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Hydrodeoxygenation (HDO) is an effective method for bio-oil upgrading. However, the high hydrogen consumption resulted in high bio-oil upgrading cost. In this study, an novel method of hydrogen generation from water for bio-oil HDO was reported. Zinc metal with zero valency was used to generate hydrogen through zinc hydrolysis reaction in the bio-oil HDO process. The effects of different temperatures (20 °C, 250 °C, 300 °C, 350 °C, 400 °C) on in situ bio-oil HDO was investigated. The results showed that high temperatures resulted in high hydrogen yield that led to promoted HDO activity over zinc metal-based materials. Although 20 °C bio-oil HDO process generated the highest oil phase yield at 14.07%, 400 °C bio-oil upgrading process produced upgraded bio-oil with highest hydrocarbons content at 68.95%. Physicochemical properties of raw bio-oil improved significantly after bio-oil HDO upgrading at higher temperatures (250 °C, 300 °C, 350 °C and 400 °C). The pH of upgraded bio-oils (5.70–6.49) increased significantly compared to raw bio-oil (3.24). The higher heating value of upgraded bio-oils (28.67–33.43 MJ/kg) increased significantly compared to raw bio-oil (15.54 MJ/kg), and valuable hydrocarbons content improved significantly from 16.94% in raw bio-oil to 37.86%–68.95% in upgraded bio-oils. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Design skill is an integral part of an engineer's education. Hence, incorporating a design course into agricultural engineering education in Africa will create agricultural engineers who are not only technically strong, but also innovators. The need for well-planned design input for agricultural engineering students is evident, by looking at the changing scenario in the world of work. It is envisaged that a formal course would serve better than occasional pieces of design-related information cited in individual subjects. A new core course on Design Methodology intended for agricultural engineering students in Africa is proposed and a framework of implementation and evaluation is presented. A design cycle consisting of needs analysis, concept hunt, environmental conditions, function-analysis, ergonomic and aesthetic parameters is described. The course incorporates elements of research, conceptualization and decision making. It is also expected to stimulate thinking, group discussions and creativity in general The course would enable the students to conceive, formulate and take up design-orientated final year projects. The course proposed here may be introduced in agricultural engineering programmes throughout Africa to improve students' education. Whether they pursue careers in industry or academia, this course will prepare agricultural engineers in Africa to be engaged in problem solving from the moment they enter the professional field. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]