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Production diseases, such as liver abscesses, can affect cattle performance; however, the well-being implications are not well understood. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of liver abscess presence on stress-related parameters in beef breed feedlot cattle.

Despite increasing public scrutiny of practices used in raising animals for food, there is little readily available information about how cattle handling is managed in feedyards. The purpose of this study was to score cattle handling in commercial feedyards using the most widely adopted program for managing cattle handling, and to make these scores available as evidence of producer commitment to proper care and handling of cattle. Our objectives were to estimate compliance with the Beef Quality Assurance Feedyard Assessment (BQA FA) for cattle handling, to validate 6 cattle handling categories of the BQA FA, and to document management practices and elements of facility design. Categories scored were electric prod use; chute operation; rates of cattle vocalizing, stumbling, and falling; and rate of cattle jumping and running. This study compiles findings for cattle handling scores in commercial feedlots using the BQA FA. Of 28 sites, average scores were in compliance with BQA FA for the following 4 categories: electric prod use, vocalization, stumbling, and falling. For the following 2 categories, average scores were not in compliance: a score of 4.2% versus the target of 0% was recorded for cattle caught improperly in the squeeze chute; and a score of 52% versus the target of 25% was recorded for cattle that jumped or ran from the squeeze chute exit. All but one site exceeded this target. Curved crowd systems were recorded for 89% of feedyards, 11% used Bud Box systems, and 78.5% had rubber mats at the squeeze chute exit.

Observations were collected for the purpose of comparing exit velocity measurements in the form of exit score (ES; walk, trot, canter, or run) and flight speed (FS) as assessments of cattle temperament. Squeeze chute exit velocity was obtained for 1,181 crossbred yearling steers using ES and FS temperament systems. Flight speed used infrared sensors to determine the time taken for an animal to traverse a fixed distance of 1.83 m after exiting the squeeze chute. Exit score (1 = walk, 2 = trot, 3 = canter, and 4 = run) was assigned by 2 different observers when each steer crossed a fixed point between the infrared sensors. All animals were scored with each system (ES and FS) simultaneously on exiting the squeeze chute on d –21 and d –1 of the experiment. Of the 1,181 cattle, 357 were moved to a nearby research feedyard for use in a 140 d feedlot trial. These cattle were scored using both measurement systems and BW was recorded at 35 d intervals throughout the trial. Exit score was assessed for observer reliability, ES and FS were compared for measurement repeatability, and both were assessed on ability to predict ADG. Exit score between observers on a single day showed considerable agreement (weighted Kappa = 0.66), indicating the system was reliable between different observers. However, the agreement for a single observer between day was only moderate (weighted Kappa = 0.40), indicating a day effect for ES. In addition, although mean velocities for day were not different (P> 0.18; FS = 2.98 ± .87 and 3.02 ± 0.87 m/s for day, respectively), the persistence of FS for each animal was low (Spearman rank correlation coefficient = 0.25). The frequency that an animal would be placed into the same third of FS or receive the same ES on consecutive weigh days was 50% and 60.0%, respectively, and both were moderate predictors of ADG (R2= 0.14 and R2= 0.17). These data indicate that ES and FS are reliable instruments for assessment of temperament on a given day, and show moderate repeatability across days. Exit score and FS show similar ability to predict ADG and can be used interchangeably as measures of temperament.

The article discusses aspects of the animal welfare auditing programmes to monitor animal welfare in slaughter plants. It provides an overview of the five numerically scored criteria for plants to remain on the approved list. It compares data from the last ten years of auditing, which started in 1999, and data before it was implemented. It also suggests that audits have led to improvements because of the threat for plants to be removed from the approved supplier.

The article discusses animal welfare audits and offers recommendations for making improvements in beef, pork and sheep-slaughter plants. Particular focus is given to 2010 audit data from two restaurant companies. The data indicated that 95% or more of the cattle in all 30 North American plants of the companies were insensible with a single shot from a captive-bolt gun. Some measures implemented by plant managers to improve welfare include improving stunner maintenance and employee training.

Animal scientists have an extraordinary burden to promote the health and well-being of all animals in their care. Promoting species- or breed-appropriate behaviors through proper training and enrichment, regardless of animal housing, should be a paramount concern for all animal scientists working with exotic animals, laboratory animals, shelter animals, or privately owned pet animals. Developing ideal training and enrichment programs for any species begins with understanding basic behavior patterns and emotional systems of animals. The basic emotional systems in mammals have been extensively mapped; however, most of these studies are in the neuroscience literature and seldom read by animal science professionals. The emotional circuits for fear have been well documented through studies demonstrating that lesions to the amygdala will block both conditioned and unconditioned fear behaviors. Additionally, other core emotional systems including seeking (i.e., approaching a novel stimulus), rage, panic (e.g., separation stress), play, lust (i.e., sex drive), and care (e.g., mother-young nurturing behavior) have been identified. More recent neuroscience research has discovered the subcortical brain regions that drive different types of seeking behaviors. Research to increase the understanding of the emotional systems that drive both abnormal and normal animal behaviors could greatly improve animal welfare by making it possible to provide more effective environmental enrichment programs. Enrichment devices and methods could be specifically designed to enable the expression of highly motivated behaviors that are driven by emotional circuits in the brain. The objective of this paper is to increase awareness of animal scientists to the field of neuroscience studying animal emotions and the application of that science to improve the welfare of captive exotic animals, laboratory animals, and pets with environmental enrichment.

Many small slaughter facilities use head-only electrical stunning to render swine unconscious and insensible to pain before slaughter. Head-only electrical stunning is a reversible procedure that is optimally effective for approximately 15 s after stun completion. In many small North American slaughter plants, the authors have observed hoist speeds that are too slow to achieve a short enough stun-to-bleed interval to maintain insensibility through exsanguination. Unlike many European plants, there is no separate high-speed hoist for pigs and exsanguination on the floor is not condoned. As a result, a 2-stage stunning method was proposed where head-only stunning for 3 s was immediately followed by application of the same stunning wand to the cardiac region of the animal for 3 s while lying in lateral recumbancy. A paired-comparison study was conducted on 89 pigs in a small slaughter facility to compare the head-only method applied for 6 s with the head/heart method. The objective was to evaluate signs of return to sensibility, stun-to-bleed time, blood lactate concentration, muscle pH, drip loss, and fresh meat color to validate the head/heart electrical stunning method for small slaughter plants. Incidence of corneal reflex was not different (P> 0.05) between head/heart (93.8%) and head only (85%) stunning. Nose twitching was more common (P< 0.05) in head only (26.5%) than head/heart (5%) stunning. Head/heart stunning eliminated rhythmic breathing, natural blinking, eye tracking to moving objects, and righting reflex, which were all observed in head-only stunned pigs. Eye tracking to moving objects was observed in 40.8% of head-only stunned pigs. Blood lactate was not different (P> 0.05) between stunning methods (head only: 8.8 ± 0.7 mmol/L, head/heart: 7.8 ± 0.7 mmol/L). Stun-to-bleed time did not differ (P> 0.05; head only: 32 ± 1 s, head/heart: 33 ± 1 s). Mean time to loss of heartbeat with the head-only method was 121 ± 5 s. No heartbeat was observed with the head/heart method. Longissimus thoracis pH, color, and drip loss were not different (P> 0.05) between stunning methods. This study determined that the head/heart electrical stunning method reduces the incidence of signs of return to sensibility without significant effects on meat quality, plant operation speed, or blood lactate concentration. In addition, the head/heart method requires no capital investment for plants that are currently using the head-only method.

During marketing, cattle may be exposed to periods of water deprivation. The impact of water and feed access and health status on the physiological well-being and carcass characteristics of Holstein slaughter cows during preslaughter marketing was studied through analysis of serum components, BW loss percentage, and fresh meat composition. Ninety-one multiparous Holstein cows (609 ± 89 kg mean BW, 2.9 ± 0.5 mean BCS, varying stage of lactation) were purchased over 3 wk in 3 groups (n = 31, 29, and 31) at a terminal market in central Wisconsin. Each cow was screened to determine health status (sick or not sick) and randomly assigned to 1 of 3 water and feed withdrawal treatment pens (AL, ad libitum access to water for 36 h; 18H, 18 h of ad libitum access to water followed by 18 h of water withdrawal; 36H, 36 h of water withdrawal; all 3 treatments included 36 h of feed withdrawal) in a randomized complete block arrangement with repeated measures for serum components. Blood samples were collected by tail venipuncture at 0, 9, 18, 27, and 36 h of each treatment. Ambient temperatures were 1.9 ± 6.2°C during the trial period, which occurred over a 3-wk period in March and April 2007 near Arlington, WI. No difference (P> 0.05) was observed in mean serum cortisol in AL (18.41 ± 2.17 ng/mL) or 36H (22.98 ± 2.17 ng/mL). Mean serum glucose was greater (P< 0.05) in 36H pens (78.15 ± 0.77 mg/dL) than AL (75.91 ± 0.77 mg/dL). Mean serum creatinine was greater (P< 0.05) in 36H pens (0.71 ± 0.03 mg/dL) than AL (0.60 ± 0.03 mg/dL). The 36H pens also displayed increased (P< 0.05) serum albumin, anion gap, Ca, Cl, Na, cholesterol, and aspartate aminotransferase over AL. Greater (P< 0.05) mean percentage BW loss was observed in 36H pens (5.2 ± 0.6%) than AL (3.1 ± 0.6%). Mean muscle protein (%) was greater (P< 0.05) in 36H (22.2 ± 0.4%) than 18H (21.3 ± 0.4%). Mean muscle moisture (%) was greater (P< 0.05) in AL and 18H (75.3 ± 0.4% and 75.2 ± 0.4%) than 36H. Mean 24-h pH values were 5.92 (AL), 5.92 (18H), and 5.81 (36H; SE = 0.04) and were not different (P< 0.05). Observed pH and color values indicated a borderline dark-cutter state across all cattle in the study, regardless of water and feed access treatment. Based on these results, water and feed withdrawal in lairage should not exceed 18 h during the marketing of Holstein slaughter cows acclimated to springtime conditions to maintain BW, serum component concentrations, and fresh meat composition.

Transportation of cattle to the slaughter plant could influence hide contamination with Salmonella enterica. Fecal and hide samples were obtained from 40 lots of cattle at the feedlot and again at the slaughter plant. Potential risk factors for hide contamination were evaluated. A multilevel Poisson regression model was used to determine whether transportation and lairage were associated with hide contamination by Salmonella. Cattle with hide samples positive for Salmonellaat the feedlot had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle without positive feedlot hide samples (relative risk [RR], 1.9). Cattle transported in trailers from which samples positive for Salmonellawere collected had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle transported in culture-negative trailers (RR, 2.3). Cattle transported for long distances had twice the risk of having positive hide samples at slaughter compared with cattle transported shorter distances (RR, 2.3). Cattle held in lairage pens contaminated with feces had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held in clean pens (RR, 1.8). Cattle held off feed longer than 18 h before loading had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held off feed for shorter times (RR, 1.7). Cattle that were agitated during loading had twice the risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle that were calm (RR, 2.2). These findings suggest that variables associated with transportation and lairage can impact the presence of Salmonellaon the hides of cattle at slaughter.

Transportation of cattle from the feedlot to the slaughter plant could influence hide contamination of Escherichia coliO157. A study was initiated to investigate the influence of transportation and lairage on shedding and hide contamination of E. coliO157. Fecal and hide samples were obtained from 40 pens of harvest-ready beef cattle at the feedlot prior to transport and again at the slaughter plant immediately after slaughter. Potential risk factors for hide contamination at the feedlot, during transport, and at slaughter were evaluated. A multilevel Poisson regression model was used to evaluate if transportation and lairage were associated with hide contamination by E. coliO157 in finished beef cattle. Lots of cattle held in E. coliO157–positive lairage pens had eight times greater risk of having positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held in culture-negative pens (relative risk, 8.0; 95% confidence interval, 1.6 to 38.8). Lots of cattle that were held in lairage pens contaminated with feces had three times greater risk for positive slaughter hide samples compared with cattle held in clean pens (relative risk, 3.1; 95% confidence interval, 1.2 to 7.9). Lots of cattle that were transported for long distances (>160.9 km) had twice the risk of having positive hide samples at slaughter compared with cattle transported a shorter distance (relative risk, 2.4; 95% confidence interval, 1.1 to 5.1). These findings suggest that transportation and lairage should be considered in E. coliO157 control strategies.

Equal numbers of British, Continental crossbred, and Brahman crossbred calf-fed steers (n = 420) were used to examine the effects of ractopamine supplementation and biological type on behavior during routine handling. Steers were blocked by BW within type and allocated to pens, resulting in 2 pens (10 cattle per pen) representing each block × type subclass. Pens within each block × type subclass then were randomly assigned to ractopamine supplementation treatments (0 or 200 mg·steer−1·d−1), which were administered during the final 28 d of the finishing period. At the time final BW were obtained (28 d after treatment initiation), a single, trained observer, blinded with respect to treatment designations, recorded subjective scores to characterize behavior of each animal. Scores included entry force score (degree of force required to load the animal into the chute); entry speed score (walk, trot, run); chute behavior score (calm, restless shifting, moderate struggling); and exit speed score (walk, trot, run). Ractopamine supplementation had no effect on entry force score, chute behavior score, or exit speed score; however, cattle supplemented with ractopamine entered the chute more rapidly than did control cattle. Biological cattle type was a significant source of variation in entry force score and exit speed score. Continental crossbreds required greater (P< 0.05) force to enter the squeeze chute than did Brahman crossbred or British steers. In addition, Continental crossbred and Brahman crossbred steers left the processing chute with the greatest speed, whereas British steers exited the processing chute most slowly. Biological cattle type did not affect scores for entry speed or behavior during restraint in the chute. No adverse effects of ractopamine supplementation on cattle behavior were observed in this study.

One of the most important issues is starting with an animal that is fit for transport. It is impossible to assure good animal welfare during transport if the animal is unfit. Severely lame or weak, emaciated animals are not fit for transport. Recent figures on the incidence of nonambulatory cull dairy cows show that the problem has become worse since 1993. In beef cattle there has been a slight improvement. A major factor causing unfitness in some cows and pigs is overselection for milk or meat production. Lameness may be increasing in some high-producing dairy cows and sows. Modern hybrid pigs, which have been selected for rapid growth, leanness, and a large loin area, are often prone to stress that causes the pig to become nonambulatory. Observations at packing plants indicate that in certain genetic lines the incidence of transit deads and “stressor” pigs has increased. Some of these pigs are so fragile that transport insurance is difficult to obtain. These pigs have a very excitable temperament, which makes loading and unloading a truck more difficult. Another problem area is transport of 1 d-old “bobby” Holstein calves before they can walk easily without assistance from a person. Good management is essential. Tired loading crews that become impatient or overloading of trucks may increase bruises and injuries. Careful driving and avoiding sudden stops and starts will reduce injuries due to animals falling down. Animal welfare during transport will be improved by transporting animals that are strong enough to withstand the rigors of transport. Animal fitness for transport can be improved by marketing cull breeding stock when they are still fit and using genetic selection for structural and physiological soundness.

Careful handling of pigs and cattle at slaughter plants helps preserve meat quality. Cattle handled quietly have less bruising and cattle that remain calm during handling are less likely to have dark cutting or tough meat. In pigs, quiet handling and a minimum of electric prod use in the stunning chute reduce PSE approximately 10%. Quiet handling also helps reduce blood splash in pigs and kosher cattle. Meat damage from poor injection technique may be reduced in animals that are handled quietly. Proper injection technique is easier in calm animals. People manage what they measure. Objective scoring should be used to measure the quality of handling. Vocalization scoring can be used to assess handling quality. The percentage of cattle that vocalize (moo or bellow) during handling through chutes is determined. Other measures are the percentage of animals poked with an electric prod and the percentage of cattle that walk quietly into a squeeze chute. Cattle that walk quietly into the squeeze chute are less likely to get shoulder injuries, which cause extensive meat damage. Cattle that are handled quietly with a minimum of electric prod use vocalize less than cattle that are excessively prodded with an electric prod. Squeal scoring can be used in pigs to assess handling quality. Several studies show that vocalization is correlated with physiological measures of stress in both cattle and pigs. Regular auditing and measurement of handling practices will help maintain meat quality and improve animal welfare.

Casual observations indicated that some cattle are more sensitive to sudden movement or intermittent sound than other cattle. Six commercial livestock auctions in two states and a total of 1,636 cattle were observed to assess the relationship between breed, sex, and temperament score on the response to sudden, intermittent visual and sound stimuli, such as the ringman swinging his arm for a bid and the sound of him briefly yelling a bid. A 4-point temperament score was used to score each animal while it was in the ring. The scores used were 1) walks and(or) stands still, with slow, smooth body movements; 2) continuously walks or trots, and vigilant; 3) gait is faster than a trot (runs even a couple of steps), with fast, abrupt, jerky movements, and very vigilant; and 4) hits the ring fence, walls, partitions, or people with its head. Animals were observed for flinches, startle responses, or orientation toward sudden, intermittent sounds, motions, and tactile stimulation, such as being touched with a cane or plastic paddle. The cattle observed were mostly Bos taurusbeef breeds and Holstein dairy cattle. Holsteins were more sound-sensitive (P= .02) and touch-sensitive (P< .01) than beef cattle. Sensitivity to sudden, intermittent stimuli (e.g., sound, motion, and touch) increased as temperament score (excitability) increased. Cattle with a temperament score of 1 were the least sensitive to sudden, intermittent movement and sound and those with a temperament score of 4 were the most sensitive (P< .01). This same relationship was sometimes observed for touch but was not statistically significant. Motion-sensitive cattle were more likely than nonsensitive cattle to score a temperament rating of 3 or 4 (P< .01). Steers and heifers were more motion-sensitive than the older bulls and cows (P= .03). Beef cattle urinated (P< .01, n = 1,581) and defecated (P< .01, n = 1,582) more often in the ring than did dairy cattle. Cattle that became agitated during handling in an auction ring were the individuals that were most likely to be startled by sudden, intermittent sounds and movements. Reactivity to sudden, intermittent stimuli may be an indicator of an excitable temperament.

This study was conducted to assess the effect of temperament on the average daily gains of feedlot cattle. Cattle (292 steers and 144 heifers) were transported to Colorado feedlot facilities. Breeds studied included Braford (n = 177), Simmental × Red Angus (n = 92), Red Brangus (n = 70), Simbrah (n = 65), Angus (n = 18), and Tarentaise × Angus (n = 14). Cattle were temperament rated on a numerical scale (chute score) during routine weighing and processing. Data were separated into two groups based on breed, Brahman cross (≥ or = 25% Brahman) and nonBrahman breeding. Animals that had Brahman breeding had a higher mean temperament rating (3.45 ± .09) or were more excitable than animals that had no Brahman influence (1.80 ± .10); (P< .001). These data also show that heifers have a higher mean temperament rating than steers (P< .05). Temperament scores evaluated for each breed group also showed that increased temperament score resulted in decreased average daily gains (P< .05). These data show that cattle that were quieter and calmer during handling had greater average daily gains than cattle that became agitated during routine handling.

Fear is a very strong stressor, and the highly variable results of handling and transportation studies are likely to be due to different levels of psychological stress. Psychological stress is fear stress. Some examples are restraint, contact with people, or exposure to novelty. In many different animals, stimulation of the amygdala with an implanted electrode triggers a complex pattern of behavior and autonomic responses that resemble fear in humans. Both previous experience and genetic factors affecting temperament will interact in complex ways to determine how fearful an animal may become when it is handled or transported. Cattle trained and habituated to a squeeze chute may have baseline cortisol levels and be behaviorally calm, whereas extensively reared animals may have elevated cortisol levels in the same squeeze chute. The squeeze chute is perceived as neutral and non-threatening to one animal; to another animal, the novelty of it may trigger intense fear. Novelty is a strong stressor when an animal is suddenly confronted with it. To accurately assess an animal's reaction, a combination of behavioral and physiological measurements will provide the best overall measurement of animal discomfort.

The 1995 National Beef Quality Audit reported that dark cutting beef (dark cutters) cost $6.08 per animal harvested in the United States. Feedlot data were obtained over a 3-yr period from nine commercial feedyards (15,439 pens of cattle; 2,672,223 total cattle). Feedyard, sex, implant treatment, days from final implant to harvest, maximum and minimum daily temperatures, and temperature fluctuations from 2 d before harvest to the day of harvest all contributed (P< .05) to the incidence of dark cutters. Heifers yielded a higher (P< .05) percentage of dark cutters per pen and, when reimplanted a second time with an estrogenic implant, produced greater (P< .05) mean percentages of dark cutters per pen than heifers reimplanted with either androgens or combination (androgen and estrogen) growth promotants. Furthermore, heifers produced higher (P< .05) mean percentages of dark cutters per pen than steers during periods of hot (> 35°C) weather 2 to 1 d before harvest. Steers, when treated with a combination (androgen and estrogen) implant when entering the feedyard and as a reimplant, produced higher (P< .05) mean percentages of dark cutters per pen when compared to other moderate growth-promoting implant strategies. When producers opted to implant steers with estrogenic growth promotants, either as the cattle entered the feedlot or as a final reimplant before harvest, the occurrence of dark cutters was reduced from 9.2 per thousand cattle shipped to 2.0 and .5 per thousand cattle shipped, respectively. Producers that reimplanted heifers before harvest with products that were not primarily estrogenic reduced the occurrence of dark cutters from 10.4/1,000 cattle shipped to 5.2/1,000 cattle shipped when androgen-based growth promotants were used and to 3.5/1,000 cattle shipped when combination (androgen and estrogen) implants were administered. In addition to implant selection, those producers that held cattle on-feed over 100 d past reimplantation reduced the incidence of dark cutters per pen by an average of 38% among heifers and 69% among steers. By reducing the occurrence of dark cutters, there is an opportunity for beef producers to realize large economic savings.

A course is described in which students are taught principles of livestock behavior and how an understanding of behavior can facilitate handling. Some of the principles that are covered in the course are livestock senses, flight zone, herd behavior during handing, and methods to reduce stress during handling. To teach problem solving and original thinking, the students design three different types of handling facilities. Design of restraint equipment and humane slaughter procedures are also covered. Both existing systems and ideas for future systems are discussed. Students are provided with infor-mation from both scientific studies and practical experience.

Most traditional corral facilities are designed and built without the use of animal welfare principles, and can cause stress and fear reactions. This experiment was conducted to evaluate the influence of modifications to transform traditional corral into humane livestock handling system in cattle behavior and serum cortisol. The corral modifications consisted of blocking vision when the worker stands inside the animal's flight zone, eliminating contrast of light and dark or shadows, and keeping the workers calm, not allowing them to scream or hit the animals during handling. Electric cattle prods were not permitted. A total of 382 Nellore steers, from 12 to 20 mo of age, from five different ranches were studied. First, the behavior of the animals in a traditional corral was evaluated. After corral modification and changing for calm handling procedures, the same animals returned (6 d later) for a second behavioral assessment. During restraining, before and after corral modifications, blood samples were collected from the jugular vein for analysis of serum cortisol. The cattle were evaluated using visual scores. Entry behavior (EB) into the restraint device was evaluated by observing whether the bovines walked, trotted, or ran. Chute temperament (CT) was assessed by considering whether the animal was very calm, calm, agitated, very agitated, or struggling to escape; and exit gait (EX) by observing whether the animal walked, trotted, or ran. After corral modification, cattle exhibited lower EB (P< 0.0001) and EX (P< 0.0001) and a higher proportion of animals was calm (CT-P < 0.0001) during restraining. The proportion of cattle that walked, trotted or ran was, respectively, 61.9, 30.4, and 7.7% for EB and 47.9, 36.9, and 13.4% for EX before corral modification, and 79.3, 16.8, and 3.9% for EB and 74.0, 19.7, and 6.3% for EX after corral modification. For CT, the proportion of very calm, calm, agitated, very agitated, and struggling to escape animals was 26.8, 36.6, 23.4, 12.1, and 4.2% before corral modification, and 48.1, 32.1, 15.1, 3.6, and 1.1% after corral modification, respectively. Serum cortisol levels were significantly lower (P< 0.0001) after corral modification. Mean serum cortisol was 47.87 mg/dL before corral modification and 32.49 mg/dL after corral modification. Good handling practices, corral reconstruction, blocking vision in specifics areas, and respecting the natural movement can reduce stress in cattle.

The objective of this study was to examine how various doses of tryptophan supplementation impacted reactive behavior and physiological stress measurements in the horse. Eleven horses (9 geldings and 2 mares) were given four treatments—a control dose, consisting of 0 mg Trp/kg BW (CON); 20 mg Trp/kg BW (LOW); 40 mg Trp/kg BW (MED); and 60 mg Trp/kg BW (HIGH)—in a randomized crossover design. Each treatment lasted 3 d. On Days 1 and 3 of each treatment, horses underwent a behavior test to measure startle response. Heart rate measurements and the speed at which the horses fled from startling stimuli were recorded. In addition, serum glucose, lactate, and cortisol levels were analyzed both immediately before the startle test and again 15 min after the test. Significant sedative effects were seen at LOW Day 1 on heart rate increase during the startle test (P= 0.05) and on change in serum lactate levels (P= 0.03). At MED Day 1, sedative effects were seen on change in serum cortisol levels (P= 0.01). Some excitatory effects were seen at MED Day 3 on the time for heart rate to return to baseline after the startle test (P= 0.03). A subset of blood samples was analyzed for serum free Trp and the ratio of Trp to other large neutral AA, which verified treatment effect.

Captive bolt stunning is a widely used means across commercial beef plants to render animals insensible. After stunning, postmortem leg activity poses a safety risk for employees; hence, the objective of this study was to test captive bolt length effects on postmortem leg activity. It was hypothesized that captive bolt length and cattle breed do not influence postmortem leg activity. A total of 2,850 Holstein and non-Holstein Continental/British-bred fed cattle were sampled. The Jarvis USSS-1 (Jarvis Products Corp., Middletown, CT) penetrating pneumatic captive bolt stunner was used with 3 different bolt lengths: 15.24, 16.51, and 17.78 cm, constituting control, medium, and long treatment groups, respectively. The study was an unbalanced, randomized block design, blocked by day, and breed was recorded as Holstein or non-Holstein. The experimental unit was animal and data were analyzed within SAS 9.4 (SAS Inst., Inc., Cary, NC) using t-tests. Immediately after knocking, cameras were placed to record postmortem forelimb and hind limb kicking, the number of times each animal was stuck to be exsanguinated, and if the take away belt stopped. Immediately after stunning, cattle fall from the center track restrainer onto the take away belt to be shackled, which influences the stunning-to-exsanguination interval. There were more hind limb kicks using the long bolt (P= 0.03) compared with the medium bolt, and more Holstein hind limb kicks were observed relative to non-Holstein (P= 0.0009). Forelimb kicks were greater for medium (P< 0.0001) and long (P< 0.0001) compared with control, and more non-Holstein forelimb kicks occurred relative to Holstein (P= 0.0002). The number of take away belt stops was more for control than medium (P< 0.0001) as well as long (P< 0.0001). Take away belt stops was greater for Holstein relative to non-Holstein (P< 0.0001). Righting reflex and number of sticks did not differ regardless of treatment or breed (P> 0.23). These data show that captive bolt length and breed play a role in postmortem activity of fed cattle and that breed plays a role in take away belt stops and thus the stun-to-exsanguination interval. Further research is needed to explore the intricacies of these relationships.

Captive bolt stunning is commonly used as a means of quickly and effectively rendering cattle insensible prior to slaughter. Effective stunning of cattle is partially ensured by proper placement of the device, which may be breed dependent. For Holsteins, stun placement is typically recommended 2.5 cm above common placement for other breeds. The purpose of this study was to determine if head dimensions and brain location differ between Holstein and non-Holstein breeds. This study also examined the effects of different bolt lengths on physical brain damage. It was hypothesized that head size and brain damage would not differ based on bolt length or breed. This study used a randomized, unbalanced block design, with treatment blocked by day. Experimental unit was animal, and analyses were performed using t-tests in SAS 9.4 (SAS Inst. Inc., Cary, NC). The stunner used was a Jarvis USSS-1 (Jarvis Products Corp., Middletown, CT), a penetrating, pneumatic captive bolt gun. For brain damage assessment, 292 heads were randomly sampled across 3 collection periods, with an approximately equal split between Holstein and non-Holstein breeds. Each period was assigned the control bolt (CON), medium bolt (MED), or long bolt (LON), with lengths of 15.2, 16.5, and 17.8 cm, respectively. Heads were collected, immediately measured, and chilled for splitting and damage analysis at the Colorado State University Necrology Laboratory (Colorado State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital, Fort Collins, CO). For head dimension assessment, 426 heads equally distributed between Holstein and non-Holstein breeds were sampled. Head width, poll to orbit, right orbit to poll, and left orbit to poll did not differ between breeds (P> 0.13). Head length and orbit to nose length were greater for Holsteins (P= 0.0046). Brain size, length, and width as well as skull thickness did not differ between breeds (P> 0.32). Stunning metrics included bolt entrance hole diameter, which was greatest for the LON, least for the MED, and intermediate for the CON (P< 0.0001). Bolt penetration depth was greatest for the MED (P< 0.0001). Sagittal brain damage was least for the CON, with greater damage measured on the MED and LON (P< 0.0001). Dorsal damage was least for the CON and increased for the MED and LON (P< 0.0001). The data in this study suggest that differing bolt lengths affect brain damage and that head dimensions appear to be different between breeds only in nose length, indicating that current recommendations for differing stun placement based on breed may need to be reevaluated.

The scientific study of animal welfare involves complex assessments of an animal's physical health, emotional state, and the naturalness of its environment. As the public becomes more aware of animal welfare, the demand for students knowledgeable about animal welfare science is increasing, yet many universities provide little training in this field. The Animal Welfare Judging and Assessment Contest (AWJAC) was created in 2002 at Michigan State University with support from Purdue University to teach students how to assess and critique the welfare of animals used for food production, research, companionship, and other human purposes. Each year at the annual competition, computer-based scenarios on four pre-determined animal species are presented to the students with information on performance, health, physiology, handling, and behavior of the animals. The students evaluate the scenarios to determine which facility has the best welfare, and defend their decision through oral reasons presented to judges. The competition now has undergraduate, graduate, and veterinary divisions. The 2015 competition was held at Ohio State University with 25 teams and 105 individuals competing. A course was created at Colorado State University (CSU) in 2012 to prepare students for the competition, and can serve as an example of how to teach students about animal welfare assessment. The course teaches students about general animal welfare principles, provides in depth training on the four featured species through guest lecturers, field trips, and review of the scientific literature, and develops public speaking skills. The CSU teams have continued to be successful at the contest, and in 2015 CSU won first place in the graduate division, as well as numerous individual awards. The contest combined with the course provides learning opportunities about the growing field of animal welfare science.

The objective of this study was to investigate the relationship between hydraulic squeeze chute brand, breed of steers, and their behavior during processing in feedyard facilities. Two brands of hydraulic squeeze chute (A and B) and three breeds of cattle (Angus, Hereford and Continental cross) were compared. The assessments were made in 11 feedyards, totaling 1083 steers, using the BQA Feedyard Assessment (FA) guidelines for cattle handling in commercial feedlots. Each steer was observed once during and after the vaccination processing. Six feedyards had hydraulic squeeze chute (HSC) brand A (A) and eight feedyards had HSC brand B (B). The behavior variables of interest were vocalization, miscaught (MH), exit gait (run, trot or walk) and exit behavior (jump, stumble and fall). An effect of HSC brand on vocalization (P< 0.0001), exit gait (P< 0.0001) and exit behavior (P< 0.0001) was observed, but no effect on MH (P= 0.52) was observed. There was an effect of breed on vocalization (P< 0.0001), exit gait (P< 0.001) and exit behavior (P< 0.0001). The results for vocalization, run, trot, and jump were 25.8, 53.9, 40.4, and 14.4% for HSC A and 63.7, 42.5, 48.7, and 37.6% for HSC B, respectively. The results for vocalization, run, trot and jump were 15.1, 44.4, 47.5, and 29.4% for Angus; 2.7, 66.7, 28.8, and 17.8% for Hereford; and 22.2, 40.8, 50.7, and 31.8% for Continental cross, respectively. Brand of hydraulic squeeze chute and breed of cattle can influence the behavior of steers during and after restraining in feedyard facilities.

The aim of this study was to evaluate if facility design influences cattle behavior. Two types of systems were compared: open sides (OP) or solid wall (SW). To meet the objectives of this study, cattle were assessed at nine feedyards, according to the BQA Feedyard Assessment (FA) guidelines for cattle handling in commercial feedlots. Each bovine was observed once during and after vaccination processing. Four-hundred steers, from five feedyards were observed in the OP design, and 380 steers, from four feedyards were observed in SW. The variables recorded were vocalization, miscaught (MH), exit gait (run, trot, or walk) and exit behavior (jump, stumble, and fall). The statistics model for analyses included two factors: facility design (SWxOP), and feedyard. The SW design reduced vocalization (P= 0.0003) and had no effect for MH (P= 0.3158). From observed animals, respectively for OP and SW, 41.5% and 26.3% vocalized and 1.6% and 2.5% MH. There was effect on exit gait (P< 0.001) and on exit behavior (P= 0.0008). Steers processed in OP conditions exited faster than steers observed in the SW design, with 56.2 and 36.2% running and trotting for OP, and 23.2 and 66.9% running and trotting for SW, respectively. In conclusion, if the view of cattle is restricted during restraint, the frequency of vocalization will decrease, and exit speed will be reduced.