patients and a significant public health burden on the economy, estimated to be up to $12 billion a year. Fibrosis research is heavily reliant on in vivomodels, but variations in animal models and differences between animal and human fibrosis necessitates careful selection of animal models to study fibrosis. There is also an increased need for improved animal models that recapitulate human pathophysiology.Recent Advances:Several murine and porcine models, including xenograft, drug-induced fibrosis, and mechanical load-induced fibrosis, for different types of fibrotic disease have been described in the literature. Recent findings have underscored the importance of mechanical forces in the pathophysiology of scarring.Critical Issues:Differences in skin, properties of subcutaneous tissue, and modes of fibrotic healing in animal models and humans provide challenges toward investigating fibrosis with in vivomodels. While porcine models are typically better suited to study cutaneous fibrosis, murine models are preferred because of the ease of handling and availability of transgenic strains.Future Directions:There is a critical need to develop novel murine models that recapitulate the mechanical cues influencing fibrosis in humans, significantly increasing the translational value of fibrosis research. We advocate a translational pipeline that begins in mouse models with modified biomechanical environments for foundational molecular and cellular research before validation in porcine models that closely mimic the human condition.

Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDC) are critical to antiviral defense because of their high production of type I IFNs; less is known regarding their functions in bacterial infection. Moreover, pDC are involved in immunomodulation. A stable pool of regulatory T cells (Treg) is crucial for maintaining immune homeostasis. However, interactions between pDC and Treg regarding the regulation of Treg homeostasis are understudied. By using BDCA2‐DTR mice as a systemic pDC depletion model, we identified increased steady‐state numbers of FoxP3+T cells with an effector Treg‐like phenotype in lungs, liver, and spleen tissues. During sublethal, pulmonary Klebsiella pneumoniaeinfection, pDC deficiency also elevated respiratory FoxP3+T cell numbers. Additionally, the improvement in acute pneumonia survival until day 5 post infection was accompanied by impaired proinflammatory cytokine production. In contrast, pDC‐depleted mice exhibited a delayed clinical recovery during the post‐acute phase. Therefore, we assume that pDC act as immunomodulators supporting the rapid onset of immune response in a proinflammatory manner and regulate inflammation or tissue regeneration in the post‐acute phase. In summary, pDC assist in FoxP3+T cell homeostasis and the regulation of Klebsiella‐pneumonia progression. pDC assist in FoxP3+ T cell homeostasis and the regulation of Klebsiella‐pneumonia progression.