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Degradable polymers promote sustainability, mitigate environmental impact, and facilitate biological applications. Tailoring degradable polymers is challenging because installing functional group-rich side chains is difficult when the backbone itself is susceptible to degradation. A convenient means of side chain installation is through postpolymerization modification (PPM). In functionalizing polyoxazinones, a class of degradable polymers generated by the ring-opening metathesis polymerization (ROMP), we predictably found PPM challenging. Even the versatile azide–alkyne cycloaddition click reaction was ineffective. To solve this problem, we screened PPM reactions whose efficiencies could be assessed using photochemistry (excimer formation). The mildest, pH-neutral process was functionalization of a ketone-containing polymer to yield either oxime (acid labile)- or alkyoxylamine (stable)-substituted polymers. Using this approach, we equipped polymers with fluorophores, reporter groups, and bioactive epitopes. These modifications imbued the polymers with distinctive spectral properties and biological activities. Thus, polyoxazinones are now tunable through a modular method to diversify these macromolecules’ function.

The sociocultural dynamics for attaining and maintaining the intergenerational transmission of 'barely living' languages are ever so much more difficult than the dynamics of eliciting them for briefer (sub-generational) periods, but they differ only in degree, rather than in kind, from the social dynamics required by the continuity of all 'partly living' and even all 'fully living' languages. These dynamics pertain to contextual control over (1) societal functional allocations, (2) the bases of institutional transmission and use, and (3) the reward sufficiency and the competitive place/time realisations pertaining to the major ongoing processes and contexts of sociocultural stability and change. Five basic questions are posited which pertain equally to 'fully alive', 'partly alive' and 'barely alive' languages. These three types of languages may be seen as existing along a continuum, differing only in the degrees to which they can be linked to the dynamics of reward processes and the institutional spill-overs that determine the likelihood of intergenerational mother-tongue transmission in general and of functional dominance most specifically.

SUMMARYFour instances of change in 19th-century Yiddish-in-print are considered: (1) the change from a separate type-face to the standard Hebrew type also used for bibles and prayer-books; (2) the abandonment of archaic written forms, following conventions that had been standardized in Central Europe in earlier centuries, in favor of forms more closely approximating Eastern European spoken Yiddish; (3) the sharp curtailment of new High Germanisms and other foreignisms, and (4) the development of a standard or literary spoken variety influenced by standard written Yiddish. In all four instances internal rather than external foci of change are posited. Via fostering and controlling the 'print function', elites of small language communities can also change their languages in accord with how they would like to and when they would like to, rather than merely being exposed either 'winds of change' or to influences from surrounding languages and cultures.RÉSUMÉDans cet article trois facteurs de changement du yiddish imprimé du XIXe et XXe siècle sont présentés et discutés: (1) l'adoption du type d'impression qu'on avait utilisé jusqu'à ce temps pour les bibles et les livres de prières; (2) l'abandon des formes archaïques de la langue écrite (qui ont été standardisées en Europe Central pendant les siècles précéndents) en faveur de formes plus proches du yiddish parlé en Europe de l'Est à l'époque, et (3) la réduction drastique de l'influence lexicale de l'allemand moderne et d'autres langues étrangères. L'auteur affirme que dans ces trois facteurs de changement il y avaient des raisons internes plutôt que externes à la base des modifications. Il maintient que, en alimentant et contrôlant la fonction de la presse d'imprimerie, il est possible pour des élites peu nombreuses d'une communauté linguistique d'introduire des changement de la façon voulue et à un moment choisi par elles au lieu d'avoir une évolution langagière inconsciente et sans planification.ZUSAMMENFASSUNGDer Aufsatz zieht drei Gesichtspunkte der Veränderung der jiddi-schen Schriftsprache im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert in Betracht: (1) Der Wechsel von einer besonderen Schreibtype zur hebraischen Drucktype, die bis dahin allein fiir Bibeln und Gebetsbiicher verwendet worden war; (2) die Aufgabe alter Schreibweisen, die in friiheren Jahrhunderten entwik-kelt worden waren, zugunsten von einem Stil, der sich dem in Osteuropa gesprochenen Jiddisch nahert, und (3) die drastische Reduzierung neuer hochdeutscher Ausdriicke und anderer Fremdwörter. In alien drei Fallen werden interne Griinde anstelle von externen Momenten fiir den Sprachwan-del angenommen. Durch Nahrung und Kontrolle des Druckwesens ist es mög-lich gewesen, daß selbst kleine Sprachgemeinschaften in der Lage sind, Sprachgebrauch zu andern, und zwar mithilfe einer Elite, die die Initiative ergreift und Sprachwandel nicht einfach unbewußten und nichtge-planten Veränderungen iiberläßt.

SUMMARY Four instances of change in 19th-century Yiddish-in-print are considered: (1) the change from a separate type-face to the standard Hebrew type also used for bibles and prayer-books; (2) the abandonment of archaic written forms, following conventions that had been standardized in Central Europe in earlier centuries, in favor of forms more closely approximating Eastern European spoken Yiddish; (3) the sharp curtailment of new High Germanisms and other foreignisms, and (4) the development of a standard or literary spoken variety influenced by standard written Yiddish. In all four instances internal rather than external foci of change are posited. Via fostering and controlling the 'print function', elites of small language communities can also change their languages in accord with how they would like to and when they would like to, rather than merely being exposed either 'winds of change' or to influences from surrounding languages and cultures. RÉSUMÉ Dans cet article trois facteurs de changement du yiddish imprimé du XIXe et XXe siècle sont présentés et discutés: (1) l'adoption du type d'impression qu'on avait utilisé jusqu'à ce temps pour les bibles et les livres de prières; (2) l'abandon des formes archaïques de la langue écrite (qui ont été standardisées en Europe Central pendant les siècles précéndents) en faveur de formes plus proches du yiddish parlé en Europe de l'Est à l'époque, et (3) la réduction drastique de l'influence lexicale de l'allemand moderne et d'autres langues étrangères. L'auteur affirme que dans ces trois facteurs de changement il y avaient des raisons internes plutôt que externes à la base des modifications. Il maintient que, en alimentant et contrôlant la fonction de la presse d'imprimerie, il est possible pour des élites peu nombreuses d'une communauté linguistique d'introduire des changement de la façon voulue et à un moment choisi par elles au lieu d'avoir une évolution langagière inconsciente et sans planification. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Der Aufsatz zieht drei Gesichtspunkte der Veränderung der jiddi-schen Schriftsprache im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert in Betracht: (1) Der Wechsel von einer besonderen Schreibtype zur hebraischen Drucktype, die bis dahin allein fiir Bibeln und Gebetsbiicher verwendet worden war; (2) die Aufgabe alter Schreibweisen, die in friiheren Jahrhunderten entwik-kelt worden waren, zugunsten von einem Stil, der sich dem in Osteuropa gesprochenen Jiddisch nahert, und (3) die drastische Reduzierung neuer hochdeutscher Ausdriicke und anderer Fremdwörter. In alien drei Fallen werden interne Griinde anstelle von externen Momenten fiir den Sprachwan-del angenommen. Durch Nahrung und Kontrolle des Druckwesens ist es mög-lich gewesen, daß selbst kleine Sprachgemeinschaften in der Lage sind, Sprachgebrauch zu andern, und zwar mithilfe einer Elite, die die Initiative ergreift und Sprachwandel nicht einfach unbewußten und nichtge-planten Veränderungen iiberläßt.

Pre-Primary Education in Some European Lesser Used Languages Helen O'Murchu, Dublin: The European Bureau for Lesser Used Languages, 1987. Pp. 47, ISBN 1-870675-00-2. Price 5 ECU.The Education of Linguistic and Cultural Minorities in the OECD Countries Stacy Churchill, Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1986. ISBN 1-905028-34-1 (cloth): £34.00, ISBN 0-905028-33-3 (paper): £11.95.Bilingual Children: From Birth to Teens. George Saunders. Avon: Multilingual Matters Ltd. 1988. Pp. xiii + 274, ISBN 1-85359-009-6 (paper): £7.95. ISBN 1-85359-010-X (cloth): £23.00Minority Education: From Shame to Struggle Tove Skutnabb-Kangas and Jim Cummins (eds). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1988. Pp vii + 410. ISBN 1-85359-004-5 (cloth): £42.00. ISBN 0-85359-003-7 (paper): £14.95

La jida kaj vocdonaj rajtoj en Novjorko, 1915 kaj 1921 Same kiel hispanparolantoj en Usono hodiaü, parolantoj de la jida tuj antaü kaj post la Unua Mondmilito devis fronti diversajn reakciajn klopodojn limigi ilian potencon en la balotado. Amendo al la Konstitucio de la Stato Novjorko, pri alfabeteco en la angla por balotantoj, estis fine starigita en 1921, malgraü protestoj de certaj reprezentaj judoj kaj jidaj eldonajoj surbaze de kultura demokratio kaj proleta partopreno. Aliaj, tarnen, akceptis la bezonon uzi la anglan kaj ne interpretis la devigon pri anglalingva alfabeteco kiel konstitucian au kulturan demandon aparte gravan al usonaj judoj au al la estonteco de la jida lingvo en Ameriko. Minoritatoj generale kaj enmigraj minoritatoj aparte estas ofte tro nesekuraj por fronti la cefan fluon kaj strebi por la plena akceptigo de la propra kultura identeco au ec pluralisma kunidento. Tiu manko de unueco igas ilin des pli neefikaj en la penoj kontraüi klopodojn limigi etnolingvan demokration.

Trans-polita lingva homogeno/heterogeno kaj laûkapa malneta nacia produkto: Empiria esploroOni analizis pli ol 230 varieblojn, per akumula multobla regresa metodo, trans 130 politoj, por konstati u lingva homegeno/heterogeno trovias ene de la plej trafa sub-kategorio de antadiriloj por klarigi plej potence kaj pare trans-politan varion rilate lakapan malnetan nacian produkton. Kvankam montriis eble atingi tre altan multoblan R (.90), kiu klarigis pli ol 80 procentojn de tia trans-polita vario surbaze de nur dek antadiriloj, lingva homogeno/heterogeno ne estis inter tiu plej trafa subkategorio de antadiriloj. Vario de lakapa malneta nacia produkto estas rekta flankprodukto de vario en modernigo de tata administracio kaj industrio—variebloj, kiuj nur nedirekte kaj nesignife rilatas al lingva homogeno/heterogeno.

Neo-Marxist and post-structural critiques of classical language planning (lp) are examined for their relevance to lp on behalf of minority languages. The criticisms are: (1) lp is conducted by elites that are governed by their own self-interest; (2) lp reproduces rather than overcomes sociocultural and econotechnical inequalities; (3) lp planning inhibits or counteracts multiculturalism; (4) lp espouses worldwide Westernisation and modernisation leading to a new sociocultural, econotechnical and conceptual colonialism; (5) only ethnography can save lp research from fostering the above-mentioned evils.

Several societal and social biases have conspired to make the study of language maintenance and language shift more advanced than the study of reversing language shift (RLS). RLS efforts have been confused with messianic (i.e. irrational) and past-oriented (i.e. nativistic) movements, overlooking their rational, priority setting and modernising dirust. Even diose engaged in the study or practice of RLS, however, have tended to lack theoretical coherence and to be mesmerised by 'activism' rather than by the empirical relationship between any particular RLS efforts and die demonstrable intergenerational transmissibility of language-imbedded behaviours, attitudes and beliefs. Where bilingualism with diglossia is all that can be realistically attained, RLS emphases must concentrate on family-neighbourhood-community building boundary-setting efforts. Where largely monolingual cultural autonomy becomes realistically possible, more inter-group confrontation RLS efforts should be undertaken, but their link to intergenerational transmissibility still requires explicit attention. (Post-)modernisation poses serious new RLS problems for the family-neighbourhood-community, and the school as well, makingit imperative for RLS efforts to be incentive-related far above and beyond their initial language-in-society (Xmen-widi-Xish) ideals.

Analysis of the performance of the foreign-language press disclosed four patterns of response to the situation in which English-language papers were no longer available. In general, the more “adaptive” dailies were low in ideological partisanship, privately controlled, and directed to larger and younger minority groups.

An intensive language census in a bilingual Puerto Rican neighborhood in Jersey City was found to yield reliable data, particularly for items dealing with demographic variables and literacy questions. The language questions yielded R-factors which showed institutional separation (home, work, religion) as well as performance separation (sepeaking, reading-writing). Claiming patterns yielded Q-factors which differentiated between socially less and socially more mobile and accomplished adults, between outwardly and inwardly oriented youngsters, and between all the foregoing groups and housewives and thier minor children. Analyses of variance of factor scores pertaining to Spanish literacy, oral Spanish, and English (oral and literate) indicated that age, birthplace, generational range of household, and occupation of head of household tended to be significant main effects in each instance. However, their incremental and cumulative value, and also that of the interaction between age and generational range, varied greatly from one factor to the next.

Since intellective criteria are likely to remain dominant in the selective admission and guidance procedures of American colleges, it will become increasingly important to develop sound theoretical rationales if non-intellective predictors are to prove functionally valuable. A multivariate theoretical framework for non-intellective predictors is suggested, based on an analysis of how the applicant may change during the school-to-college years as well as of how the college as an institution may itself be different from the high school.

Without Abstract:

There are many incomparable assets which clearly lift this book head and shoulders above other brief discussions of bilingualism and bilingual education. Foremost among them is the fact that the work clearly acknowledges that there are many kinds of bilingual education, each of which implies a societal (as well as a personal) role for the languages that schools teach, and teach in. This is definitely true for TSK's extensive introductory and concluding comments, but it is also very true for the papers by specialists from four continents who have been assembled to comment on the manifestations of bilingualism and bilingual education in their own countries. This brings to the fore another major asset of this volume: Its sweep is broad enough to include not only the US, Western Europe, and Eastern Europe, but Australia and South Asia as well – thus providing ample comparative evidence for the worldwide ubiquity of bilingual education of some kind, as well as the diversity within this ubiquity. The only topic I found missing was “classical written/vernacular oral” diglossic within-group bilingual education, but the taxonomy presented does seem to include virtually everything else I have ever come across in the realm of intergroup multilingual/multicultural education.