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Pea (Pisum sativumL.) grain contains abundant protein, starch, and minerals. However, there are obstacles to growing peas that achieve consistently high protein and mineral concentrations. Seven pea cultivars were planted at seven locations with contrasting soils and environmental factors to evaluate the genetic and environmental effects on pea yield and quality. Correlations and principal component analyses (PCA) were performed to correlate pea grain yield and protein with mineral concentrations in pea grain and soil. Significant cultivar × location interactions were observed on pea grain yield but not on pea grain protein concentration. Some cultivars demonstrated more sensitivity to the environment than others in terms of grain yield potential and stability. The lack of a cultivar × location interaction for pea grain protein concentration indicates consistent genetic control of this quality parameter. Although there was a negative relationship between pea grain yield and protein concentration at the cultivar level at each environment, this correlation became weaker while pooling the data from all environments (site‐years) due to the confounding effect from environments. Pea grain mineral concentrations were significantly affected by cultivar and location, but location generally affected the mineral levels more than cultivar. Grain mineral nutrients, especially macronutrients, were highly correlated with soil minerals. The three distinct clusters formed in the PCA indicate mega environments that determine pea grain yield and quality, and understanding the mega environments in combination with improved soil fertility management may represent the most effective means of increasing pea grain yield, protein, and targeted mineral levels. Grain yield, protein, and mineral concentration are affected by cultivar and environment.Grain protein is more consistently controlled by genetics across environments than yield.Grain mineral concentrations are correlated with soil minerals, especially macronutrients.Mineral concentrations are affected by cultivar and location, with location having the larger effect.Clusters of mega environments may be identified for consistent yield and quality.

‘MT Sidney’ (Reg. no. CV‐1199; PI 699957) hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) was released by the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station in January 2021 as a new cultivar adapted to Montana's rainfed growing environments. MT Sidney was a selection from the cross MT1274/‘RB07’ and was tested in Montana as experimental line MT1716 from 2018 to 2020. MT1274 is an unreleased, Montana experimental line, and RB07 was released by the University of Minnesota in 2007 for high yield, moderate Fusarium head blight (FHB) resistance, and good end‐use quality. MT Sidney was in the top‐yielding statistical group in our advanced yield trial that includes ‘Vida’ (PI 642366), the most widely grown cultivar in Montana. MT Sidney also has significantly higher test weight and an earlier heading date than Vida. Multiple years of FHB resistance screening indicate MT Sidney is moderately resistant to FHB. MT Sidney was released based on high yield potential, high test weight, early heading date, and moderate FHB resistance. MT Sidney is a new high‐yielding hard red spring wheat cultivar adapted to Montana rainfed environments.MT Sidney has an early heading date and above‐average test weight.MT Sidney has moderate FHB resistance.

‘ND Victory’ (Reg. no. CV‐31, PI 701908) is the first semi‐leafless, green cotyledon field pea cultivar (Pisum sativumL.) developed by the North Dakota State University Pulse Crops Breeding Program and approved for release by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. It has white flowers, opaque seed coat, and smooth, round seed. It is semi‐dwarf, with lodging score of 3.3/9 and canopy height of 57 cm. Based on 30 environments (location‐year) of replicated yield trials in North Dakota, seed yield of ND Victory (2847 kg ha−1) was similar to commercial cultivar ‘CDC Striker’ (2819 kg ha−1) but significantly greater than ‘Cruiser’ (2653 kg ha−1) and ‘Aragorn’ (2639 kg ha−1) by 7.3 and 7.9%, respectively. ND Victory was also tested across 14 environments in Montana, where it had an average seed yield of 3264 kg ha−1, which was similar to ‘Hampton’ (3355 kg ha−1) but significantly greater than Aragorn (3110 kg ha−1) by 4.9%. ND Victory matures in approximately 90 days. ND Victory is a high protein cultivar, with protein content of 25.2%, exceeding the premium protein threshold of 24%. ND Victory (20%) is resistant to powdery mildew and performed similarly with resistant check ‘Spider’ (15%) and had significantly lower disease severity than ‘Salamanca’ (97%, susceptible check) and CDC Striker (82%). In irrigated field trials conducted under high Ascochyta blight pressure, ND Victory (5%) had lower disease severity than ‘AC Agassiz’ (10%) and CDC Striker (14%). ND Victory and CDC Striker exhibited similar response but significantly lower severity than AC Agassiz to Fusarium root rot inoculated with multiple Fusariumspecies pathogenic to pea. ND Victory is the first semi‐dwarf, semi‐leafless green field pea released from the NDSU Pulse Breeding Program.ND Victory has high yield potential in North Dakota and Montana.ND Victory's protein content is 1.2% above acceptable premium price in the high‐protein pea market.ND Victory is resistant to powdery mildew and has low severity due to Ascochyta blight and Fusarium root rot.The northern Great Plains of North Dakota and Montana continue to be the primary growing region for field pea in the United States.

Ascochyta blight (caused by Ascochyta rabiei) is a primary concern of chickpea production worldwide. Intercropping chickpea with a non‐host crop has the potential to suppress this disease and improve resource use efficiency for enhanced crop yield. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of seeding rate and row configuration of chickpea (Cicer arietinumL.)–flax (Linum usitatissimumL) intercropping on (1) yield and seed quality, (2) disease incidence and severity of Ascochyta blight of chickpea, and (3) land productivity of this intercropping system. Field trials were conducted at the Eastern Agricultural Research Center, Sidney, MT, and the Southern Agricultural Research Center, Huntley, MT, in 2020 and 2021. Chickpea was planted with flax in four intercropping configurations (70% chickpea–30% flax in mixed rows, 50% chickpea–50% flax in alternate rows, 50% chickpea–50% flax in mixed rows, and 30% chickpea–70% flax in mixed rows). Chickpea yield decreased with increased flax proportion in the mixed rows intercrop. Flax displayed higher competitiveness than chickpea, resulting in decreased yield and protein concentration in chickpea but increased yield and protein content in flax. Land equivalent ratio of intercropping was greater than one, showing improved land productivity (2%–23% greater than monocropping). Intercropping reduced Ascochyta blight disease incidence and severity; the 50% chickpea–50% flax and 30% chickpea–70% flax intercropping configurations could reduce the disease severity to 50% (in Huntley) and 67% (in Sidney) of that in the monocropping. These results indicated that seed ratio and planting configurations of chickpea–flax intercropping may be manipulated to increase land use efficiency and reduce Ascochyta blight in chickpea. Canadian Development Center ‘CDC Leader’ yielded greater than Royal in the higher disease pressure environment in Huntley indicated that selection of disease resistant cultivars is important for managing Ascochyta blight in chickpea. Flax is more competitive than chickpea, and an alternative row configuration has less interspecies competition than mixed rows.A seeding rate of 50% chickpea and 50% flax resulted in the maximum combined yield and land productivity.Intercropping chickpea with flax showed reduced Ascochyta blight incidence and severity. Flax is more competitive than chickpea, and an alternative row configuration has less interspecies competition than mixed rows. A seeding rate of 50% chickpea and 50% flax resulted in the maximum combined yield and land productivity. Intercropping chickpea with flax showed reduced Ascochyta blight incidence and severity.

‘Lustre’ (Reg. no. CV‐1193, PI 695072) is a spring durum wheat [Triticum turgidumL. ssp. durum(Desf.)] developed by the Montana Agricultural Experiment Station and released in 2020. Lustre was bred using the single seed descent method and was selected for its yield performance under dryland conditions across Montana, low grain Cd accumulation, good pasta firmness, high grain protein, high yellow semolina color, and low semolina ash. Lustre performs well in both the north central and northeast regions of Montana, where most Montana durum is produced and intended for pasta production. Lustre has similar stripe rust tolerance and susceptibility as top‐grown durum cultivars in the state with susceptibility at the seedling stage and high‐temperature adult‐plant resistance. Lustre is moderately susceptible to Fusarium head blight like other durum cultivars. Lustre is resistant to the predominant races of stem and leaf rust and is moderately tolerant to fungal leaf spot complex. Lustre is approximately 89 cm tall, with a yellow green color and a heading date 1 d later than the cultivar ‘Mountrail’. Lustre has an erect flag leaf and an erect tapering head having white glumes and awns. Lustre is a new durum wheat.Lustre yields well in north central and northeast Montana.Lustre is a standard height durum with white glumes and awns.Lustre has low grain Cd content, high grain protein, and high yellow semolina color.

Lentil (Lens culinarisMedik.) is an important source of protein, starch, and mineral nutrients in many parts of the world. However, the impact of environment and cultivar on the enrichment of these nutrients is not well understood. Four lentil cultivars (‘Avondale’, ‘CDC Richlea’, ‘CDC Maxim’, and ‘CDC Imvincible’) varying in color, seed size, and maturity were evaluated at five Montana locations with diverse climatic and soil conditions over 3 yr. Significant cultivar, location, and year effects were found for yield, protein, starch, and minerals. Grain protein concentration was the highest at Moccasin (262 g kg−1) and lowest at Richland (246 g kg−1), whereas starch concentration was the highest at Richland (455 g kg−1) and lowest at Moccasin (441 g kg−1). Among cultivars, Avondale was the top yielding cultivar (1965 kg ha−1) and adaptable to most of the environments; CDC Imvincible was the top protein producer (265 g kg−1); and CDC Richlea is the leading starch producer (456 g kg−1). Grain protein concentration was negatively correlated with starch. Lentil grains varied in nutrient concentrations across locations, with the northcentral Montana region producing 10‐ to 20‐times greater selenium concentration than other locations. CDC Maxim had the highest iron (62.1 mg kg−1) and zinc (31.5 mg kg−1) concentrations. Seed protein concentration was positively correlated with phosphorus, sulfur, copper, and boron. Seed starch is positively correlated with magnesium and manganese. Results suggest that plant breeding and production site selection could enrich lentil nutrient concentrations to help combat malnutrition in the world. Lentil grain produced at different locations showed significant differences in nutrient concentrations.Different cultivars showed different capacities of enriching protein and minerals.Protein is negatively correlated with starch and positively correlated with certain mineral elements.Plant breeding and production site selection could enhance lentil nutrient concentrations.

‘ND Crown’ (Reg. no. CV‐342, PI 694865), a large‐seeded kabuli chickpea (Cicer arietinumL.), was developed by the North Dakota State University Pulse Crops Breeding Program and approved for release by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. ND Crown, the first chickpea cultivar from the program, was selected specifically for adaptation to North Dakota growing conditions on the basis of its high yield potential, medium maturity, large seed size, and moderate resistance to Ascochyta blight. Based on 21 environments (location‐years) of yield trials across North Dakota and Montana, ND Crown had an average yield (2,152 kg ha−1) that was similar to the commercial chickpea cultivars ‘CDC Frontier’ (2,248 kg ha−1) and ‘CDC Orion’ (2,108 kg ha−1) but significantly greater than ‘Sierra’ (1,262 kg ha−1). ND Crown was moderately resistant to Ascochyta blight, with similar reaction as CDC Frontier and CDC Orion under moderate disease pressure. Under high disease pressure, ND Crown displayed significantly lower Ascochyta blight severity than CDC Frontier and CDC Orion. ND Crown exhibited an upright indeterminate growth habit and resistance to lodging. ND Crown had a greater percentage of large seeds (>8 mm) and higher 1,000‐seed weight than CDC Frontier but was similar to CDC Orion. As a high‐yielding large‐seeded chickpea cultivar, ND Crown is a promising alternative to CDC Frontier and CDC Orion in North Dakota and nearby states.

‘ND Dawn’ (Reg. no. CV‐30, PI 694866), a semi‐dwarf, semi‐leafless, large‐seeded yellow field pea (Pisum sativumL.) cultivar, was developed by the pulse crops breeding program at North Dakota State University and approved for release by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station. ND Dawn, the first yellow field pea cultivar from the program, was developed by the bulk‐pedigree method. Based on 18 environments (location‐years) of yield trials across North Dakota, ND Dawn had similar seed yield (2,843 kg ha−1) with the commercial yellow pea cultivars ‘AC Agassiz’ (2,875 kg ha−1) and ‘DS Admiral’ (2,799 kg ha−1) but significantly greater than ‘CDC Golden’ (2,633 kg ha−1). ND Dawn was also tested across eight environments in Montana, where it had an average seed yield of 3,803 kg ha−1, which was significantly greater than ‘Delta’ (3,554 kg ha−1) but similar to DS Admiral (3,686 kg ha−1) or AC Agassiz (3,565 kg ha−1). ND Dawn matures in approximately 94 d. It is resistant to lodging, with a plant height index of 0.66. It has uniform round seed, with size larger than Agassiz, a medium‐seeded yellow pea cultivar. ND Dawn's protein content, 24%, is acceptable to get a premium price in the current market for high‐protein pea. ND Dawn and AC Agassiz exhibited similar responses to Fusarium root rot based on a field trial inoculated with multiple Fusarium species pathogenic to pea. In an irrigated field trial conducted under high Ascochyta blight pressure, ND Dawn yielded similarly to AC Agassiz and ‘CDC Striker’ despite having a higher leaf necrosis percentage. Other agronomic traits of ND Dawn are within market acceptable ranges.

Zinc (Zn) deficiency is a common micronutrient deficiency in human population, especially in regions where grain cereals are the primary supply of daily calorie intake. Zinc also performs an important role in plant growth and Zn deficiency can limit crop yield and quality. A 3‐yr field study was conducted to determine response of wheat cultivars to foliar application of Zn. Zinc sulfate was sprayed on plant canopy at a rate of 1.12 kg Zn ha−1once (at heading) or twice (at heading and flowering). One application of Zn at heading increased grain Zn concentration by a range of 5.8 to 9.5 mg kg−1corresponding to a 17–47% increase over the unfertilized control in various years. With the application of Zn at both heading and flowering, grain Zn concentration reached 44.3 and 52.4 mg kg−1(in Years 2 and 3), implying an increase of 35–93% compared to the untreated control. The second application of Zn at flowering was necessary to produce grains with Zn concentration above the target level of 40 mg kg−1to have a nutritional effect. Zinc application also marginally increased grain yield. This yield increase, however, was not adequate to offset additional production costs associated with Zn fertilization. The economic analysis revealed that the net return from the first and second Zn application was −1 and +13 USD ha−1, respectively. Therefore, it is unlikely that farmers will be motivated to adopt this system unless a price incentive or government payments are provided for farmers for producing Zn‐biofortified grains.

Rotating summer fallow with wheat (Triticumspp.) is done in dryland grain farming at upper latitudes to stabilize yields over time and to prevent crop failure. However, summer fallow is costly since weeds must be controlled and crops are not grown. Replacing summer fallow with grain crops can generate low economic returns. Previous research indicated that annual cool‐season forages can be substituted for summer fallow in dryland cropping systems. Our objective was to determine if annual warm‐season species were suited for forage production in monocultures and polycultures in the U.S. northern Great Plains. Dry matter (DM) production by 20 warm‐ and cool‐season crop monocultures and 4 polycultures was determined across six environments during 2016, and by 25 warm‐ and cool‐season crop monocultures and polycultures across four environments from 2016 through 2018. Maize (Zea maysL.) monoculture produced forage DM in amounts equal to, or greater than, those produced by other warm‐ and cool‐season crop treatments (P< 0.05). Maize DM production averaged 2.5 to 5.7 Mg ha−1, depending on the study and environment. Sorghum (Sorghum bicolorL.), foxtail millet [Setaria italica(L.) P. Beauv.] and sunflower (Helianthus annuusL.) also produced relatively large amounts of forage DM. Polycultures failed to produce more DM than monocultures consistently (P> 0.40). These results indicate that maize and other warm‐season crops are adapted for dryland forage production in cool regions at upper latitudes. Additional research is needed to determine the impacts of annual warm‐season forages on grain yield in a forage‐wheat crop sequence.

Replacing chemical fallow with dry pea or camelina reduced wheat grain yield.Nitrogen fertilizer sources and tillage methods did not affect grain yield.The no‐till method improved grain protein yield in one of the two seasons.Agronomic nitrogen use efficiency improved with no‐till than sweep till.Sweep till and super urea tend to reduce the flux of N2O emission. Cropping systems include mainly cropping sequence, tillage, and fertilizer management practices. Information on the impact of these practices on yields, nutrient use efficiency, and greenhouse gas emission is limited. An experiment was conducted over a 2‐yr period in split‐split plot design to determine the effects of these practices on wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) grain and protein yields, agronomic nitrogen use efficiency (ANUE), and nitrous oxide (N2O) emission. The cropping sequences were chemical fallow–wheat (F‐W), dry pea (Pisum sativumL.)–wheat (P‐W), and camelina (Camelina sativaL. Crantz)–wheat (C‐W). Tillage methods were no‐till (NT) and sweep till (ST). Nitrogen fertilizer sources included urea (U) and Super U (SU), each applied at 0, 45, and 90 kg N ha−1. The result showed that the interaction of cropping sequence and tillage methods affected grain yield and ANUE in one of the two growing seasons. Replacing chemical fallow with dry pea or camelina reduced wheat grain yields by at most 15%, but the additional income from dry pea or camelina could offset this yield loss. Application of 45 kg N ha−1increased grain yield and improved grain protein content compared with 0 kg N ha−1, regardless of N source. The highest protein yields (366 and 475 kg ha−1in 2013 and 2014, respectively) were recorded at 90 kg N ha−1. The N fertilizer source had no effect on grain and protein yields and ANUE. The ST method and application of SU resulted in a lower flux of N2O emission than NT and U, respectively.

Dry pea yield, protein, and resistant starch varied greatly across Montana.Yield and protein were mainly determined by environments.Resistant starch is controlled by genetics to a great extent.Effects of drought index, growth period, seed size, and seed weight on yield, protein, and starch were analyzed. Pea (Pisum sativumL.) has long been an important component of the human diet, providing an excellent source of protein. In addition to its protein, pea starch, especially resistant starch (RS), has received an extensive attention in food industries in recent years. We evaluated nine pea cultivars varying in cotyledon color, grain weight, maturity group, and phenology planted at five locations with diverse climatic conditions across Montana in 2013 and 2014 to assess genetic and environmental factors affecting their yield, protein, RS, and total starch (TS). Grain yield varied from 982 to 5951 kg ha−1, RS content ranged from 5 to 53 g kg−1, and protein from 159 to 251 g kg−1. Statistical analysis showed that environment was the most important driving factor in grain yield, protein, and TS determination whereas RS content was mainly determined by cultivar. Drought at all phenological stages reduced pea yield and different cultivars tended to respond differently. Yield was positively correlated with protein, implying a potential to select/breed a cultivar with higher yield and protein. Protein was negatively correlated with TS, thus protein‐ or starch‐type cultivars may be bred for different end users. Compared to other cultivars tested, DS Admiral was the most promising one with above average yield, protein, and RS.

Camelina is a promising feedstock as a result of its ability to provide high-quality edible oil and jet fuel. However, predicting its oil content currently requires time- and labor-intensive analyses. Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy provides a rapid, low-cost determination approach for oil seed characterization. The objective of this study was to develop a NIR model to predict the camelina oil content using 200 camelina seed simples. Partial least squares (PLS) regression and principal component regression (PCR) were used to compare the performance of calibration models to the full spectra range (4000–1000 cm–1). PLS regression showed better prediction performance than PCR. The optimal model provided excellent fitness, with a R2of 0.94 and root mean square of prediction error of 0.495%, making the model useful in various applications, including quality assurance and screening. This study confirmed that the NIR method significantly reduces time (from 60 to 1 min) and cost [from 20 to 1 United States dollar (USD)] required to determine the camelina seed oil content. Last but not least, this study leverages a high-throughput, cost-effective prediction method of the camelina oil content to facilitate plant breeding and genetic studies. Future work on the NIR model should focus on developing a model system to achieve rapid analysis of genomics at a low cost to assist plant feedstock improvement.

Genotype × environment affected camelina seed yield, oil and constituent fatty acids.Blaine Creek produced the greatest seed among the camelina genotypes studied.Camelina grown at Hays, KS, had less yields and oil content compared to Moccasin, MT.Camelina at Moccasin, MT had greater linolenic acid content compared to Hays, KS. Camelina (Camelina sativaL. Crantz) is an alternative oilseed crop with potential for fallow replacement in dryland cereal‐based crop production systems in the semiarid Great Plains. The interaction between genotype and environment was investigated on camelina seed yield, oil content, and fatty acid composition across two locations in the U.S. Great Plains. Treatments were three spring camelina genotypes (cultivars Blaine Creek, Pronghorn, and Shoshone), three growing seasons (2013, 2014, and 2015) and two locations (at Hays, KS, and Moccasin, MT). Results showed camelina grown at Hays yielded 54% less than that at Moccasin. Blaine Creek yielded 17 and 42% more than Pronghorn and Shoshone at Hays but yields were not different among genotypes at Moccasin. Oil content ranged from 262 g kg−1at Hays to 359 g kg−1at Moccasin. The proportion of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) ranged from 51% at Hays to 55% at Moccasin, whereas monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) and saturated fatty acid (SFA) contents were greater at Hays. The linolenic acid content ranged from 26% when Pronghorn was planted at Hays to 35% when planted at Moccasin. In general, the variations in seed yield and fatty acid profile corresponded well with growing season precipitation and temperatures at each environment.

Core IdeasFertilizer 15N recovery of urea (with and without NBPT) was directly related to cumulative NH3loss.Spring applied urea provided better recovery than late‐fall and winter applications.NBPT improved fertilizer 15N recovery, particularly for late‐fall and winter applications that were most susceptible to volatility. Surface application of urea to winter wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) during the late‐fall, winter, or spring is a common practice in the northern Great Plains (NGP). However, surface applications are susceptible to volatilization, and management strategies are needed to enhance fertilizer‐N recovery (FNR). This study was conducted to determine the effect of urea application timing (late‐fall, winter, spring) and N‐(n‐butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) on FNR in grain (FNRG) and grain plus straw (FNRT), and grain yield and protein. Replicated small‐plot experiments were conducted in no‐till winter wheat fields over 3 yr in Montana, and FNR was quantified using 15N‐enriched labeled urea (5% atom). Fertilizer‐N recovery was greater (P< 0.05) for spring (FNRG36.5%, FNRT46.1%) than late‐fall (FNRG24.9%, FNRT31.7%) and winter (FNRG26.8, FNRT34.1%) applications. Addition of NBPT to urea improved FNR of all urea timings, but the response was greater for late‐fall and winter compared with spring applications. Fertilizer‐N recovery among the management strategies tested was directly related to cumulative NH3emissions (r2= 0.77, P< 0.0001) measured in a companion study, indicating that volatilization represented an important pathway for N loss. Grain yield was not sensitive to application timing or NBPT. However, grain protein increased 6 to 8 g kg–1from spring applications or NBPT additions. This study found that management strategies to enhance urea FNR in the NGP should consider delaying applications until the spring or addition of NBPT for late‐fall and winter applications that are more susceptible to NH3volatilization.

The responses of camelina seed and oil yields to nutrient applications were substantial compared with the control treatment.Trend analysis showed that camelina requires about 60 kg ha−1N to achieve agronomic optimum seed and oil yields.This agronomic data will help policy makers, researchers, growers, and end users to make decision in the production and processing of camelina as energy crop. Camelina (Camelina sativaL. Crantz) shows potential to provide an alternative renewable energy source and enhance crop diversification in temperate semiarid regions. Information on the effect of N, P, K, and S on yield and quality of camelina for biodiesel feedstock in the northern Great Plains (NGP) of the United States is limited. The objective of this experiment was to determine the effects of the above nutrients on seed and oil yields, test weight, oil concentration and agronomic nitrogen use efficiency (ANUE) of camelina on a clay loam soil in central Montana. Results showed that fertilizer treatments significantly affected seed yield, oil concentration and oil yield of camelina. The seed and oil yields ranged from 677 to 1306 kg ha−1and from 234 to 445 kg ha−1, respectively. Although the highest seed and oil yields were obtained from the application of 134–22–22–28 kg ha−1N–P2O5–K2O–S, they were statistically in the same group with yields achieved from the application of only 45 kg ha−1N. Application of P and S fertilizers increased camelina seed yield compared with the control treatment. There was no response to K fertilization. Simultaneous application of N and S did not show synergistic effects in enhancing ANUE. The ANUE reduced with increasing N application rates. From trend analysis, application of 60 kg ha−1N produced agronomic maximum seed and oil yields. Therefore, optimizing camelina seed and oil yields production with regard to nutrient management using current variety should focus on N fertilization.

Nitrogen fertilizer is an important input for winter wheat (Triticum aestiviumL.) production. However, the losses of applied N fertilizer are economically substantial and environmentally unsafe. Therefore, improved N fertilizer management practices are needed to increase yield, enhance wheat quality, and minimize negative consequences to the environment. The objective of this experiment was to determine the impact on two N fertilizer sources, two application times, and three placement methods on grain yield, protein concentration, and N uptake of winter wheat. The experiment was conducted in Montana, in a randomized complete block design. The mean grain yield, protein concentration, and N uptake in 2010/2011 were lower than 2012/2013 due to differences in soil fertility and inter‐seasonal variations in precipitation. Treatment effects were significant in 2010/2011 (wet season) but not in 2012/2013 (dry season). In 2010/2011, urea with agrotain (urease inhibitor) and N serve (nitrification inhibitor) broadcasted in spring (UANSBS) produced the highest yield (2630 kg ha−1). This yield increase was 29% more than fall applied urea. In 2010/2011, spring broadcasting of urea, urea with agrotain, Super Urea (urea with urease and nitrification inhibitors), and UANSBS produced similar but higher yield, grain protein concentration and grain N uptake than other treatments. Therefore, considering the erratic nature of precipitation in this dry land area, spring broadcasting of urea with or without inhibitors appeared to be practical N fertilizer management practices for the region. But economic analysis is needed to justify this suggestion.

Rapid development of the Montana pulse crop industry has created a strong demand for breeding efforts and cultivar recommendations. We evaluated adaptation and yield stability of diversely sourced dry pea (Pisum sativumL.) and lentil (Lens culinarisMedik.) genotypes across Montana from 2009 to 2011. Mega‐environments in Montana and superior genotypes were identified using additive main effect and multiplicative interaction (AMMI) methodology. Grain yield of both crops varied among the locations and across years. A large portion of the total variation (genotype [G] and environment [E] plus their interaction G × E) was explained by E (93% for dry pea and 89% for lentil), while G only explained 0.7% and 3.6% of the total variation for dry pea and lentil, respectively. Dry pea cultivars Delta, Majoret, and Cruiser were found to be suitable, with general adaptation to Montana. Three mega‐environments were identified for pea including: (i) Richland (northeastern Montana); (ii) Bozeman, Conrad, and Corvallis (southwestern and western Montana); and (iii) Havre, Moccasin, and Huntley (northern, central, and southern Montana). Among lentil cultivars, CDC Richlea was judged as the most promising cultivar as a result of general adaptation. Lentil cultivars Essex and LC01602300R showed higher yield potential than CDC Richlea but more specific adaptation. Four mega‐environments were also distinguished for lentil including (i) Creston and Conrad (northwestern Montana), (ii) Havre and Richland (northern and northeastern Montana), (iii) Moccasin (central Montana), and (iv) Huntley (southern Montana).

Fertilizer N recovery is sometimes greater for NO3–N than for NH4–N forms by no‐till wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) in the semiarid northern Great Plains and is perhaps affected by preferential N immobilization. This study was conducted to determine whether fertilizer N immobilization (FNI) was affected by N form (NH4–N vs. NO3–N) and glucose‐C availability. Laboratory incubation (26 d, 10°C) was conducted on a Tamaneen clay loam (fine, smectitic, frigid Typic Agriustolls) collected from a field site where greater recovery of NO3–N compared with NH4–N fertilizer forms (i.e., NaNO3vs. urea) had been previously observed by wheat. Soil (20 g) was treated with 2 mg of N as 15N‐labeled NaNO3and (NH4)2SO4in factorial combination with a gradient of 0, 10, or 100 mg of glucose‐C. Inorganic N (NH4–N + NO3–N) concentrations were comparatively stable over the 26‐d incubation without C but exhibited a biphasic time response with C, falling rapidly during the first phase to a lower step second phase. Overall, inorganic N concentrations were lower for (NH4)2SO4than NaNO3. Fertilizer N immobilization vs. incubation‐day relationships conformed to an exponential rise to maximum functions. At 26 d, FNI was equivalent to 0.87, 27.6, and 65.9% for NaNO3and 8.8, 41.2, and 65.3% for (NH4)2SO4at 0, 10, and 100 mg glucose‐C, respectively. Fertilizer N immobilization ratios, FNI(NH4)2SO4/FNINaNO3, averaged (1–26 d) 10.7, 1.8, and 1.5 for 0, 10, and 100 mg glucose‐C, respectively. This study found that NH4–N was preferentially immobilized over NO3–N where available C was limited and likely contributing to greater fertilizer N recovery of NO3–N forms by wheat.

Conventional tillage is gradually being replaced by no‐till or minimal tillage. Our objectives were to investigate: (i) winter wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) yield, and nitrogen uptake efficiency (NUE), as affected by surface‐applied N and crop rotation in no‐till and tilled fields; and (ii) N availability and uptake as affected by tillage history and crop rotation. A study was imposed on adjacent long‐term no‐till (LTNT) and long‐term sweep‐tilled (LTST) fields for 6 yr. Wheat yield, N uptake, and soil NO3–N were measured for fallow (F)–winter wheat (WW), spring pea (Pisium sativumL.) (SP)–WW, spring wheat (SW)–WW, and winter pea (WP)–WW rotations with four N rates (0, 45, 90, or 135 kg ha−1). From fall to spring, soil NO3–N increased in F–WW, SP–WW, and WP–WW rotations, but not with SW–WW rotation. After spring application of urea to the soil surface of the LTNT field, WW biomass growth was greater in SP–WW than in SW–WW at lower N levels, but no differences were found between the SP–WW and SW–WW rotation at higher N rates. In the LTST field, no difference in biomass was found between the SP–WW and SW–WW rotations except for the 0 N rate. Winter wheat in rotation with pea greatly increased wheat yield, N uptake, and NUE. Lower WW yield and NUE in SW–WW rotation apparently resulted from less over‐winter N release and the unavailability of surface‐applied N.

Biomass from Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) land can be used as a lignocellulosic bioenergy feedstock. This experiment investigated the effect of harvest timing and N rate on changes in species composition, biomass, cell wall composition, energy content, and post‐harvest soil nutrient content. The experiment was conducted from 2009 to 2012 in grass and alfalfa (Medicago sativaL.) mixed CRP land in central Montana in a split‐plot design with three replications. The main‐plot treatments were three N rates (0, 56, and 112 kg N ha–1), and subplot treatments were two harvest timings (July and October). Averaged across years, application of 112 kg N ha–1significantly increased total (alfalfa plus grass) biomass from 3175 to 3685 kg ha–1. As the N application rates increased, the species composition shifted, with an increase in grass and a decrease in alfalfa contributions to biomass. The increased N rates also increased N uptake in the grass but not the alfalfa. Nitrogen fertilization did not affect cell wall composition for grass or alfalfa. July harvesting significantly increased total biomass and the contribution of alfalfa by 27 and 82%, respectively, compared with October harvesting. October harvested biomass had higher cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, and energy content than July harvest per unit biomass, yet energy per hectare was higher for the July harvest due to the higher biomass yield. Because the October harvest provided higher energy content, it would contribute to reduced biomass storage and transportation costs. In addition, October harvest reduced biomass ash and minimized soil nutrient mining.

The rotational effects and economic potential of incorporating fall‐seeded pea (Pisum sativumL.) and lentil (Lens culinarisMedik) into conventional wheat (Triticum aestivumL.)‐based cropping systems in the northern Great Plains are not well understood. Two 2‐yr crop rotation experiments were conducted in central Montana to investigate how winter pea hay, lentil green manure, and lentil grain affects subsequent winter wheat yield and protein content, as well as the economic returns of the systems under no‐till conditions. In Exp. 1, a winter pea hay–winter wheat (WP–WW) rotation was compared to fallow–winter wheat (FW–WW) and spring wheat–winter wheat (SW–WW) rotations. In Exp. 2, a winter lentil for green manure–winter wheat [WL(m)–WW] rotation was compared to a winter lentil grain–winter wheat [WL(g)–WW] rotation. Four different rates of N were applied to the winter and spring wheat. Winter wheat yield in the WP–WW rotation was 2193 kg ha−1, which was equivalent to the yield in the FW–WW rotation (2136 kg ha−1), and much greater than the SW–WW rotation (1155 kg ha−1). Averaged over all N rates, the WP–WW, FW–WW, and SW–WW systems had $196, $116, and $41 ha−1net return, respectively. In Exp. 2, the WL(m)–WW rotation produced greater grain yield and protein content at lower N input levels, indicating a greater N benefit. Nevertheless, the WL(g)–WW system generated $213 ha−1net profit while the WL(m)–WW system produced $92 ha−1. Therefore, the winter pea cover crop, used for livestock feed, improves the system profitability.

Plant breeders have attempted to use extended green leaf duration (EGLD) traits for spring wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) yield improvement in Montana. The objective of this study was to investigate the yield, protein, harvest index (HI), remobilization of water‐soluble carbohydrate (WSCRM) and nitrogen (NRM), N uptake, nitrogen harvest index (NHI) and nitrogen recovery in grains (NRG) of two spring wheat cultivars with EGLD (Vida and Reeder) and one without the traits (Outlook) as influenced by N input rates at dryland and irrigated environments. Vida, selected from a cross between Reeder and Scholar, exhibited a greater grain yield but lower protein content compared with Reeder and Outlook; this yield advantage likely resulted from higher HI, as well as greater postanthesis biomass (PABM) accumulation of Vida under irrigation. The yield advantage was greater at the irrigated site (23%) than at dryland (7–12%). The average contribution of WSCRM to grain yield (WSCCGY) was 8 and 12%, and NRM to grain N (NRCGN) was 67 and 60% at the dryland and irrigated site, respectively. No evidence showed Reeder and Vida had a greater WSCCGY or NRCGN than Outlook. The WSCRM and NRM were influenced by N input rates. Lower grain protein contents in Vida than in Reeder and Outlook was attributed to higher N contents in the straw and greater biomass yields of Vida even though Vida took up more N from soil. High N application rates reduced the NHI and NRG for all cultivars at both dryland and irrigated environments.

Row spacing, plant density, and N application timing can be manipulated to optimize plant growth and spatial distribution, therefore maximizing sunlight, nutrients, soil water use efficiency and grain yield. A 2‐yr field study to evaluate the effects of four seeding rates (108, 215, 323, and 430 seeds m−2), two row spacings (15 and 30 cm), and three N treatments (FA1, 100% at seeding; FA2, 50% at seeding and 50% at tiller formation; and FA3, 50% at seeding and 50% at shoot elongation) on grain yield of McNeal hard red spring wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) was conducted in central Montana. Spring wheat accumulated greater biomass at a faster rate under the 15‐cm row spacing than the 30‐cm row spacing. Grain yield was 410 and 412 kg ha−1greater at 15‐cm than at 30‐cm row spacings in 2004 and 2005, and the yield increase was primarily attributed to 44 and 40 more spikes m−2at 15‐cm than at 30‐cm row spacing in 2004 and 2005, respectively. Grain yield was not significantly affected by the N treatments, thus all N should be applied at seeding. The optimum seeding rate was 215 seeds m−2. Tillers at higher seeding rates had larger phyllochrons and greater mortalities. Low protein content was found in FA3 and high seeding rate treatments in 2005. Narrow row spacing is recommended for high spring wheat yield in the northern Great Plains. This yield increase cannot be achieved by increasing seeding rate at wide row spacing.

Winter pea (Pisum sativumL.) and lentil (Lens culinarisMedik.) have potential agronomic advantages over spring types in the Pacific Northwest (PNW) and northern Great Plains (NGP). The objectives of this study were to: (i) determine suitable seeding date and cereal stubble height in no‐till systems for winter pea and lentil; (ii) quantify and compare biomass and seed yield of winter pea and lentil with spring types; and (iii) compare adaptation of winter pea and lentil between the PNW and the NGP. Two breeding lines each of winter pea (PS9430706 and PS9530726) and winter lentil [LC9979010 (‘Morton’) and LC9976079] and two commercial cultivars each of spring pea (CDC Mozart and Delta) and spring lentil (Brewer and CDC Richlea) were sown on different dates (early and late fall dates for winter lines and spring date only for spring cultivars) and into different stubble heights (0.1 and 0.3 m) and compared for yield and agronomic adaptation in no‐till systems at four locations: Moccasin and Amsterdam, MT; Genesee, ID; and Rosalia, WA. Stubble height did not influence winter or spring pea biomass production or seed yield. Tall stubble increased lentil biomass by 220 to 530 kg ha−1and seed yield by 100 to 260 kg ha−1in five out of nine site–years. Fall‐seeded winter pea lines produced as much as 1830 kg ha−1more seed yield than spring cultivars at the PNW sites, but not at the NGP sites. Early fall‐seeded lentil yielded as much as 480 and 590 kg ha−1greater than spring types in the NGP and PNW, respectively. Delayed fall seeding and reduced stubble height decreased yields more frequently in the NGP than in the PNW.

Canola (Brassica napusL.) yield is often limited by heat and water stress. Early seeding may avoid the heat and water stress at critical growth stages but will encounter low soil temperatures and frequent frosts. Three experiments were performed at two locations in Montana from 2002 to 2004 to determine (i) early spring seeding effect on seed yield and oil content and optimum seeding rates for early seeding, (ii) base temperature (Tb) for germination and heat requirement for emergence, and (iii) suitable cultivars for early spring seeding. Late‐March‐seeded canola yielded 0 to 5% greater than mid‐April seeding. Delaying seeding from mid‐April to mid‐May resulted in 43 to 63% yield reduction. Oil content was 12 to 22 g kg−1greater for mid‐May seeding than mid‐April seeding in 3 out of 5 site‐year combinations. A seeding rate of 32 to 65 seeds m−2was found sufficient to produce optimum yields. Oil content tended to decrease 10 to 20 g kg−1when seeding rate increased from 11 to 97 seeds m−2. The Tbfor germination was less than 4°C, and the growing degree days for 50% emergence (GDD50) were 42 to 81. Yield was negatively correlated (r= −0.46 to −0.65) to the days to 50% flowering, and biomass measured at 60 d after planting was negatively correlated to the chlorophyll fluorescence ratio (Fv/Fm) after cold stress (r= −0.58). The optimal seeding period for the region is between late March and mid‐April. Several genotypes were found to have favorable characteristics for early seeding.

Intercropping barley (Hordeum vulgareL.) with Austrian winter pea (Pisum sativumssp. arvenseL. Poir) may increase the use efficiencies of growth resources and reduce fertilizer N requirements. The objectives of this study were to determine (i) row configuration and (ii) fertilizer N effects on yield, protein content, and the land equivalent ratio (LER) of barley–pea intercropping systems. A 3‐yr barley–pea intercropping study was conducted at the Western and Central Agricultural Research Centers (WARC and CARC) of Montana State University from 2000 to 2002 with three row configurations (4 rows barley × 4 rows pea, 2 rows barley × 2 rows pea, and barley–pea mixed within rows) and three N application treatments (0, 67, and 134 kg N ha−1). Barley biomass production increased 41% at WARC and CARC, whereas pea biomass production decreased 34% at WARC and 46% at CARC with the row configuration changing from the 4 × 4 to the mixed configuration. The LER ranged from 1.05 to 1.24 on a biomass basis and from 1.05 to 1.26 on a protein basis, indicating a production advantage of intercropping. Barley is a more competitive component than pea. Separated row arrangements are advantageous where the desired outcome is a greater pea component in the harvested forage, but the mixed arrangement has a greater total biomass yield and LER. Fertilizer N increased total biomass yield and protein level in barley–pea intercrops, but high N rates could decrease the LER and result in toxic levels of nitrate in the forage.

Wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) yields in the inland Pacific Northwest are limited by inadequate water supply late in the growing season. Choosing a suitable planting date and genotype with the appropriate phenology that matches crop growth to the water supply will produce optimum grain yields. The objectives of this study were to investigate the effects of (i) planting and (ii) wheat genotype differences on grain yield, evapotranspiration (ET), and water‐use efficiency (WUE). A 3‐yr experiment was conducted on a Walla Walla silt loam (coarse‐silty, mixed, mesic Typic Haploxeroll) near Pendleton, OR. Six winter and two spring wheat cultivars were planted in seven planting treatments (planting practices that include planting date, seeding rate, drill type, row space, and seeding depth). Soil water content was measured to determine ET. Planting treatments greatly influenced winter wheat yield. Different winter wheat cultivars responded differently to planting treatments. The optimum yield was produced at October plantings for all cultivars. Yield from September plantings was 745 to 1550 kg ha−1less than that from the October plantings, and yield also decreased when planting was delayed beyond October. For spring wheat, effect of planting treatments on yield was not statistically significant and there was no significant cultivar effect. Planting treatments significantly affected ET after adjusting for vapor pressure deficit (ET/VPD). Winter and spring wheat planted in the spring had approximately 380 to 650 mm kPa−1less ET/VPD (approximately 110–160 mm ET) than that planted in the fall. However, WUE was not significantly affected by planting treatments and cultivars.

Fresh green pea (Pisum sativumL.) and winter wheat (Triticum aestivumL.) are grown in rotation with intensive tillage in northeast Oregon. We evaluated simple yield models for both crops using data from a long‐term experiment that included four tillage treatments and soil water content measurements. Yields were affected by tillage for some of the 21 yr of study, but there was no consistent ranking among tillage treatments from year to year and no effect when data were pooled. Standardizing pea yields to a tenderometer reading of 100 failed to improve detection of treatment effect. Tillage affected wheat water use (ET) for three of the study years and water use efficiency (WUEET) for one. Conservation tillage reduced pea ET for seven of the study years. For combined years, however, there was no tillage effect on yield, ET, or WUEETof either crop. Wheat yield was better predicted from ET (R2= 0.41) than by the Leggett model, which uses March soil water storage and spring rain (R2= 0.12) Yield prediction was improved when ET was divided by seasonal mean daily water vapor pressure deficit (VPD) (R2= 0.53) Multiple‐regression equations using monthly rain predicted wheat yield well (R2= 0.62) but coefficients differed among data sets. A model using monthly rain and heat degree day sum (HDDS) predicted pea yield much better (R2= 0.65) than ET‐based equations (R2= 0.30)suggesting that pea yield is limited by factors other than water. For wheat, ET/VPD‐based models should replace the Leggett model. However, for pea, multiple regression models predict yield better than ET‐based models.