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With the premise that physical education classes should promote physical activity by teaching and learning fundamental motor skills, this study aimed to evaluate the fundamental motor skill proficiency of primary school students and determine the level of achievement of established learning outcomes for fundamental motor skills, as specified in the Polish National Physical Education Curriculum. A cross-sectional design was used for this study. The sample consisted of 2605 children and adolescents enrolled in grades 1–3 (ages 7–9, n = 1165), 4–6 (ages 10–12, n = 837), and 7–8 (ages 13–14, n = 603), including 1353 boys and 1252 girls. The Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test, a qualitative and process-oriented assessment tool, was used to evaluate fundamental motor skills. The Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test evaluates the following movement skills: hurdles, jumping rope, forward roll, ball bouncing, ball throwing and catching, and kicking and stopping a ball. The desired level of overall fundamental motor skill proficiency was achieved by only 2 % of students. An elementary level of fundamental motor skill proficiency was demonstrated by an additional 3.5 % of students. Further, the results showed that only 10–30 % of students had achieved mastery or were close to achieving mastery in a given fundamental motor skill. The skill with the lowest level of proficiency was jumping rope, which only 11 % of students had mastered or were near to mastering. The present study of a large, nationally representative sample of primary school students in Poland indicates that the vast majority (approximately 94 %) of them demonstrated insufficient fundamental motor skill proficiency. This may greatly hinder effective, safe, and healthy participation in lifelong physical activity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to explore the effects of a coordination-based movement education program on the fundamental motor movement performance, fundamental movement skills, and attention skills in children aged 60-72 months. This research employed a randomized controlled trial, selecting participants through convenience sampling, encompassing a total of 60 preschool children. The participants were randomly assigned to either the experimental group (n = 30) or the control group (n = 30). Over a period of 12 weeks, the experimental group engaged in a structured coordination-based movement education program, while the control group continued with the Ministry of National Education's preschool education movement activities. To assess fundamental movement skill performance, the study employed 10 main tests, including squat jump, standing broad jump, countermovement jump, airtime, tennis ball throwing, sit-and-reach, 20 m linear sprint, flamingo balance (static), Y balance (dynamic), and an agility test. Additionally, attention skills were measured using the Frankfurter attention test (Frankfurter Tests für Fünfjährige-Konzentration: FTF-K). The results indicated that, compared to the control group, the experimental group exhibited significant improvements in countermovement jump, airtime, squat jump, standing broad jump, tennis ball throwing, sit-and-reach, 20 m linear sprint, agility, static and dynamic balance, and attention tests following the coordination-based movement education intervention. Intragroup comparisons within the control group did not reveal significant differences. Gender-specific analyses demonstrated no significant differences in pre-tests; however, post-intervention, boys showed significant improvements in standing long jump and tennis ball throwing, while girls demonstrated enhancements in sit-andreach and static and dynamic balance. This study highlights the positive impact of coordination-based movement education practices on the enhancement of fundamental motor movement performance, fundamental movement skills, and attention skills in children aged 60-72 months. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between BMI and FMS in preschoolers. Six hundred thirty-eight preschool children aged 3 to 6 years were included. BMI was calculated and expressed as kg/m2. FMS was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development: Third Edition (TGMD-3). The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to determine the correlation between FMS and BMI. Gener difference in FMS raw scores was detected using independent samples t-tests. Age differences in raw scores were established using a one-way ANOVA. In non-overweight participants, only locomotor total score was negatively related to BMI (p < 0.05). In overweight/obese participants, negative correlations between overall FMS score, locomotor subtest, ball skills subtest, and BMI were observed (p < 0.05). Weight status had a negative influence on the relationship between total FMS score, locomotor skills, ball skills, and BMI (p < 0.05). Girls were predominantly better at locomotor skills and boys scored higher at ball skills (p < 0.05). There were significant age differences in FMS, except for the gallop. The present study suggests that FMS should be included in the exercise programs for preschool children to establish an active physical lifestyle and prevent obesity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Problem statement: Two motor learning approaches are used, in various ways, in the field of physical activity and sports training both for the promotion of psychophysical health and for the improvement of sports performance: cognitive and ecological-dynamic. Coaches and teachers of physical and sports activities prefer to use orders and commands that have behaviorism and cognitive theory as their theoretical basis and, therefore, there is a wealth of evidence demonstrating the effectiveness of the dynamic ecological approach. The aim of the study was to demonstrate the differences in efficacy between the prescriptive method and the heuristic method in improving vertical jump with countermovement. Method: A sample of 50 subjects, recruited for territorial convenience in the municipality of Fisciano, was divided into 2 groups. The experimental group (HEUR; N=25) followed a training protocol based on the heuristic learning method. The control group (CON; N=25) followed a protocol characterized by the prescriptive teaching method. The duration of the protocols was 8 weeks with a frequency of 3 one-hour training sessions per week. CMJ jump height data were acquired with Optojump instrumentation. The test was applied 2 days before and 2 days after the end of the training period. Dependent sample t-tests and independent sample t-tests were used to analyze pre-post differences for individual groups and differences between groups, respectively. The alpha level was set at 0.05. Results: Statistically significant improvements in jump height were shown for both groups (p<0.05). The protocol applied to the HEUR group was more effective (p<0.05). These results would demonstrate that heuristic methods, which do not provide exercises prescribed in the form of a command, stimulate the student to solve the various problems that arise. Conclusion: The data from this study confirm the effectiveness of both approaches. Having demonstrated a greater effectiveness of the protocol based on the dynamic ecological approach provides new certainty and tools for wellness and training practitioners to use in their training programmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: The literature suggests that there is a relationship between motor function and cognitive development however, few studies have explored the specific role of Functional Movement Skills on cognitive function. This research aimed to determine if Functional Movement Skills predict cognitive function, when accounting for confounding factors, in a sample of primary school children in Ireland.Design: Cross-sectional.Methods: Sixty primary school children (51.7 % girls, age range 7-12 years, mean age 9.9 ± 1.28) were assessed in their Functional Movement Skill proficiency using the Test of Gross Motor Development-3rd Edition and a subtest of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 Short Form (to assess balance). Participants also completed a series of cognitive tests which formed part of the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery.Results: A series of hierarchical regression analyses were conducted whilst controlling for covariates (Age; Gender; Socio Economic Status). Attention Switching, Reaction Time, and Emotional Recognition were found to be associated with Overall Functional Movement Skills (Locomotor, Object Control, Stability). Overall Functional Movement Skills significantly accounted for 4.7 % of the variance in Simple Reaction Time (ΔR2 = 0.032; p = 0.13) whilst Stability significantly accounted for 5.5 % (ΔR2 = 0.055; p = 0.04) and 12.9 % (ΔR2 = 0.129; p = 0.00) of the variance in Simple Reaction Time and Emotional Recognition, respectively, after controlling for covariates.Conclusions: Overall Functional Movement Skills may be more related to reaction time than attention and spatial working memory, whilst stability may be more associated with emotional recognition. Further research is warranted. Greater comprehension of the impact of Functional Movement Skills on cognitive function in children can contribute to the development of more effective and efficient physical activity programmes, which can in turn contribute to and promote holistic child development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on the definition methods of "defined item = species difference + adjacent genus", this paper examines the concept of young children's physical education from the dual perspectives of sports science and preschool pedagogy. The study are drawn: (1) It is improper to apply the comprehensive education concept of preschool education to young children's physical education, and then deny the rationality of it, because young children's physical education is not the inferior concept of preschool education. From the perspective of national sports and lifelong sports, young children's physical education is indispensable and has become a idiom, so that a terminology is more appropriate. (2) From the perspective of broad sense, sports can be divided into infant's sports, young children's sports, youth's sports, and so on according to age, so young children's physical education is adjacent to the broad sense of sports, which includes kindergarten sports and outside kindergarten sports. (3) Compared with other age groups' sports, young children' physical education has some characteristics, including the following species difference "it is engaged by children aged 3-6 years", "it takes fundamental motor skills as the main content", "it takes games as the basic way", and "it aims to promote the harmonious development of the whole body and mind". [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A prevalent practice among primary school teachers in certain areas within Malaysia is the selection of young children for sporting pursuits based on preference and the demographical characteristics of a child. This is due to the common perception that rural and indigenous children are engaged in more robust lifestyles compared to their urban counterpart and, hence, potentially possess better sports skills. To address the practicality of such practice, this study examined differences in fundamental motor skills between indigenous, rural and urban early school children in a selected district within peninsular Malaysia. A total of 180 early school children were randomly selected to represent the three demographic groups that participated in this study. Participants' fundamental movement skills were assessed using Ulrich Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2), which included measurements of locomotor and object manipulation skills. Based on both raw and standard TGMD-2 scores, the data revealed no significant differences among the three groups for locomotor skills development in both male and female participants. However, significant differences were observed for both males and females in terms of object manipulation skills development. Overall findings indicated that the urban groups recorded the lowest mean for both locomotor and object manipulation skills scores, accompanied by motor developmental delays of up to 12 months with respect to the mean chronological age. Regardless, comparison of overall gross motor development among the three groups did not achieve statistical significance. In sum, findings of the current study were consistent with the motor development literature of early school children where fundamental motor skills are reliable indicators for healthy lifestyles. However, it did not lend support to the practice of demographic-based selection for specific sporting pursuits among children of this age group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The optimal achievement that a team or athlete can achieve at a particular time in sports is influenced by many factors, including the technical, physical, tactical, and mental skills of the players. In addition, psychosocial skills are an important factor in supporting the success of a team or athlete. This study was based on experimental research to determine: 1) the difference in the effects between GEL training model and technical training model on improving psychosocial skills, 2) the difference in the effects between youth soccer players with high and low fundamental movement skills on psychosocial skills, and 3) the effect of interactions between the GEL and technical training models and the high and low fundamental movement skills on the psychosocial skills of youth soccer player (N=48, age 9-10 years). The instruments used for this study were: 1) The Test of Gross Motor Skills (TGMD-2), and 2) The Psychosocial Skills Scale (PSS) developed by Soni Nopembri. Analysis of the data used the analysis technique of variance (ANOVA) design and further testing using the Tukey test. The results show that there is a significant difference in the effects between the GEL training model and the technical training model on psychosocial skills. The GEL training model is better to improve psychosocial skills than the technical training model. Moreover, there is a significant difference in the effects between youth soccer players with high and low FMS on psychosocial skills. Youth soccer players with high FMS are better than youth soccer player with low FMS in improving their psychosocial skills. Lastly, the study finds that there is a significant effect on psychosocial skills as a result of the interactions between the GEL and technical training models and the high and low FMS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction. Physical fitness is the capacity to perform different activities involved in everyday life. Aim of Study. The main goal of this study was to investigate gender differences among second graders in the physical activity level, physical fitness and fundamental movement skills. Material and Methods. In doing so, a sample of 78 children (35 girls, 43 boys, overall mean 7.34 ± ± 0.53 years) was measured using NPAQ (Netherland Physical Activity Questionnaire), FMS-Polygon, BOT-2 (Bruininks– Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency), F3 test and BMI. Results. The between-subject t-test was applied to determine whether a significant difference exists between the genders. Differences were found between boys and girls in applied physical fitness tests in two tests: F3 (t = 3.05; p = 0.003) and FMS-Polygon (t = –2.7; p = 0.007), while no significant differences were observed for BOT-2, physical activity (KA), sedentary activity (SA) and BMI. Conclusions. The applied between-subject t-test showed significant differences between the genders. Such differences were found between boys and girls in applied physical fitness tests in two tests F3 (t = 3.05; p = 0.003) and FMS-Polygon (t = –2.7; p = 0.007), while no significant differences were observed for BOT-2, physical activity (KA), sedentary activity (SA) and BMI. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Capital Institute of Physical Education is the property of Shoudu Tiyu Xueyuan and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Objectives: This study investigated the structure of the Test of Gross Motor Development - 3rd edition (TGMD-3). Specifically, we examine bifactor structure, which simultaneously models a fundamental motor skills (FMS) general factor and specific factors for locomotor skills and ball skills, compared to other models.Design: Cross-sectional design using the TGMD-3 normative sample.Methods: The sample (N = 862) of children (Mage = 6.51, SD = 2.23) was matched based on United States census data, ensuring appropriate percentages of demographic representation and disability status. Confirmatory factor analyses, exploratory structural equation modeling, model-based reliability estimates including coefficient omega hierarchical, and coefficient omega hierarchical subscale, explained common variance estimates, and relative parameter bias were examined.Results: Findings revealed bifactor structure produced a better model fit compared to both one-factor and two-factor models. Furthermore, model reliability estimates that parceled true score variance for the general FMS factor, locomotor skills factor, and ball skills factor yielded high internal consistency for FMS (.797) but not locomotor skills (.168) and ball skills (.216). Finally, explained common variance (.852-.879) and relative parameter bias (.018-.072) estimates identified the strength of the run, skip, slide, and dribble skills tests to represent the FMS general factor.Conclusions: Our findings demonstrate the advantages of using bifactor structure to examine the TGMD-3 compared to one-factor and two-factor models. Additionally, these results provide further evidence that using the TGMD-3 to examine an overall FMS general factor may explain more variance in performance and provide a better picture for evaluating children's current FMS levels compared to subscales independently. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Canadian Journal of Environmental Education is the property of Canadian Journal of Environmental Education and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The term 'physical literacy' (PL) is widely used in both policy and practice discourses, especially among sport, physical activity, and physical education communities. Yet, despite its popularity, interesting questions remain to be answered. For example, is PL a coherent concept, or an umbrella term for a looser collection of ideas and practices? Related this question is another, namely which competences are most commonly associated with PL? Finally, from where did the label PL originate? This short article reports on some early findings from a wide-ranging review of this intriguing field. It does so with the hope of provoking further critical discussion and, perhaps, stimulating new thinking about PL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is widely accepted that children in Scotland, as in other high-income countries, are not engaging in sufficient moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA), the consequences of which can be adverse for health and wellbeing. In this paper, it is contended that active play (a form of gross motor or total body movement in which children exert energy in a freely chosen, fun, and unstructured manner) has potential to redress this deficit in MVPA. This paper reflects on lessons learned from active play interventions in Scottish schools, providing recommendations for schools on how to encourage more active play. It is argued that promoting active play during school break times and in the after-school period, and participating in active play interventions are promising ways of increasing children's MVPA and improving their fundamental movement skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The term 'physical literacy' (PL) is widely used in both policy and practice discourses, especially among sport, physical activity, and physical education communities. Yet, despite its popularity, interesting questions remain to be answered. For example, is PL a coherent concept, or an umbrella term for a looser collection of ideas and practices? Related this question is another, namely which competences are most commonly associated with PL? Finally, from where did the label PL originate? This short article reports on some early findings from a wide-ranging review of this intriguing field. It does so with the hope of provoking further critical discussion and, perhaps, stimulating new thinking about PL. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: No studies have investigated gross motor skill (GMS) proficiency of preschool-aged children across different income settings in South Africa. Research from high-income countries suggests that children from low-income settings display poorer GMS proficiency compared to higher-income peers. This study aimed to (1) describe GMS proficiency of preschool-aged children in urban high-income (UH), urban low-income (UL) and rural low-income (RL) settings; and (2) explore differences in proficiency between income settings and sex.Design: Descriptive cross-sectional study.Methods: The Test of Gross Motor Development-Edition 2 (TGMD-2) was used to assess GMS. The TGMD-2 gross motor quotient, standardised scores and raw scores were used to describe proficiency.Results: GMS proficiency was assessed in n=259 3-6-year-old children (n=46 UH, n=91 UL, n=122 RL). Overall, 93% of the children were classified as having 'average' or better GMS. According to TGMD-2 standardised scores, the RL children performed significantly better than UH and UL children (p=0.028 and p=0.009, respectively). RL children were significantly more proficient than UH and UL children in the strike and horizontal jump when comparing raw scores. Overall, boys performed significantly better than girls in the strike, stationary dribble, kick and leap when comparing raw scores (all p<0.001).Conclusions: This study reports high GMS proficiency in preschool-aged children across income settings in South Africa. The factors associated with higher GMS in low-income settings are not immediately obvious. Thus, future research should explore potential factors and identify opportunities to ensure that GMS proficiency is capitalised on as preschool-aged children enter formal schooling. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights • Children's perceived cognitive competence was associated with their locomotor and object control skills. • Parent education was associated with the child's locomotor skills. • Home physical environment was associated with the child's locomotor skills. • Correlates of fundamental movement skills are multidimensional and differ by motor skill type in preschool children. Abstract Purpose To identify the social-ecological correlates associated with fundamental movement skills at the child, family, and environment levels in young children. Methods Preschool children from 4 Colorado Head Start/preschool centers were recruited from 2010 to 2012. Two hundred twenty-eight children (128 girls; age = 56.08 ± 4.09 months; body mass index (BMI) z-score = 0.53 ± 1.12 (mean ± SD); 42.1% Hispanic/Latino) and 159 families were included in the final analysis. Children's perceived competence and fundamental movement skills were assessed via the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance and the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, 2nd edition. Data on the number of children in the family, parent age, BMI, education, employment status, family income, perception of child coordination, and home physical activity environment were collected via a questionnaire. Linear regressions adjusted for child BMI, age, sex, and school site were performed at each level. Results Child perceived cognitive competence was positively associated with locomotor skills (p = 0.04; adjusted R 2 = 0.035) and object-control skills (p = 0.003; adjusted R 2 = 0.083) at the child level. Parent education, BMI, and perception of child coordination were positively associated with locomotor skills and explained 8.8% of variance, but only parent education was significant (p = 0.04) at the family level. In addition, physical environment was positively associated with locomotor skills (p = 0.02) and explained 5.5% of variance at the environment level. Conclusion Social-ecological correlates associated with young children's fundamental movement skills are multidimensional and differ according to skill category at the child, family, and environment levels. Graphical abstract Image, graphical abstract [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study aimed to investigate cross-lagged associations of leaping skill and throwing-catching skills with objectively measured moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and sedentary time (ST) during school transition from upper primary (Grade 6) to lower secondary school (Grade 7).Design: This study is a one-year prospective follow-up study within Finnish school settings. Students' MVPA, ST, leaping skill and throwing-catching skills were measured at Grade 6 and subsequently at Grade 7.Methods: A sample of 336 students (163 girls, 173 boys; M age=12.0 years, SD=0.4 at Grade 6 participated in the study. Students' MVPA and ST were measured objectively by hip-worn accelerometers. Leaping skill was measured by 5-leaps test. Throwing and catching skills were measured by throwing-catching combination test. Cross-lagged structural equation modeling was conducted to evaluate the associations between MVPA, ST, leaping skill, and throwing-catching skills at Grade 6 and Grade 7.Results: Results demonstrated three significant cross-lagged associations among girls: (1) leaping skill measured at Grade 6 was negatively associated with ST at Grade 7; (2) objectively measured MVPA at Grade 6 associated positively with leaping skill at Grade 7; and (3) throwing-catching skills measured at Grade 6 associated positively with leaping skill measured at Grade 7. There were no statistically significant cross-lagged associations between the study variables for the sample of boys.Conclusions: The results of this study indicated that supporting opportunities for girls' engagement in both MVPA and leaping skill development activities during their primary school education is strongly recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study reports the long-term effects of a professional learning program for classroom teachers on fundamental motor skill (FMS) proficiency of primary school students from ethnically diverse backgrounds.Design: A cluster non-randomized trial using a nested cross-sectional design.Methods: The study was conducted in 8 primary schools located in disadvantaged and culturally diverse areas in Sydney, Australia. The intervention used an action learning framework, with each school developing and implementing an action plan for enhancing the teaching of FMS in their school. School teams comprised 4-5 teachers and were supported by a member of the research team. The primary outcome was total proficiency score for 7 FMS (run, jump, catch, throw, kick, leap, side gallop). Outcome data were analyzed using mixed effects models.Results: Eight-hundred and sixty-two students (82% response rate) were assessed at baseline in 2006 and 830 (82%) at follow-up in 2010. Compared with students in the control schools, there was a significantly greater increase in total motor skill proficiency among children in the intervention schools at follow-up (adjusted difference=5.2 components, 95%CI [1.65, 8.75]; p=0.01) and in four of the seven motor skills.Conclusions: Training classroom teachers to develop and implement units of work based around individual FMS is a promising strategy for increasing FMS among ethnically diverse children over an extended period of time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poor fundamental movement skills (FMS) proficiency can contribute to a decrease in participation in energy-expending recreational and sporting endeavours. Against the backdrop of the increasing obesity epidemic, ensuring that these foundational motor skills are established in childhood is justified. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the status of FMS proficiency of 191 girls aged nine- to 12-years-old from a lower socio-economic community within Port Elizabeth, South Africa. A descriptive study design employing convenience sampling and quantitative assessment techniques was utilised. The FMS assessed were running for speed, standing long jump, throwing and catching. The Component Approach (CA) and Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2) qualitative motion analysis tools were used. The CA findings revealed that only the catch was performed proficiently whereas the TGMD-2 indicated that the catch and run for speed were performed proficiently when comparing age groups. Only catch had a small statistical and practical significant difference in FMS scores between nine- and ten-year-olds. These findings highlight the need for FMS interventions at an early age in girls from lower socio-economic status communities. The different results observed for the CA and TGMD-2 as implemented in this study highlight possible limitations in FMS qualitative motion analysis tools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Environmental characteristics within preschools that influence children's motor competence are largely unknown. The purpose of the present study was to examine the contribution of various preschool environmental characteristics to children's locomotor, object control, and total gross motor scores.Design: Cross-sectional, observational study of 3-5 year-old children (n=229) from 22 preschools in South Carolina.Methods: The Children's Activity and Movement in Preschool Study (CHAMPS) Motor Skills Protocol assessed MC. Preschool directors provided information regarding policies and practices. The research team measured playgrounds and classrooms, and the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised assessed preschool quality. Time spent in open space and electronic media use were also assessed using direct observation. The aforementioned variables predicted children's object control, locomotor, and total gross motor scores.Results: Classroom size/child ratio, teacher education, playground size, electronic media use, and trips to outside organizations emerged as significant predictors of locomotor score and total motor score. The object control model was non-significant.Conclusions: Preschools may be able to promote motor competence by allowing children more time in open spaces, structured activity experiences, and by expanding existing outdoor playground space whenever possible. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to investigate validity and reliability evidence of Smart Start in male (n =35) and female (n = 25) children with/without a disability. Fundamental movement skills (FMS) of preschoolers (with a disability, n = 32; and without a disability, n = 28) aged between 37 to 64 months were examined using Smart Start and the Test of Gross Motor Development-Second Edition. The correlation between total scores of the two instruments was r = .89, p < .01. Across three raters, the average percentages of agreement, modified kappa coefficients, and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for intra-rater reliability using Smart Start on all participants were .92, .83, and .96, respectively. For inter-rater reliability, the average percentages of agreement, modified kappa coefficients, and ICCs based on all participants were .86, .71, and .93, respectively. The major findings provide preliminary evidence to support concurrent validity and intra- and inter-rater reliability of the Smart Start for assessing FMS of preschoolers with/without a disability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: This study proposes an extension of a widely used test evaluating fundamental movement skills proficiency to an adolescent population, with a specific emphasis on validity and reliability for this older age group.Design: Cross-sectional observational study.Methods: A total of 844 participants (n=456 male, 12.03±0.49) participated in this study. The 12 fundamental movement skills of the TGMD-2 were assessed. Inter-rater reliability was examined to ensure a minimum of 95% consistency between coders. Confirmatory factor analysis was undertaken with a one-factor model (all 12 skills) and two-factor model (6 locomotor skills and 6 object-control skills) as proposed by Ulrich et al. (2000). The model fit was examined using χ2, TLI, CFI and RMSEA. Test-retest reliability was carried out with a subsample of 35 participants.Results: The test-retest reliability reached Intraclass Correlation Coefficient of 0.78 (locomotor), 0.76 (object related) and 0.91 (gross motor skill proficiency). The confirmatory factor analysis did not display a good fit for either the one-factor or two-factor model due to a really low contribution of several skills. A reduction in the number of skills to just seven (run, gallop, hop, horizontal jump, bounce, kick and roll) revealed an overall good fit by TLI, CFI and RMSEA measures.Conclusions: The proposed new model offers the possibility of longitudinal studies to track the maturation of fundamental movement skills across the child and adolescent spectrum, while also giving researchers a valid assessment to tool to evaluate adolescent fundamental movement skills proficiency level. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background Active video games (AVGs) encourage whole body movements to interact or control the gaming system, allowing the opportunity for skill development. Children with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) show decreased fundamental movement skills in comparison with their typically developing (TD) peers and might benefit from this approach. This pilot study investigates whether playing sports AVGs can increase the actual and perceived object control (OC) skills of 11 children with ASD aged 6–10 years in comparison to 19 TD children of a similar age. Feasibility was a secondary aim. Methods Actual (Test of Gross Motor Development) and perceived OC skills (Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence for Young Children) were assessed before and after the intervention (6 × 45 min). Results Actual skill scores were not improved in either group. The ASD group improved in perceived skill. All children completed the required dose and parents reported the intervention was feasible. Conclusion The use of AVGs as a play-based intervention may not provide enough opportunity for children to perform the correct movement patterns to influence skill. However, play of such games may influence perceptions of skill ability in children with ASD, which could improve motivation to participate in physical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Internationally, children's movement competence levels are low. This study's aim was to evaluate the effectiveness of a 16 week gymnastics curriculum on stability, locomotive and object control skills and general body coordination. It was hypothesised that the gymnastics intervention group would demonstrate significant improvements beyond a PE comparison group.Design: This study used a non-randomised control design. The intervention and comparison groups were drawn from three primary schools. The study followed the transparent reporting of evaluations with nonrandomized designs (TREND) statement for reporting.Methods: A total of 333 children (51% girls, 41% intervention) with a mean age of 8.1 years (SD=1.1) participated. Intervention children (16 weeks×2h of gymnastics) were compared to children who received (16×2h) standard PE curriculum. Children's movement competence was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2, Stability Skills Assessment and the Körper-Koordinationstest für Kinder. Multilevel linear mixed models, accounting for variation at the class level and adjusted for age and sex, were used to assess intervention relative to comparison differences in all aspects of movement competence.Results: Stability and object control skills showed a significant (p<0.05) intervention×time interaction effect. No difference was found in locomotor skills or general coordination.Conclusions: Gymnastics is effective at developing stability skills and object control skills without hindering the development of locomotor skills or general coordination. Accelerated learning of stability skills may support the development of more complex movement skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to explore fundamental motor skills and physical fitness outcomes in the group of children with visual, physical and intellectual disabilities. Alongside the average data outcomes, possible gender differences in all measures were also explored. In addition, the association between the level of movement performance and physical fitness variables was investigated. Participants were 82 elementary school age children with mild to moderate disabilities (mean age 9.6 years). To assess fundamental movement skills (FMS), children completed the Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD)-2. Physical fitness was measured by the four tasks including 30 m run, sit-ups, functional reach test, sit and reach test and handgrip strength. The average TGMD-2 score for the study group in locomotor skills corresponded to 6.3 years of age (39.3 points), while in object control skills it was at 6.6-7.6 years of age (30.9-36.3 points). The average scores in the fitness tests were 30.1 cm in the functional reach test, 17.1 kg in Handgrip test, 14.0 rep in Sit up test and 6.78 sec in 30 m run. There were no significant differences in physical fitness tests results between boys and girls. The linear regression results presented that TGMD-2 skills significantly predicted 30 m run test [F(2; 161)=8.965, p=.000]. Data analyses according to the level of movement performance and physical fitness showed significant associations between FMS outcomes and 30 m run test (p <.05). The present study extended the small body of research on the fundamental motor skills of children with different functional limitations while having potential to participate in daily physical activities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Children are often missing fundamental movement skills and elementary ball skills when they get into the game of tennis. They have not learned to play yet but they are often specifically trained (with technique) from the very beginning. Learning is mostly done by practicing with instructions and corrections. The Mini-Ballschool for children aged 3 to 6 focuses on playing as the elementary form of learning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to compare the level of accuracy of two different approaches, product- and process-oriented, for assessing the proficiency level of vertical jump skill in pre-adolescents. Ninety-one children were sampled from four schools and were invited to perform three countermovement vertical jumps. The jumps were initially assessed by two assessors with an observation criteria-based approach for ranking the children in three developmental levels. The performances were also acquired by means of the sensor Microsoft Kinect and its signals were used for estimating a set of temporal and kinematic parameters. The height of jump was used as proxy of the product-oriented assessment approach, while the other parameters were used for the processoriented ones. Discriminant analyses were carried out separately for the two aforementioned approaches by using the developmental levels as dependent variables. The process-oriented approach resulted in a higher level of accuracy than the product-oriented approach and the temporal parameters were the best predictors for ranking the children in their developmental levels. These findings seem to be useful for overcoming several limitations related to the assessment of fundamental movement skills and for providing new perspectives for physical education teachers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objectives: Actual and perceived object control (commonly ball) skill proficiency is associated with higher physical activity in children and adolescents. Active video games (AVGs) encourage whole body movement to control/play the electronic gaming system and therefore provide an opportunity for screen time to become more active. The purpose of this study was to determine whether playing sports AVGs has a positive influence on young children's actual and perceived object control skills.Design: Two group pre/post experimental design study.Methods: Thirty-six children aged 6-10 years old from one school were randomly allocated to a control or intervention condition. The Test of Gross Motor Development-3 assessed object control skill. The Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence for Young Children assessed perceived object control skill. The intervention consisted of 6×50min lunchtime AVG sessions on the Xbox Kinect. Two to three sport games were chosen for participants to play each session. General linear models with either perceived object control or actual object control skill as the outcome variables were conducted. Each base model adjusted for intervention status and pre-score of the respective outcome variable. Additional models adjusted for potential confounding variables (sex of child and game at home).Results: No significant differences between the control and intervention groups were observed for both outcomes.Conclusions: This study found that playing the Xbox Kinect does not significantly influence children's perceived or actual object control skills, suggesting that the utility of the Xbox Kinect for developing perceived and actual object control skill competence is questionable. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: One of the risks associated with low physical activity levels is the insufficient development of motor proficiency, which in turn has an impact on participation in physical activity and sport during adolescence. Objectives: To determine the relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity levels in adolescent Senior Phase learners in Potchefstroom, South Africa. No literature exists on the relationship between motor proficiency and physical activity levels among South African adolescents. Method: A total of 239 13- to 14-year-old learners were assessed using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 (BOT-2) for motor proficiency, and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) for physical activity levels. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, Spearman correlation coefficients and effect sizes. Results: Statistically and practically significant correlations were found between the total BOT-2 score and the physical activity levels of the total group, as well as the boys and the girls respectively. Fine motor coordination correlated with physical activity levels in the girls, while manipulation coordination correlated with the physical activity levels of the total group and the boys. The body coordination skill of jumping in place and the strength test items showed strong correlations with physical activity in all the groups. Conclusion: The motor skills of Senior Phase learners, especially coordination and strength skills, should be developed and maintained in the Physical Education curriculum to enhance physical activity levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The main aim of the study was to design an appropriate motor skills development programme that could be implemented in any primary school to improve the fundamental motor skills (FMS) of children between the ages of 9 and 12 years old. One previously disadvantaged (Quintile 2) school in the Stellenbosch region was selected to participate in the study. The children (N=67) were conveniently selected to participate in the study and were divided into an experimental (n=35) and a control group (n=32). Only the experimental group participated in the motor skill development programme for 12 weeks. No significant differences were found for the mean balance score within the experimental and the control group or between the pre- and post-test. However, there were significant differences found for the mean bilateral coordination scores between the pre- and post-test of the experimental group but not with the control group. This could be attributed to the 12-week intervention programme presented to the experimental group. It is suggested that this programme may be beneficial to all primary school children, not only those from previously disadvantaged schools. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background A positive association between fundamental movement skills (FMS) and physical activity (PA) has been shown in previous research of children with and without disability. This pilot study explored a causal mechanism for such relationship, and hypothesized that when FMS proficiency is improved, enhanced PA uptake will be found in children with and without disability. It was further hypothesized that improving FMS proficiency will have a greater impact on children with disability than those without disability. Methods Participants include typically developing (TD) children without disability and children with cerebral palsy (CP), who were allocated to FMS training groups (CP-FMS n = 12, TD-FMS n = 13) and control groups (CP-C n = 12, TD-C n = 13). Training groups practiced five FMS (run, jump, kick, throw, catch) in weekly 45-min sessions for 4 weeks. Control groups had their regular physiotherapy (CP) or physical education (TD) sessions. FMS were evaluated using process- and product-oriented measures, and PA was measured using accelerometers, before and after training. Results It was verified that training groups gained improvements in FMS while control groups did not. No significant changes in weekday PA were found. Increased weekend moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was found in the CP-FMS group, while decreased weekend sedentary time was found in the CP-FMS and TD-FMS groups. The percentages of participants who exceeded the minimum detectable change (MDC 90 ) in MVPA and sedentary time were larger in children with CP than in children without disability. Conclusion The findings suggest that improved FMS proficiency could potentially contribute to heightened PA and decreased sedentary time during weekends for children. Such effect of improved FMS proficiency on PA appears to be greater in those with physical disability than in those without disability. It is recommended that the findings of this pilot study should be further examined in future research. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study was to determine the quantitative and qualitative level of Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) of Senior Phase learners in Potchefstroom, South Africa. A total of 239, 13 to 14 year old learners were randomly selected from eight schools. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 (BOT-2), was used to assess six fundamental movement skills quantitatively, and the Fundamental Movement Pattern Assessment Instrument (FMPAI), was applied to analyse the same skills qualitatively. The results of the quantitative assessment showed that the total group of learners, including the boys and girls separately, performed below the norm for their age. The qualitative analysis showed that balancing on one leg on the balance beam was the skill in which the participants performed poorest. The quantitative and qualitative assessment results showed no statistically significant correlations in the tests of bouncing and catching a ball in the total group, nor in the boys' and girls' groups, and ball dribbling in the boys' group. Based on the results of the study, it is recommended that the mastering of FMS should be included in the Senior Phase Physical Education curriculum, and that both quantitative and qualitative assessment should be used when assessing these skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Balance is an essential component of movement and is critical in the ability to participate in physical activity. Developing an exergaming curriculum for schools has the potential to improve balance or postural stability in children. In this study, a purposely-built exergaming center in an elementary school was used to test fourth grade students with a specially designed exergaming curriculum oriented toward improving postural stability. The program was implemented over a 6-week period, 34 min per day, 4–5 days per week. Two control groups were used: (1) a physical education (PE) class geared toward agility, balance, and coordination (ABC) improvement, and (2) a typical PE curriculum class. Exergaming students improved their postural stability significantly over a 6-week period compared to those in the typical PE class. Improvements in postural stability were also evident in the ABC class. Postural stability in the girls was better than the boys in all pre- and post-intervention tests. This study demonstrates that exergaming is a practical resource in the PE class to improve postural stability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

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This study investigated the impact of Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS) on children's Indigenous Games (IGs). Two hundred and three (203) children (Age: Mean=9.2; SD=1.322) from Camp and Tsiamo Primary Schools volunteered for the study. Following a pilot study, participants were assessed in koi, diphiri and dibeke indigenous games popular among Batswana children. Physical neuromotor tests measuring power, strength, speed, coordination and agility were also administered. Current findings were similar to previous studies done elsewhere. There was a weak relationship between fundamental motor skills in children's indigenous games and the neuromotor fitness items. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Child overweight and obesity continues to be a global public health concern. The aim of this study was to investigate whether children''s actual and perceived physical competence and parental perception''s of their child''s competence differ by weight status. Understanding these differences is important because physical activity levels are significantly lower among overweight children than their lean counterparts and children''s motivation to participate in physical activity is influenced by their perceived and actual competence and their parents perceptions of their competence. Cross-sectional data were collected from 1414 9- and 11-year-old children and their parents from 20 primary schools in New South Wales, Australia. Outcomes measured included child and parental perceptions of physical competence and children''s actual physical competence. Parents of overweight boys perceived them to be significantly less competent than parents of non-overweight boys. For 11-year-old girls, parent''s perception of their daughter''s ability to run (mean diff=1.06 [95% CI 0.73, 1.40]), jump (mean diff=0.54 [95% CI 0.15, 0.93]) and leap (mean diff=0.78 [95% CI 0.41, 1.17]) was lower among parents of overweight children. Overweight children also reported lower perceived physical competence than non-overweight children. 9- and 11-year-old overweight boys had lower actual physical competence than non-overweight boys (mean diff=1.32 [95% CI 0.29, 2.35]; mean diff=1.26 [95% CI 0.37, 2.15], respectively). Overweight 11-year-old girls had lower actual competence than non-overweight 11-year-old girls (mean diff=1.14 [95% CI 0.70, 2.12]). This study highlighted several differences between overweight and non-overweight children. Better understanding these differences at different stages of development may lead to identifying more specific and appropriate intervention points to promote physical activity in overweight children. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of self-education of physical educators as concerns the provision of feedback to primary school students. Twenty educators with teaching experience of more than three years were randomly selected to participate in the study. Ten of them formed the control group, whereas the rest of them formed the experimental group. Four lessons of each educator were videotaped: two before the intervention and two after its completion. After the first two lessons, each educator in the experimental group received an information leaflet on effective feedback, along with the audio visual tape of his first lessons, in order to understand the feedback aspects that could be possibly improved. Feedback provision was assessed with a tool which combined a) the Feedback Observation Instrument (FOI) of Silverman, Tyson, and Krampitz (1992), and b) the Augmented Feedback Observation System (AFOS; Tan, 1996). One-way ANOVA indicated no significant differences between the two groups in the initial measurement. Then, multivariate analysis of variance with repeated measures was applied. Results showed significant differences between the two groups in the content, the purpose, the kind, the focus, and the quality of the feedback, in favor of the experimental group. However, as far as the type, time, direction, and congruence of feedback are concerned, no significant differences were observed between the two groups. It can be concluded that self education even of short duration helped physical educators improve the way they provide feedback to elementary schoolchildren. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Delays in fundamental motor skills (FMS) are prevalent in children with ASD. • This review described fundamental motor skill interventions in children with ASD. • Included studies were experimental (3), quasi-experimental (8), pre-experimental (5), single-subject (3), and case study design (3). • Large variation exists among the samples, interventions, and research designs. • Issues relate to FMS measurement and a reliance on pre- and quasi-experimental designs. The presence of FMS delays in children with ASD is well established. To inform the development of evidence-based FMS interventions and provide directions for future research, this systematic review described the characteristics and evaluated the methodological quality of peer-reviewed FMS intervention studies involving children with ASD (aged 0-21 years). Following the PRISMA guidelines, a systematic search of peer-reviewed literature was conducted across seven databases. From an initial screening of 852 records, 22 studies were included for full-text review. Data were extracted from each study relating to study characteristics, intervention characteristics, and sample characteristics. Methodological quality was evaluated by two independent reviewers using quality indicators relevant to the type of study design. Twenty-two articles were included. The reviewed studies used experimental, quasi-experimental, pre-experimental, single-subject, and case study designs. Of the 22 studies, 19 reported significant intervention effects for at least one FMS. The large variation among the samples, FMS interventions, and research designs limited conclusions about the causal processes for achieving FMS improvements in children with ASD from the reviewed literature. Other limiting factors were related to the measurement of FMS (e.g. a lack of descriptions of testing protocols), a lack of validation of the participant ASD diagnosis, a reliance on pre- and quasi-experimental research designs, and a lack of theoretical underpinning of the FMS interventions. Moreover, when instructional strategies were specified, the fidelity of implementation was rarely evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There is a renewed interest in identifying motor markers of ASD for early diagnosis and interventions. • The performance of children on FMS is suboptimal as measured by both product- and process-oriented assessment batteries. • FMS have the potential to be a core diagnostic feature of ASD. • A routine investigation with ASD children must include systematic assessment of movement skills Fundamental movement skills (FMS) are basic movement skills (i.e. balance, object control, and locomotor skills) that form the foundation for more advanced movement patterns. These skills are a crucial but often an overlooked part of the development process, especially in populations with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). In view of this, the present review was undertaken with the purpose of determining the extent of FMS impairments in children with ASD compared to typically developing children and those with other developmental disorders. A total of 24 studies that measured FMS in children with ASD using product- and process-oriented standardized movement assessment batteries were included in the review. The results showed that impairments in FMS are highly prevalent across the ASD spectrum and that children with ASD exhibited greater impairments in FMS competencies especially object control and locomotor skills compared to typically developing children and those with other developmental disorders. Moreover, these impairments in FMS appear to emerge early in life and persist throughout late childhood years in the majority of children with ASD. These findings provide preliminary evidence suggesting that FMS has the potential to be an early motor marker in children with ASD, and that practitioners should therefore be encouraged to consider movement skill evaluations as a routine investigation for children with ASD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A scientific epistemology, using a systems thinking qualitative methodology for translating practice into theory, integrates mathematical and dynamical systems concepts with belief systems that are presented in this original research of unique prerequisites for fundamental movement skills (FMS) in physical education as illustrated with running. FMS prerequisites demonstrate that FMS are neither fundamental nor reliable screentests conducted on individuals by physical education teachers, coaches, and healthcare practitioners for performance readiness evaluations or injury risk assessments. FMS prerequisites identify and assess eliminating the hypothetical set of worst first moves, assess the integrity of their respective coordinative structures, and assess performers' beliefs (i.e. preferred behaviors) with the objective to provide a new direction for researching injury risk and performance readiness. The researchers illustrate this new method with participants for FMS prerequisites in running and squatting to provide insight for the observer-performer interaction. A new observer-performer classification and non-epistemic modeling show what is known with self-discovery strategies that detect hidden skills at the observable level using four independent tasks. There were 297 participants in kindergarten through high school (213 females and 84 males; mean 14.5 years; range 5 to 17 years) and 21 participants from the community at large (15 females and 6 males; mean 31.4 years, range 12 to 94 years). A variety of running strategies of different degrees of configured complexity from which to run were self-selected and observed as preferred with and without practice or intervention. An idealized 2-joint planar multi-joint mechanism (MJM) was used to assess individual skill with respect to adding and removing constraints. Findings are presented for strategies, trends, and transitions of preferred behavior including observables that reveal hidden skills including a visual search of a hidden skill with world record Olympian sprint performances. FMS prerequisites are theorized for future study with an inverted U-model and a leading MJM hypothesis; and they provide the rudiments for injury risk assessments and performance readiness evaluations approaching optimal health biomechanically in the very early detection of flawed gross motor skill development before manifesting into the signs and symptoms of injury or poor performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background and Aim: Fundamental movement skills (FMS) proficiency is important in children because it is associated with greater physical activity engagement. We previously showed that children with Down Syndrome (DS) have delayed FMS development, potentially as a consequence of balance deficits. This study, therefore, examined the relationship of FMS proficiency with balance ability. We also examined the relationship of FMS proficiency with working memory to support evidence-based intervention programming. Methods: Participants included children with DS (n=21), and age-matched typically developing (TD) children (n=20). FMS subskills (locomotor, object control) were measured using the Test of Gross Motor Development-2. Balance ability (centre of pressure [COP] parameters) was measured using a force measurement plate. Short-term memory was measured using the forward digit recall test (verbal), and the forward Corsi block tapping test (visuospatial). Results: COP parameters were associated with both locomotor and object control scores. Stepwise linear regression revealed that specific COP parameters explained the variance of object control to a greater extent than locomotor scores; more so amongst children with DS than TD children. Locomotor and object control scores were significantly associated with verbal and visuospatial short-term memory in children with DS; but only with visuospatial short-term memory in TD children. Discussion: Children who displayed greater stance stability also had better FMS proficiency. Such an association was stronger in children with DS than in TD children. As FMS proficiency of children with DS appears to be related to balance ability, it is suggested that physical training of children with DS should consider incorporating balance components. Both verbal and visuospatial short-term memory influence FMS proficiency, implying that training programmes should be tailored to accommodate cognitive deficits. Further research is recommended to explore the findings in a training context. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Principles that underpin effective real-life motor skill interventions are identified. • These principles are analysed to 'makes sense' in a gaming context. • The PaCMAn (Principles and Conditions for Motor Acquisition) framework is developed. • PaCMAn is potentially used to underpin design of video games for motor acquisition. Research indicates that commercial exergames do not support acquisition of user Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) owing to both technical and theoretical limitations. That is, affordable 3D sensors (e.g. Kinect®) demonstrate poor accuracy detection enabling users to 'cheat' motor skill outputs during gameplay and, lack fundamental design principles crucial to improve motor skill outcomes over time. Accordingly, this study outlines a principled framework to support design and deployment of video games with a primary 'play' purpose of motor skill acquisition. A systematic review of effective real-life interventions for motor skill acquisition was undertaken. Twenty-two studies met criteria for inclusion and were then analysed for underpinning 'principled' ingredients. Findings were discussed alongside fundamental game design principles, framed by The Theory of Constraints, The Exertion Framework and gaming schema from gaming literature. This led to development of a generalised framework entitled 'PaCMAn' (Principles and Conditions for Motor Acquisition). PaCMAn is intended to support effective design of video games for motor skill acquisition and, guide non-gaming experts (teachers, clinicians, researchers) tasked with a 'human-in-the-loop' deployment process deemed necessary to negotiate currently existing limitations of affordable 3D sensors. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]