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Many soils at former industrial sites are degraded. The objective of this research was to determine the ability of compost, biosolids, and biosolids blends to improve soil ecosystem function with minimal potential impact to surface water. Treatments rototilled into the top 12.5 cm of soil were biosolids at 202 Mg ha−1; biosolids at 404 Mg ha−1; compost at 137 Mg ha−1; or a blend consisting of biosolids applied at 202 Mg ha−1, drinking water treatment residual, and biochar. Rainfall runoff from experimental plots was collected for 3 yr. One year after soil amendments were incorporated, a native seed mix containing grasses, legumes, and forbs was planted. Soil amendments improved soil quality and nutrient pools, established a dense and high‐quality vegetative cover, and improved earthworm reproductive measures. Amendments increased soil enzymatic activities that support soil function. Biosolids treatments increased the Shannon–Weaver Diversity Index for grasses. For the forbs group, control plots had the lowest diversity index and the biosolids blend had the highest diversity index. Biosolids and compost increased the number of earthworm juveniles. In general, biosolids outperformed compost. Biosolids increased N and P in rainfall runoff more than compost before vegetation was established. Several microconstituents (i.e., pharmaceutical and personal care products) were detected in runoff water but at concentrations below the probable no‐effect levels and therefore should pose little impact to the aquatic environment. Future restoration design should ensure that runoff control measures are used to control sediment loss from the restored sites at least until vegetation is established. Compost and biosolids restored urban degraded soil with minimal impact.Biosolids and compost greatly increased critical soil ecosystem services.Biosolids outperformed compost in soil quality, vegetation, and earthworm measures.Pharmaceuticals in runoff water were below the probable no‐effect levels.Biosolids‐treatments increased diversity in established native prairie.

Field surveys and experiments in two tilting flumes on hyperconcentrated sandwatermixture swm flows were conducted. This paper is limited to supercritical flows over a flat bed. It is shown that an equilibrium slope can be defined at which sedimentation and erosion are in balance. For laminar flow conditions this slope is only dependent on the average sand concentration, whereas for turbulent conditions the flow rate per unit width is the main parameter. The sand concentration near the bed measured about 35% by volume for most test conditions. The vertical gradient in sand concentration decreased with increasing mean sand concentration, indicating a decrease in the damping of turbulence. The velocity distribution behaved fairly logarithmically, showing a variation in slope with varying sand concentration. A minimum value of the effective von Kármán constant was found at concentrations of about 20%. Finally, it appears plausible that at high concentrations a considerable growth of the viscous sublayer occurs, resulting in an increase in bed shear stress.

Field surveys and experiments in a tilting flume on hyperconcentrated sandwater mixture SWM flows were conducted. At slopes slightly smaller than the equilibrium slope, a rapid development of sand bars propagating upstream was observed. These bars consist of an almost horizontal terrace with subcritical flow, a steep leeside slope with supercritical flow, and a hydraulic jump between subsequent bars. The erosion processes on the bar are limited by the high sand concentrations and flow velocities on the steep slopes. As a result, the erosion rate is more moderate than predicted by the pickup functions used in classical sedimenttransport theory. A simple onedimensional model is presented to study the behavior of triangular schematized bars. From an analysis of the equations it is concluded that an increase in erosion rate requires an increase in bed slope to maintain equilibrium flow conditions. Finally, simulations with the model are compared with observations in the field and in the tilting flume. The agreement appears to be reasonable.

The indigenous shrub, Guiera senegalensis, coexists with crops to varying degrees in farmers' fields throughout the Sahel, with little known about its biophysical and ecological interactions with soils and crops. Therefore, the objectives were to determine the effect of the presence or absence of shrubs under varying rates of fertilizer on: (i) crop growth and yield, and (ii) soil nutrient dynamics. An experiment from 2004 to 2007 was conducted in northern Senegal where G. senegalensisdominates that had a split‐plot factorial design. The presence or absence of G. senegalensiswas the main plot and fertilizer rate (0, 0.5, 1 or 1.5 times the recommended N–P–K rate) was the subplot in a peanut (Arachis hypogaeaL.) –pearl millet [Pennisetum glaucum(L.) R. Br.] rotation. Averaging over fertilizer rate showed that G. senegalensishad significantly greater crop biomass and yields than no shrub plots (P< 0.05) for all 4 yr. This crop yield response was related to improved nutrient availability (significantly greater for crop N and P uptake in the presence than absence of shrubs in zero fertilizer plots), higher soil quality (elevated particulate organic matter (POM) with shrubs, and a significant correlation of POM with millet yield). Lysimeters below the crop rooting zone had inorganic N levels that were not significantly affected by shrubs compared to no shrub plots, which was attributed to high variability. Combining the ecological potential to restore degraded landscapes with the agronomic benefits demonstrated here, shows that optimized G. senegalensis–crop systems should be further investigated in farmers' fields throughout the Sahel.

Understanding the impact of crop rotation and residue management in grass seed production systems on soil quality and, in particular soil C dynamics, is critical in making long‐term soil management decisions supporting farm sustainability. The effects of a 6‐yr rotation and residue management (high vs. low residue) on soil quality were investigated at three locations in Oregon, each contrasting in soil drainage classification. The crop rotations were continuous perennial grass seed production, grass/legume seed production, and grass/legume/cereal seed production. The grass species grown at each location were different and represented those most commonly produced in each environment; perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenneL.), tall fescue [Schedonorus phoenix(Scop.) Holub], and creeping red fescue (Festuca rubraL.). All three grass seed crop rotations and residue methods maintained high soil quality in conventional or direct seeded soils, but under some situations, soil quality was higher with continuous grass rotation and high residue. Data suggest that straw removal for value‐added use, like bioenergy production, can be accomplished in the Pacific Northwest Marine climate without appreciably affecting soil quality. Furthermore, grass seed cropping systems play an important role in soil C storage and enhancement, a valuable ecosystem service in this region where grass seed is produced on land that is not suitable for production of conventional crops that require better‐drained soil. We conclude that by nature perennial grass seed crops promote high soil fertility and enriched soil C pools and consequently contribute to the tolerance of these systems to the use of less conservation‐oriented crop management methods at times when crop loss could be potentially high. This attribute provides producers greater latitude in selecting soil and crop management options to address issues of soil fertility, pest, weed, or seed certification to minimize economic crop yield losses.

This article explores the effects that gender composition of forest user groups has on property rights and forestry governance, based on data from 290 forest user groups in Kenya, Uganda, Bolivia, and Mexico. Findings indicate gender composition of user groups is important, but not always in the expected ways. Female-dominated groups tend to have more property rights to trees and bushes, and collect more fuelwood but less timber than do male-dominated or gender-balanced groups. Gender-balanced groups participate more in forestry decision-making and are more likely to have exclusive use of forests. Female-dominated groups participate less, sanction less and exclude less. Although policy makers and practitioners are advised to seek interventions that strengthen women's groups by delivering information, technologies and capacity-building programs in formats that take into account women's constraints, it is also important to gain better understanding of the dynamics of mixed-gender groups, including the nature and types of cooperation among males and females. Cet article explore l'effet de la répartition des sexes dans les groupes utilisant la forêt sur la gestion forestière et les droits de propriété, en se basant sur des données prélevées sur 290 groupes d'utilisateurs de la forêt au Kenyan, en Uganda, en Bolivie et au Mexique. Les résultats indiquent que la composition des sexes dans les groupes est importante, mais pas toujours de la manière escomptée. Les groupes principalement féminins ont tendance à avoir plus de droits de propriété sue les arbres et les buissons, et à recueillir davantage de bois de combustion mais moins de bois que les groupes principalement masculins ou équilibrés hommes-femmes. Les groupes équilibrés participent davantage aux prises de décision de foresterie, et sont plus à même d'avoir une utilisation exclusive de la forêt. Les groupes principalement féminins investissent moins, sanctionnent moins et excluent moins. Bien que les concepteurs de politique et les parties pratiques soient conseillés de rechercher des interventions qui puissent fortifier le rôle des femmes en délivrant des informations, des technologies et des programmes pour fortifier la capacité dans des formats prenant en compte les restrictions féminines, il est également important d'obtenir une meilleure compréhension de la dynamique des groupes bi-séxués, en incluant la nature et les types de coopération entre les hommes et les femmes.Este artículo explora los efectos causados por la composición de género de grupos de usuarios del bosque en los derechos de la propiedad y la gobernanza forestal, utilizando datos de 290 grupos de usuarios forestales de Kenya, Uganda, Bolivia y México. Los resultados indican que la composición de género de los grupos de usuarios es importante, pero no siempre de la manera esperada. Los grupos con una mayoría de mujeres tienden a tener más derechos de propiedad sobre árboles y arbustos, y recolectan más leña pero menos madera que los grupos con una mayoría de hombres o los grupos con equilibrio de género. Los grupos con equilibrio de género participan más en la toma de decisiones forestales y es más probable que disfruten de un acceso exclusivo a ciertos bosques. Los grupos con mayoría de mujeres participan menos, autorizan menos, y excluyen menos. Aunque se aconseja a los formuladores de políticas y los profesionales forestales que persigan acciones que refuercen a los grupos de mujeres proporcionándoles información, tecnología y programas de desarrollo de capacidades en formatos que tengan en cuenta los factores que las limitan, es importante también conocer mejor la dinámica de los grupos mixtos en cuanto a género, incluyendo la naturaleza y formas de cooperación entre hombres y mujeres.

Previous research on direct-to-consumer advertising (DTCA) has not focused exclusively on the African American population.

The study compared changes over time in health expenditures across race and ethnicity, using data from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Changes from 1996-1997 to 2004-2005 were compared between non-Hispanic Whites (NHW) and non-Hispanic Blacks (NHB) and between NHW and Hispanic Whites (HW). Three expenditure measures were used: annual expenditures per capita, annual out-of-pocket expenditures per capita (OOPE), and OOPE as a proportion of family income per capita. A linear regression-based difference-in-difference model was analysed by including interaction terms between the latter time period and dummy variables for NHB and HW. NHW had higher increases in annual expenditures per capita than HW ($1657.31 vs. $435.49, p < 0.0001); NHW had similar increases to NHB ($1657.31 vs. $1300.77, p = 0.293). The former comparison was significant in the multivariate analysis (p < 0.001) but the latter was not (p = 0.686). The findings on OOPE were similar to those on expenditures. There were no significant racial or ethnic differences in the changes in OOPE as a proportion of family income per capita. Compared to NHW, HB and HW had lower expenditures throughout the study period, but their increases in financial burden were not higher.

Variation of the generally covariant version of Minkowski's Lagrangian of macroscopic Maxwell theory with respect to the metric yields a symmetric tensor Tμνwhich reproduces the Poynting vector 𝒮i= cT0i, and therefore would seem to favor Abraham's proposal 𝒫Ai= 𝒮i/c2for the momentum density in a macroscopic electromagnetic wave. However, the T00component does not reproduce the standard energy density in the rest frame in the flat limit. The difference between the energy density and T00has the same structure as the difference between the Minkowski momentum density 𝒫Mi= n2𝒮i/c2and the Abraham momentum density. The result therefore adds further credibility to Minkowski's original energy‐momentum tensor and his proposal for the total momentum density of electromagnetic waves in dielectric materials. We draw attention to the facts that the covariant formulation of macroscopic Maxwell theory of dielectric materials requires a field strength‐velocity coupling term which could only be inferred in a long wavelength limit from quantum electrodynamics, and that the theory is clearly limited to interactions of sub‐UV photons with matter. Therefore, in spite of the fact that macroscopic Maxwell theory can formally be written in generally covariant terms, the theory for n ≠ 1 should be considered as inherently non‐relativistic, with non‐relativistic corrections of order n ‐ 1. The difference 𝒫M‐ c‐2𝒮 between Minkowski's momentum density and the rescaled Poynting vector is an example of an order n ‐ 1 correction.

Variation of the generally covariant version of Minkowski's Lagrangian of macroscopic Maxwell theory with respect to the metric yields a symmetric tensor Tμνwhich reproduces the Poynting vector 𝒮i= cT0i, and therefore would seem to favor Abraham's proposal 𝒫Ai= 𝒮i/c2for the momentum density in a macroscopic electromagnetic wave. However, the T00component does not reproduce the standard energy density in the rest frame in the flat limit. The difference between the energy density and T00has the same structure as the difference between the Minkowski momentum density 𝒫Mi= n2𝒮i/c2and the Abraham momentum density. The result therefore adds further credibility to Minkowski's original energy‐momentum tensor and his proposal for the total momentum density of electromagnetic waves in dielectric materials. We draw attention to the facts that the covariant formulation of macroscopic Maxwell theory of dielectric materials requires a field strength‐velocity coupling term which could only be inferred in a long wavelength limit from quantum electrodynamics, and that the theory is clearly limited to interactions of sub‐UV photons with matter. Therefore, in spite of the fact that macroscopic Maxwell theory can formally be written in generally covariant terms, the theory for n ≠ 1 should be considered as inherently non‐relativistic, with non‐relativistic corrections of order n ‐ 1. The difference 𝒫M‐ c‐2𝒮 between Minkowski's momentum density and the rescaled Poynting vector is an example of an order n ‐ 1 correction. Variation of the generally covariant version of Minkowski's Lagrangian of macroscopic Maxwell theory with respect to the metric yields a symmetric tensor Tμνwhich reproduces the Poynting vector 𝒮i= cT0i, and therefore would seem to favor Abraham's proposal 𝒫Ai= 𝒮i/c2for the momentum density in a macroscopic electromagnetic wave. However, the T00component does not reproduce the standard energy density in the rest frame in the flat limit. The difference between the energy density and T00has the same structure as the difference between the Minkowski momentum density 𝒫Mi= n2𝒮i/c2and the Abraham momentum density…

Neuropeptides related to vertebrate tachykinins have been identified in Drosophila. Two Drosophila G‐protein‐coupled receptors (GPCRs), designated NKD (CG6515) and DTKR (CG7887), cloned earlier, display sequence similarities to mammalian tachykinin receptors. However, they were not characterized with the endogenous Drosophila tachykinins (DTKs). The present study characterizes one of these receptors, DTKR. We determined that HEK‐293 cells transfected with DTKR displayed dose‐dependent increases in both intracellular calcium and cyclic AMP levels in response to the different DTK peptides. DTK peptides also induced internalization of DTKR‐green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion constructs in HEK‐293 cells. We generated specific antireceptor antisera and showed that DTKR is widely distributed in the adult brain and more scarcely in the larval CNS. The distribution of the receptor in brain neuropils corresponds well with the distribution of its ligands, the DTKs. Our findings suggest that DTKR is a DTK receptor in Drosophila and that this ligand‐receptor system plays multiple functional roles. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol, 2006

Circadian clocks play vital roles in the control of daily rhythms in physiology and behavior of animals. In Drosophila, analysis of the molecular and behavioral rhythm has shown that the master clock neurons are entrained by sensory inputs and are synchronized with other clock neurons. However, little is known about the neuronal circuits of the Drosophila circadian system and the neurotransmitters that act on the clock neurons. Here, we provide evidence for a new neuronal input pathway to the master clock neurons, s‐LNvs, in Drosophila that utilizes GABA as a slow inhibitory neurotransmitter. We monitored intracellular calcium levels in dissociated larval s‐LNvs with the calcium‐sensitive dye Fura‐2. GABA decreased intracellular calcium in the s‐LNvs and blocked spontaneous oscillations in calcium levels. The duration of this response was dose‐dependent between 1 nM and 100 μM. The response to GABA was blocked by a metabotropic GABAB receptor (GABAB‐R) antagonist, CGP54626, but not by an ionotropic receptor antagonist, picrotoxin. The GABAB‐R agonist, 3‐APMPA, produced a response similar to GABA. An antiserum against one of the Drosophila GABAB‐Rs (GABAB‐R2) labeled the dendritic regions of the s‐LNvs in both adults and larvae, as well as the dissociated s‐LNvs. We found that some GABAergic processes terminate at the dendrites of the LNvs, as revealed by GABA immunostaining and a GABA‐specific GAL4 line (GAD1‐gal4). Our results suggest that the s‐LNvs receive slow inhibitory GABAergic inputs that decrease intracellular calcium of these clock neurons and block their calcium cycling. This response is mediated by postsynaptic GABAB receptors. © 2005 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Neurobiol, 2005

Four neonicotinoid nitroguanidine insecticides (imidacloprid, thiamethoxam, clothianidin, and dinotefuran) acting as nicotinic agonists account for 10−15% of worldwide insecticide sales. General methods are needed for synthesis of their guanidine and aminoguanidine metabolites so they may be used as analytical standards and for evaluation of nicotinic receptor potency. The guanidines are obtained by treating the parent nitroguanidines with Fe powder in aqueous C2H5OH containing NH4Cl and isolated by silica chromatography. The aminoguanidines are prepared as mixtures with the guanidines on reaction of the parent nitroguanidines and Zn powder in glacial acetic acid. The imidacloprid aminoguanidine is isolated as the acetone imine or trifluoroacetamide and the clothianidin and dinotefuran aminoguanidines as the acetone imines using silica chromatography. Deprotection under acidic conditions then leads to the aminoguanidine·HCl salts. Because of stability considerations, a pH partitioning method is used to separate thiamethoxam aminoguanidine and guanidine. An alternate procedure to the aminoguanidine of imidacloprid (but not thiamethoxam, clothianidin, or dinotefuran) is reaction with hydrazine hydrate and NH4Cl in anhydrous C2H5OH. Ambiguities in further biological reactions are clarified by synthesizing authentic standards of three purported metabolites formed via the imidacloprid aminoguanidine:  the 1,2,4-triazol-3-one derivative with ethyl chloroformate or ethyl pyrocarbonate, the acetaldehyde imine with acetaldehyde, and the 3-methyl-1,2,4-triazin-4-one derivative with ethyl pyruvate in refluxing toluene. The purported triazolone metabolite is reassigned as the aminoguanidine acetaldehyde imine probably formed as an artifact from acetaldehyde present in the ethyl acetate used for metabolite extraction. Potency at the Drosophila nicotinic receptor is greatly decreased on converting a nitroguanidine to a guanidine or aminoguanidine. In sharp contrast, potency at the vertebrate α4β2 nicotinic receptor is generally increased on conversion from the nitroguanidine to aminoguanidine and particularly guanidine derivatives.

Imidacloprid (IMI), the prototypical neonicotinoid insecticide, is used worldwide for crop protection and flea control on pets. It is both oxidatively metabolized by cytochrome P450 enzymes and reduced at the nitroguanidine moiety by a previously unidentified cytosolic “neonicotinoid nitroreductase”, the subject of this investigation. Two major metabolites are detected on incubation of IMI with rabbit liver cytosol:  the nitrosoguanidine (IMI-NO) and the aminoguanidine (IMI-NH2). Three lines of evidence identify the molybdo-flavoenzyme aldehyde oxidase (AOX, EC 1.2.3.1) as the neonicotinoid nitroreductase. First, classical AOX electron donor substrates (benzaldehyde, 2-hydroxypyrimidine, and N-methylnicotinamide) dramatically increase the rate of formation of IMI metabolites. Allopurinol and diquat are also effective electron donors, while NADPH and xanthine are not. Second, AOX inhibitors (potassium cyanide, menadione, and promethazine) inhibit metabolite formation when N-methylnicotinamide is utilized as an electron donor. Without the addition of an electron donor, rabbit liver cytosol reduces IMI only to IMI-NO at a slow rate. This reduction is also inhibited by potassium cyanide, menadione, and promethazine, as well as by additional AOX inhibitors, cimetidine and chlorpromazine. Finally, IMI nitroreduction by AOX is sensitive to an aerobic atmosphere, but to a much lesser extent than cytochrome P450 2D6. Large species differences are observed in the IMI nitroreductive activity of liver cytosol. While rabbit and monkey (Cynomolgus) give the highest levels of total metabolite formation, human, mouse, cow, and rat also metabolize IMI rapidly. In contrast, dog, cat, and chicken liver cytosols do not reduce IMI at appreciable rates. AOX, as a neonicotinoid nitroreductase, may limit the persistence of IMI, and possibly other neonicotinoids, in mammals.

Complete understanding of how neuropeptides operate as neuromodulators and neurohormones requires integration of knowledge obtained at different levels of biology, including molecular, biochemical, physiological and whole organism studies. Major advances have recently been made in the understanding of the molecular basis of neuropeptide action in invertebrates by analysis of data generated from sequencing the genomes of several insect species, especially that of Drosophila melanogaster. This approach has quickly led to the identification of genes encoding: (1) novel neuropeptide sequences, (2) neuropeptide receptors and (3) peptidases that might be responsible for the processing and inactivation of neuropeptides. In this article, we review our current knowledge of the biosynthesis, receptor interaction and metabolic inactivation of the arthropod neuropeptide, proctolin, and how the analysis and exploitation of genome sequencing projects has provided new insights.

To examine whether the current widespread use of antiinflammatory drugs may reflect a lack of informed choice (i.e., unawareness of adverse effects or potential treatment alternatives) among older patients with knee osteoarthritis (OA). Consecutive patients with symptomatic knee OA (n = 100) completed a questionnaire to assess their awareness of drug toxicity. Patients also completed an Adaptive Conjoint Analysis task so that the influence of providing an additional treatment alternative on patient preferences for nonselective nonsteroidal antiinflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) inhibitors could be assessed. Fifty-four percent of the patients surveyed were unaware of any adverse effects related to NSAIDs and 80% were unaware of any toxicity related to COX-2 inhibitors. When given a choice between NSAIDs and COX-2 inhibitors, 57% of patients preferred COX-2 inhibitors over NSAIDs. When presented with a third less effective, but safer alternative, 100% of patients switched preferences to the safer, albeit less effective, option. Our findings suggest that the widespread use of NSAIDs may reflect lack of informed choice among older patients with OA.

Neprilysin (NEP) is an endopeptidase, which has an important role in the inactivation of mammalian tachykinins. NEP‐like activity has also been found in the brain of several insects; however, the lack of information about the cellular localization of this peptidase has hindered our understanding of its role in peptidergic signaling in insects. We now provide evidence that membrane‐bound NEP is involved in the inactivation of tachykinin‐related peptides in the brain of the cockroach, Leucophaea maderae, and the locust, Locusta migratoria. The L. maderaeenzyme cleaved the cockroach peptide LemTRP‐1 and the mammalian NEP substrate [DAla2,Leu5]enkephalin at the Gly‐Phe peptide bond. The enzyme was acted upon by the NEP inhibitors phosphoramidon (IC50, 0.64 μM) and thiorphan (IC50, 1.23 μM), and the detergent‐solubilized enzyme had an Mr of approximately 300,000 and a neutral pH optimum. This endopeptidase cleaved another insect tachykinin‐related peptide, CavTK‐II, in a predictable manner at the Ala‐Phe peptide bond, suggesting that the peptidase can hydrolyse tachykinin‐related peptides with different structures. NEP activity was histochemically localized in several, but not all, regions of neuropil in the brain of L. maderae, including the central body, the lobula of the optic lobe, and the tritocerebrum. All of these regions are known to receive neuronal processes containing tachykinin‐related peptides. A slightly different distribution pattern for NEP was observed in the brain of L. migratoria. Again, NEP was localized to regions of the neuropil that also display tachykinin‐related peptide immunoreactivity. The data reported provide evidence for an evolutionary conserved role for NEP in the inactivation of tachykinin‐related peptides in the brain. J. Comp. Neurol. 457:57–66, 2003. © 2003 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Abstract:: A model is proposed that treats electrons at surfaces as a combination of two-dimensional and three-dimensional degrees of freedom. This yields a simple formula for the surface state induced resonant enhancement of the transfer of electrons through a surface. The model also yields analytic approximations for the transition between two-dimensional and three-dimensional distance laws in the correlations between electrons in surface states.

In patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA) with a mean duration of six years, glucocorticoid receptor (GR) downregulation has been reported without change in cortisol levels. This phenomenon might play a role in the etiopathogenesis of RA. If this is the case, GR downregulation should also be found in early-diagnosed RA. We compared GR expression and cortisol levels of early RA patients with those of sex and age matched healthy controls. In early (disease duration less than one year) RA patients (52F29M; mean [SE] age 63 ± 2 years) and in 39 controls (23F16M; mean age 63 ± 2 years) blood samples were taken between 8:00 and 10:00 a.m. GR expression (GR number), cortisol levels (fluorescence polarization immunoassay, FPIA), ESR, CRP, and the presence of swollen and painful knees were determined. RA was diagnosed according to the ACR classification criteria. In early RA a significantly lower GR expression was found compared to controls. Interestingly, cortisol levels were also significantly lower. Both findings were due to the observed differences in the female population. In the male population no differences were found. No correlations were found among parameters of disease activity, nor was there a relation between GR expression and serum cortisol levels. In female patients with early-diagnosed RA a decrease in glucocorticoid receptor expression was found as well as a decrease in cortisol levels. Since normal glucocorticoid receptor expression was found in the male population with early-diagnosed RA, it remains questionable if glucocorticoid receptor expression is causally involved in pathogenesis of RA.

Abstract. Microbial community responses to alternative management may be indicative of soil quality change. In this study, soils were collected from research plots over 2 years and from commercial grower fields over 1 year. Treatments at the sites included 1-9 years of either winter cover cropping or winter fallow practices. Soils were assayed for microbial fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs), direct count microscopy and Biolog substrate utilization potentials to assess management and environmental influences on soil communities. The strongest influence was season. Soils in early spring (prior to termination of the cover crop) utilized fewer carboxylic acids and generally were enriched in eukaryotic FAMEs, whereas proportionally more bacterial FAMEs were detected in soils at canopy closure and harvest of the summer vegetable crop. Within a season, community FAME and Biolog patterns were related to field properties. FAME profiles from grower fields in early spring and harvest were correlated significantly with soil texture, cation exchange capacity, and carbon content. Changes in community structure and Biolog potential occurred in some soils in response to winter cover crops, although effects were not observed until cover crop incorporation. Greater amounts of fungal and protozoan FAME markers were detected in some cover-cropped soils compared to winter fallow soils. Cover crop residues increased FAME diversity at one research station and Biolog diversity at two research stations and the grower fields. Although seasonal and field-dependent factors are major determinants of microbial community structure, shifts can occur as soil physical and chemical properties change in response to alternative practices, as demonstrated by this study.

Incorporation of patient preferences into treatment decisions is an essential component of medical care. Conjoint analysis is an established method of eliciting consumer preferences in market research and is being increasingly used to study patient preferences for health care.

Pigment-dispersing factor (PDF) is a neuropeptide that has been indicated as a likely output signal from the circadian clock neurons in the brain of Drosophila. In addition to these brain neurons, there are PDF-immunoreactive (PDFI) neurons in the abdominal ganglia of Drosophila and other insects; the function of these neurons is not known. We have analyzed PDFI neurons in the abdominal ganglia of the locust Locusta migratoria. These PDFI neurons can first be detected at about 45% embryonic development and have an adult appearance at about 80%. In each of the abdominal ganglia (A3–A7) there is one pair of lateral PDFI neurons and in each of the A5–A7 ganglia there is additionally a pair of median neurons. The lateral neurons supply varicose branches to neurohemal areas of the lateral heart nerves and perisympathetic organs, whereas the median cells form processes in the terminal abdominal ganglion and supply terminals on the hindgut. Because PDF does not influence hindgut contractility, it is possible that also these median neurons release PDF into the circulation. Release from one or both the PDFI neuron types was confirmed by measurements of PDF-immunoreactivity in hemolymph by enzyme immunoassay. PDF applied to the terminal abdominal ganglion triggers firing of action potentials in motoneurons with axons in the genital nerves of males and the 8th ventral nerve of females. Because this action is blocked in calcium-free saline, it is likely that PDF acts via interneurons. Thus, PDF seems to have a modulatory role in central neuronal circuits of the terminal abdominal ganglion that control muscles of genital organs. © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 48: 19–41, 2001

The insect allatostatins are a diverse group of neuropeptides that obtained their names by their inhibitory actions on the corpora allata (two endocrine glands near the insect brain), where they block the biosynthesis of juvenile hormone (a terpenoid important for development and reproduction). Chemically, the allatostatins can be subdivided into three different peptide groups: the large group of A-type (cockroach-type) allatostatins, which have the common C-terminal sequence Y/FXFGLamide; the B-type (cricket-type) allatostatins, which have the C-terminal sequence W(X 6 )Wamide in common; and a single allatostatin that we now call C-type allatostatin that was first discovered in the moth Manduca sexta, and which has a nonamidated C terminus, and a structure unrelated to the A- and B-type allatostatins. We have previously cloned the preprohormones for the A- and B-type allatostatins from Drosophila melanogaster. Here we report on the cloning of a Drosophila C-type allatostatin preprohormone (DAP-C). DAP-C is 121 amino acid residues long and contains one copy of a peptide sequence that in its processed form has the sequence &lt;EVRYRQCYFNPISCF (drostatin-C). This drostatin-C sequence is only one amino acid residue different (F → Y in position 4) from the Manduca sexta C-type allatostatin. The DAP-C gene has three introns and four exons and is located at position 32D2-3 on the left arm of the second chromosome. Northern blots show that the gene is strongly expressed in larvae and adult flies, but less in pupae and embryos. In situ hybridizations of larvae show that the gene is expressed in various neurons of the brain and abdominal ganglia and in endocrine cells of the midgut. This is the first publication on the structure of a C-type allatostatin from insects other than moths and the first report on the presence of all three types of allatostatins in a representative of the insect order Diptera (flies).

The insect allatostatins are a diverse group of neuropeptides that obtained their names by their inhibitory actions on the corpora allata (two endocrine glands near the insect brain), where they block the biosynthesis of juvenile hormone (a terpenoid important for development and reproduction). Chemically, the allatostatins can be subdivided into three different peptide groups: the large group of A-type (cockroach-type) allatostatins, which have the common C-terminal sequence Y/FXFGLamide; the B-type (cricket-type) allatostatins, which have the C-terminal sequence W(X₆)Wamide in common; and a single allatostatin that we now call C-type allatostatin that was first discovered in the moth Manduca sexta, and which has a nonamidated C terminus, and a structure unrelated to the A- and B-type allatostatins. We have previously cloned the preprohormones for the A- and B-type allatostatins from Drosophila melanogaster. Here we report on the cloning of a Drosophila C-type allatostatin preprohormone (DAP-C). DAP-C is 121 amino acid residues long and contains one copy of a peptide sequence that in its processed form has the sequence &lt;EVRYRQCYFNPISCF (drostatin-C). This drostatin-C sequence is only one amino acid residue different (F → Y in position 4) from the Manduca sexta C-type allatostatin. The DAP-C gene has three introns and four exons and is located at position 32D2-3 on the left arm of the second chromosome. Northern blots show that the gene is strongly expressed in larvae and adult flies, but less in pupae and embryos. In situ hybridizations of larvae show that the gene is expressed in various neurons of the brain and abdominal ganglia and in endocrine cells of the midgut. This is the first publication on the structure of a C-type allatostatin from insects other than moths and the first report on the presence of all three types of allatostatins in a representative of the insect order Diptera (flies). Copyright 2001 Academic Press.

The insect allatostatins obtained their names because they block the biosynthesis of juvenile hormone (a terpenoid) in the corpora allata (two endocrine organs near the insect brain). Chemically, the allatostatins can be subdivided into three different peptide groups: the A-type allatostatins, first discovered in cockroaches, which have the C-terminal sequence Y/FXFGLamide in common; the B-type allatostatins, first discovered in crickets, which all have the C-terminal sequence W(X)6Wamide; and the C-type allatostatins, first discovered in the moth Manduca sexta, which have an unrelated and nonamidated C terminus. We have previously reported the structure of an A-type allatostatin preprohormone from the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster. Here we describe the molecular cloning of a B-type prepro-allatostatin from Drosophila (DAP-B). DAP-B is 211 amino acid residues long and contains one copy each of the following putative allatostatins: AWQSLQSSWamide (drostatin-B1), AWKSMNVAWamide (drostatin-B2),

The bilaterally paired primary commissure pioneer neurons in the median domain of the grasshopper brain are large, descending interneurons that uniquely express the TERM‐1 antigen, even in the adult. After pioneering the primary interhemispheric brain commissure, these neurons extend TERM‐1‐immunoreactive collaterals into most parts of the brain except the mushroom bodies. In this report, the authors show that the TERM‐1 antigen is located in the cell body cytoplasm of these neurons and not on the membranes. Screening with antisera to insect neuropeptides reveals that an antiserum recognizing peptides of the leucokinin family labels the cell body cytoplasm of the primary commissure neurons. Leucokinin‐related peptides are known to modulate motility of visceral muscle, play a role in diuresis, and are likely to be neuromodulators in the insect nervous system. The primary commissure neurons differ ultrastructurally from median neurosecretory cells in that their cell body cytoplasm is more extensive, contains high numbers of mitochondria and extensive endoplasmic reticulum, but does not contain neurosecretory granules. In the adult, the cell somata are enveloped by multiple glia membranes and associated trophospongia. According to these ultrastructural characteristics, the primary commissure pioneers are not classical neurosecretory cells. J. Comp. Neurol. 430:118–130, 2001. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Allatotropin (AT) was isolated from the moth Manduca sextaas a peptide stimulating biosynthesis of juvenile hormone in the corpora allata, but has also been shown to be cardioactive in the same species. Here, we have investigated the presence and biological activity of AT‐like peptide in the cockroaches Leucophaea maderaeand Periplaneta americanawith focus on abdominal ganglia and their target tissues. An antiserum to M. sextaAT was used for immunocytochemical mapping of neurons in the abdominal ganglia. A small number of interneurons and efferent neurons were found AT‐like immunoreactive (AT‐LI) in each of the abdominal ganglia. A prominent sexual dimorphism was detected in the terminal abdominal ganglion: in L. maderaethe male ganglion there are approximately 18 AT‐LI neurons with cell bodies posteriorly and efferent axons in the genital nerves; in the female ganglion 4–5 AT‐LI cell bodies (with efferent axons) were found in the same region. Correlated with the extra efferents in males, the male accessory glands are richly supplied by AT‐LI fibers and in females a less prominent innervation was seen in oviduct muscle. A similar dimorphism was seen in abdominal ganglia of P. americana. A sexual dimorphism was also detected in the abdominal ganglia A4–A6 of L. maderae. In each of these ganglia, approximately 8–10 large AT‐LI neuronal cell bodies were found along the midline; in females these neurons have significantly larger cell bodies than in males. In both sexes, and both cockroach species, two large dorsal midline neurons were detected in A‐5 and 6, which seem to send axons to the hindgut: the rectal pads of the hindgut are supplied by arborizing AT‐LI axons. In males and females of both species, efferent AT‐LI axons from midline neurons in A3–A6 supply the lateral heart nerves and other neurohemal release sites with arborizations. The efferent midline neurons of females contain colocalized serotonin‐immunoreactivity. We tested the in vitro actions of M. sextaAT on muscle contractions in the L. maderaehindgut and the abdominal heart of both species. The frequency of contractions in the hindgut increased dose dependently when applying AT at 5 × 10−8to 5 × 10−6M (maximal response at 5 × 10−7M). Also the frequency of contractions of the heart increased by application of AT (threshold response at 5 × 10−9M). This effect was more prominent in males of both species (maximal response was a 35–40% increase in males and 10–20% in females). In conclusion, an AT‐like peptide is present in neurons and neurosecretory cells of cockroach abdominal ganglia and seems to play a role in control of contractions in the hindgut and heart and also to have some function in male accessory glands and oviduct. J. Comp. Neurol. 428:159–173, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Allatotropin (AT) was isolated from the moth Manduca sexta as a peptide stimulating biosynthesis of juvenile hormone in the corpora allata, but has also been shown to be cardioactive in the same species. Here, we have investigated the presence and biological activity of AT-like peptide in the cockroaches Leucophaea maderae and Periplaneta americana with focus on abdominal ganglia and their target tissues. An antiserum to M. sexta AT was used for immunocytochemical mapping of neurons in the abdominal ganglia. A small number of interneurons and efferent neurons were found AT-like immunoreactive (AT-LI) in each of the abdominal ganglia. A prominent sexual dimorphism was detected in the terminal abdominal ganglion: in L. maderae the male ganglion there are approximately 18 AT-LI neurons with cell bodies posteriorly and efferent axons in the genital nerves; in the female ganglion 4–5 AT-LI cell bodies (with efferent axons) were found in the same region. Correlated with the extra efferents in males, the male accessory glands are richly supplied by AT-LI fibers and in females a less prominent innervation was seen in oviduct muscle. A similar dimorphism was seen in abdominal ganglia of P. americana. A sexual dimorphism was also detected in the abdominal ganglia A4–A6 of L. maderae. In each of these ganglia, approximately 8–10 large AT-LI neuronal cell bodies were found along the midline; in females these neurons have significantly larger cell bodies than in males. In both sexes, and both cockroach species, two large dorsal midline neurons were detected in A-5 and 6, which seem to send axons to the hindgut: the rectal pads of the hindgut are supplied by arborizing AT-LI axons. In males and females of both species, efferent AT-LI axons from midline neurons in A3–A6 supply the lateral heart nerves and other neurohemal release sites with arborizations. The efferent midline neurons of females contain colocalized serotonin-immunoreactivity. We tested the in vitro actions of M. sexta AT on muscle contractions in the L. maderae hindgut and the abdominal heart of both species. The frequency of contractions in the hindgut increased dose dependently when applying AT at 5 × 10⁻⁸ to 5 × 10⁻⁶ M (maximal response at 5 × 10⁻⁷ M). Also the frequency of contractions of the heart increased by application of AT (threshold response at 5 × 10⁻⁹ M). This effect was more prominent in males of both species (maximal response was a 35–40% increase in males and 10–20% in females). In conclusion, an AT-like peptide is present in neurons and neurosecretory cells of cockroach abdominal ganglia and seems to play a role in control of contractions in the hindgut and heart and also to have some function in male accessory glands and oviduct. J. Comp. Neurol. 428:159–173, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Although most of the characterized insect neuropeptides have been detected by their actions on muscle contractions, not much is known about the mechanisms underlying excitation-contraction coupling. Thus we initiated a pharmacological study on the myotropic action of the peptides periviscerokinin-2 (PVK-2) and proctolin on the hyperneural muscle of the cockroach Periplaneta americana. Both peptides required extracellular Ca2+to induce muscle contraction, and a blockage of sarcolemmal Ca2+channels by Mn2+or La3+inhibited myotropic effects. The peptides were able to induce contractions in dependence on the extracellular Ca2+concentration in muscles depolarized with high K+saline. A reduction of extracellular Na+, K+, or Cl−did not effect peptide action. Nifedipine, an L-type Ca2+-channel blocker, partially blocked the response to both peptides but to a much lesser extent than contractions evoked by elevated K+. Using calcium imaging with fluo-3, we show that proctolin induces an increase of the intracellular Ca2+concentration. In calcium-free saline, no increase of the intracellular Ca2+concentration could be detected. The inhibiting effect of ryanodine, thapsigargin, and TMB-8 on peptide-induced contractions suggests that Ca2+release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum plays a major role during peptide-induced contractions. Preliminary experiments suggest that the peptides do not employ cyclic nucleotides as second messengers, but may activate protein kinase C. Our results indicate that the peptides induce Ca2+influx by an activation or modulation of dihydropyridine-sensitive and voltage-independent sarcolemmal Ca2+channels. Ca2+-induced Ca2+release from intracellular stores, but not inositol trisphosphate-induced Ca2+release, seems to account for most of the observed increase in intracellular Ca2+. Additionally, both peptides were able to potentiate glutamate-induced contractions at threshold concentrations.

Peptides structurally related to mammalian tachykinins have recently been isolated from the brain and intestine of several insect species, where they are believed to function as both neuromodulators and hormones. Further evidence for the signaling role of insect tachykinin-related peptides was provided by the cloning and characterization of cDNAs for two tachykinin receptors fromDrosophila melanogaster. However, no endogenous ligand has been isolated for the Drosophilatachykinin receptors to date. Analysis of the Drosophilagenome allowed us to identify a putative tachykinin-related peptide prohormone (prepro-DTK) gene. A 1.5-kilobase pair cDNA amplified from aDrosophilahead cDNA library contained an 870-base pair open reading frame, which encodes five novel Drosophilatachykinin-related peptides (called DTK peptides) with conserved C-terminal FXGXR-amide motifs common to other insect tachykinin-related peptides. The tachykinin-related peptide prohormone gene (Dtk) is both expressed and post-translationally processed in larval and adult midgut endocrine cells and in the central nervous system, with midgut expression starting at stage 17 of embryogenesis. The predictedDrosophilatachykinin peptides have potent stimulatory effects on the contractions of insect gut. These data provide additional evidence for the conservation of both the structure and function of the tachykinin peptides in the brain and gut during the course of evolution.

During the purification of tachykinin‐related peptides from the brain of the cockroach Leucophaea maderae,a few other peptides were collected in adjacent high‐performance liquid chromatography fractions. Edman degradation, mass spectrometry, and chemical synthesis revealed that one of these peptides had the sequence DNSQWGGFA. This nonamidated nonapeptide was designated baratin and appears not to be related to any known insect peptide. Baratin was not found to be bioactive in the L. maderaehindgut or oviduct muscle contraction assay. (Both synthetic nonamidated and amidated baratin were tested.) To screen for possible sites of action, we raised a rabbit antiserum to baratin. We found baratin‐immunoreactive (BAR‐IR) interneurons throughout the cockroach central nervous system. Some prominent brain neuropils were supplied by BAR‐IR neuron processes: the central body, the calyx, and lobes of the mushroom bodies, parts of the optic lobe, and the tritocerebral neuropil. Additionally we found BAR‐IR neurosecretory cells in the median neurosecretory cell group with processes supplying the storage lobe of the corpora cardiaca. In each of the thoracic and abdominal ganglia processes of BAR‐IR projection neurons and local neurons were seen. The baratin antiserum also labeled neurons in the brain of the locust Locusta migratoria,some of which are similar to those of the cockroach. A prominent system of interganglionic BAR‐IR processes was found in the locust subesophageal, thoracic, and abdominal ganglia. This was formed by four large projection neurons with cell bodies in the abdominal ganglia A1–2. The processes of these BAR‐IR neurons are distributed dorsally and laterally in each of the ventral nerve cord ganglia. When baratin (10−6–10−4M) was applied to desheathed abdominal ganglia of locusts and cockroaches, we could monitor bursts of action potentials in neurons with axons in the anterior abdominal nerve (nerve 1), but not in the posterior nerve (nerve 2). In ganglia displaying spontaneous rhythmic firing in units of nerve 1, baratin strengthened the rhythmic pattern. Thus baratin appears to have a role in modulation of motor patterns in abdominal ganglia. The immunocytochemical findings suggest further modulatory actions of baratin in different circuits of the brain and ventral nerve cord. J. Comp. Neurol. 422:267–286, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

Nitrate contamination of groundwater aquifers from agricultural fertilization is of growing concern. It is generally assumed that little biological activity occurs in the vadose zone and that NO−3moves through this zone unimpeded. Various N fractions and the microbial activity in the surface and vadose zone sediments from three agricultural soils in eastern Oregon were examined. Nitrate levels in the vadose zone were as high as 60 mg N kg−1soil, and fractionation showed that approximately 30% of total N was in the form of acid-insoluble N, which could be a sink for NO−3that becomes immobilized. The vadose zone also contained high concentrations of amino acid-N and amino sugar-N, suggesting that a significant amount of subsoil N is of biological origin. Significant levels of microbial biomass C and CO2respiration were found in sediments derived from the vadose zone. A 14-day lab incubation study showed that vadose zone sediments could mineralize organic N without additional C and that NO−3may be subject to biological immobilization when a high rate of glucose C (3000 mg kg−1) is present.

To identify patients at risk for coronary artery disease (CAD) through a search of a community pharmacy's prescription database, to screen and identify patients with elevated cholesterol and at risk for CAD, to enroll patients in a pharmacist·directed lipid management program, and to evaluate selected clinical and humanistic outcomes.

Proline-specific dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP IV) is an established enzyme known to degrade neuropeptides and peptide hormones in vertebrate tissues. DPP IV cleaves peptides at the Pro² residue. Because several neuropeptides of the cockroach Leucophaea maderae, such as LemTRP-1 (APSGFLGVRamide), are potential substrates for this peptidase, we investigated the occurrence of proline-specific DPP activity in cockroach tissues. Partly purified DPP activity was characterized from the brain and midgut of L. maderae by using Gly-Pro-4-nitroanilide as a substrate. The highest activity was obtained from the membrane fraction of intestine; about 10 times less activity (per milligram protein) was obtained from brain membranes. A smaller amount of soluble DPP activity could also be identified in both tissues. Gel chromatography of the solubilized intestinal DPP activity revealed a molecular mass of about 75 kDa. The enzyme had a pH optimum of 8.5. Diprotin A (Ile-Pro-Ile) was an efficient competitive inhibitor of the cockroach DPP, whereas other known DPP inhibitors were found to be less potent. When incubated with human and cockroach DPP IV, the cleavage products of LemTRP-1 were AP and SGFLGVRamide (des-AP-LemTRP-1) as determined by mass spectrometry of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)-purified peptide fragments. The AP fragment was biologically inactive and the des-AP fragment had a drastically reduced myostimulatory activity on the hindgut of L. maderae. The blowfly TRP callitachykinin-I (CavTK-I; APTAFYGVRamide) was cleaved in two steps to des-AP-CavTK-I and desAPTA-CavTK-I, showing that cockroach DPP does not only liberate Xaa-Pro, but also Xaa-Ala dipeptides. The fragment desAPTA-CavTK-I was completely inactive on the cockroach hindgut. To compare, LemTRP-3 and CavTK-II, which lack a Pro², were not cleaved by DPP IV. Enzyme histochemistry for DPP IV was performed on cryostat sections of brain and intestine with Gly-Pro-4-methoxy-2-naphthylamide as the substrate and Fast Blue B as the chromogen. Strong histochemical labeling was seen in specific neuropils of the brain such as the calyces of the mushroom bodies, the antennal glomeruli, and the central body. Also, the inner lining of the midgut (the peritrophic membrane) and the malpighian tubules were strongly labeled by reaction product. In both the brain and intestine, the enzyme-histochemical reaction was inhibited by diprotin A. J. Comp. Neurol. 418:81–92, 2000. © 2000 Wiley-Liss, Inc.

Proline‐specific dipeptidyl peptidase (DPP IV) is an established enzyme known to degrade neuropeptides and peptide hormones in vertebrate tissues. DPP IV cleaves peptides at the Pro2residue. Because several neuropeptides of the cockroach Leucophaea maderae, such as LemTRP‐1 (APSGFLGVRamide), are potential substrates for this peptidase, we investigated the occurrence of proline‐specific DPP activity in cockroach tissues. Partly purified DPP activity was characterized from the brain and midgut of L. maderaeby using Gly‐Pro‐4‐nitroanilide as a substrate. The highest activity was obtained from the membrane fraction of intestine; about 10 times less activity (per milligram protein) was obtained from brain membranes. A smaller amount of soluble DPP activity could also be identified in both tissues. Gel chromatography of the solubilized intestinal DPP activity revealed a molecular mass of about 75 kDa. The enzyme had a pH optimum of 8.5. Diprotin A (Ile‐Pro‐Ile) was an efficient competitive inhibitor of the cockroach DPP, whereas other known DPP inhibitors were found to be less potent. When incubated with human and cockroach DPP IV, the cleavage products of LemTRP‐1 were AP and SGFLGVRamide (des‐AP‐LemTRP‐1) as determined by mass spectrometry of high‐performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)‐purified peptide fragments. The AP fragment was biologically inactive and the des‐AP fragment had a drastically reduced myostimulatory activity on the hindgut of L. maderae. The blowfly TRP callitachykinin‐I (CavTK‐I; APTAFYGVRamide) was cleaved in two steps to des‐AP‐CavTK‐I and desAPTA‐CavTK‐I, showing that cockroach DPP does not only liberate Xaa‐Pro, but also Xaa‐Ala dipeptides. The fragment desAPTA‐CavTK‐I was completely inactive on the cockroach hindgut. To compare, LemTRP‐3 and CavTK‐II, which lack a Pro2, were not cleaved by DPP IV. Enzyme histochemistry for DPP IV was performed on cryostat sections of brain and intestine with Gly‐Pro‐4‐methoxy‐2‐naphthylamide as the substrate and Fast Blue B as the chromogen. Strong histochemical labeling was seen in specific neuropils of the brain such as the calyces of the mushroom bodies, the antennal glomeruli, and the central body. Also, the inner lining of the midgut (the peritrophic membrane) and the malpighian tubules were strongly labeled by reaction product. In both the brain and intestine, the enzyme‐histochemical reaction was inhibited by diprotin A. J. Comp. Neurol. 418:81–92, 2000. © 2000 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.

The objectives of this study were to investigate Piliostigma reticulatum (shrub) and Cordyla pinnata (tree) residues for chemical composition, and C, N, and P mineralizationin Senegalese soils. Soil samples (Sols ferrugineux tropicaux) were collected from a native agroforestry system beneath and outside a C. pinnata canopy. Soils were incubated for 11 weeks with P. reticulatum (leaves), C. pinnata (stem, leaves or stem + leaves), peanut (Arachis hypogea), or pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) residues. Nitrogen and P mineralization for the soil-plant mixtures was determined by periodic leaching with a 0.01 M CaCl 2 solution. An additional separate incubation was conducted to investigate C mineralization. The results showed that only peanut residues caused net N mineralization, while N immobilization occurred in the remaining treatments in both the soils derived from beneath or outside the canopy. This indicates that, at least in the short-term, these agroforestry residues would not likely be a source of N for crops. Net P mineralization varied among plant residues and soils sites but P. reticulatum amended soils increased soluble PO in both soils. This suggested that it could be useful for improving P avail4 ability. Peanut residues had the highest CO evolution in both soils suggesting a 2 probable relationship between C and N mineralization.

Developing effective management strategies that restore degraded soils requires an evaluation of the quality of the litter residues. This study relates the chemical composition of the biomass components to the decomposition rates for Piliostigma reticulatum (DC.) Hochst., a native shrub, under field and laboratory conditions. The rates were determined by mass loss. The changes in the specific surface area of the residue in relation to mass loss ranged from 15 X 10 -5 to 45 X 10 -5 which was similar to crop residues in other studies. At field conditions, P. reticulatum mass loss was higher (80% of the initial mass lost over eight months) than that under controlled conditions (50%). Such fast decomposition of residues offers the potential for farmers to stop burning these residues because high amounts of residues will not likely accumulate and cause interference with tillage and planting operations. Further studies are needed on the role of soil fauna on decomposition, mineralization of nutrients from these residues, and the potential for incorporating residues into the system without burning.

Winter cover crops may increase soil organic matter (SOM) and improve soil structure in intensively managed summer vegetable cropping systems. Our study examined the influence of three cover crop treatments (fallow, cereal, and legume within a summer crop rotation of sweet corn and broccoli) on microbiological properties associated with five soil aggregate‐size classes (<0.25, 0.25 to 0.5, 0.5 to 1.0, 1.0 to 2.0, and 2.0 to 5.0 mm) of a Willamette silt loam (Pachic Ultic Argixerolls). The distributions of total organic C (TOC), total Kjeldahl N (TKN), soil microbial biomass C (SMBC), readily mineralizable C and N, and two enzyme activities (β‐glucosidase and fluorescein diacetate [FDA] hydrolysis) were compared among aggregate‐size classes of surface (0–20 cm) soils at seedbed preparation (June 1996) and after harvest of either broccoli (September 1995) or sweet corn (September 1996). Although cover cropping did not significantly influence aggregate‐size distribution, TOC, nor TKN on any sampling date, it did significantly (P< 0.05) influence SMBC in September 1995, mineralizable C and N and FDA hydrolysis and β‐glucosidase activities in June 1996, and levels of mineralizable C and N and β‐glucosidase activity in September 1996. Significant (P< 0.01) interactions occurred among the cover crop treatments and aggregate‐size classes for SMBC in September 1995, and among mineralizable C and N and FDA hydrolysis in June and September 1996. Mineralizable C and N and FDA hydrolysis differed (P< 0.01) among aggregate‐size classes between June and September 1996; these changes were significantly (P< 0.01) affected by cover crop treatment. These studies identified focal points for further research on the effects of aggregate‐size classes and cover cropping on the activities and dynamics of their respective microbial communities.

Five isoforms of tachykinin‐related peptides (TRPs), designated LemTRP‐1–5, have been identified in the midgut of the cockroach Leucophaea maderae. These peptides have a conserved C‐terminus hexapeptide (GFX1GX2Ramide; X1and X2are variable residues) and variable N‐termini. Here, we address the question of whether these five isoforms are all colocalized in the two types of cells in the cockroach midgut, the endocrine cells and the neuronal processes. We also investigate whether the N‐terminally extended isoforms LemTRP‐2 and ‐3, which contain putative endoproteolytic cleavage sites, are expressed in intact form or are cleaved in the midgut cells. To this end, we used two approaches. (1) Extracts from portions of the midgut containing each of the cell types were subjected to reverse‐phase high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the fractions monitored in a radioimmunoassay (RIA) with an antiserum to the conserved C‐terminus of insect TRPs. (2) Antisera were raised to the variable N‐termini of the extended LemTRP‐2 and ‐3 and used for immunocytochemistry. The HPLC‐RIA and immunocytochemical findings indicate that LemTRP‐1 and 4–5 are present in the neuronal processes and in endocrine cells of the midgut proper and of the gastric cecae. The two extended forms LemTRP‐2 and ‐3 display a differential distribution: LemTRP‐2 was found in endocrine cells of midgut and gastric cecae, but not in neuronal processes, whereas LemTRP‐3 was seen in neuronal processes and endocrine cells of the midgut proper, but not in the gastric cecae. LemTRP‐3 and ‐4 have not been identified in the brain, suggesting further cell‐ and tissue‐specific expression of LemTRPs. The mechanisms behind the cell‐specific expression of the LemTRPs are not yet understood, but the demonstration of differential distribution of the peptide isoforms provide a first indication that the isoforms may have different actions. J. Comp. Neurol. 406:15–28, 1999. © 1999 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.