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Copyright of Zhongguo Kejishi Zazhi (Chinese Journal for the History of Science & Technology) is the property of Chinese Academy of Sciences and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the spring of 2011, Japan was struck by a massive earthquake and tsunami that brought in its wake devastation and a severe threat of a nuclear crisis. The threat of this crisis took the world by storm because it had implications not only for the people of Japan but for other parts of the world. This paper analyzes how an US-based online news source, CNN.com and a Japan-based online news source, Asahi.com, framed the 3/11 disaster. This comparative analysis of how online news sources from two parts of the world covered the crisis offers a unique understanding of how culture and medium might impact reporting of an environmental crisis that happened locally but had global implications. An examination of loss, threat, cause, responsibility and solution frames of the CNN.com and Asahi.com coverage documented that while both outlets were similar in how they stressed the responsibility and solution frames, CNN.com talked significantly more about the threat frame compared to Asahi.com. Similarly, Asahi.com talked significantly more about the cause and loss frames than CNN.com. Through its findings, this paper offers insights into cross-cultural crises framing by online sources and expands the literature on media framing of environmental crises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to examine how the representation of industrial modernization changed after the appearance of the concept of "industrial heritage," and to clarify its meaning for local communities. At present, local communities are at a crucial juncture facing de-population and financial deficit issues due to giobalization and neo-liberalism. Particularly periled are former coal-mining areas that failed to attract enterprises and to develop tourism. Industrial heritage is expected to be a local resource for new development in such areas. In order to clarify how local people represent industrial heritage in such a harsh situation, this paper analyzes the logic and practice of local people when interpreting the concept of industrial heritage and representing it based on their own experience and memories. The concept of industrial heritage involves promoting the participation of local people in the representation process of industrial modernization. However, in the meantime, this representation inevitably leads to people evaluating industrial modernization including those issues that are politically sensitive. This situation results in local activities utilizing industrial heritage for the revitalization of the local community, which is in a very insecure position. Through representation analyses, participant observations, and interviews with related persons, this paper compares the representation of museum exhibitions and the representation of tour guides in former coal-mining areas. In doing so, it examines how the representation of industrial modernization is changing. Moreover, this paper also suggests that the so-called "strategic" nationalism along with various potential meanings arising from the material presence of factories and apartments can help overcome the abovemenfioned insecure local meaning of industrial modernization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to consider the analytical framework and basic premises while exploring the situation of multiple second modernities under glocalization. and deals with Japan as a case study. In doing so. the paper sets up as its subject the different patterns of relationships between the individual, intermediate groups, and the state in each locality and pursues the transformation of these patterns in contemporary society. As an implication, it concomitantly explores the relationship between globalization and sociological theory. The structural tensions inherent in modern society between traditional and contractual elements are periodically expressed in the institutional patterns of the relationships between the individual, intermediate groups, and the state in each area. As part of its basic analytical frame, this paper considers the similarities and differences between the theory of glocalization and that of multiple modernities in order to articulate the two approaches; further, this paper tries to form a typology of the "West," "U.S.A." and "Japan" in terms of their relational patterns with respect to the three factors mentioned above. In the age of multiple second modernities, relational patterns are expressed as configurations of individuality (and not the individual), intermediate networks (not intermediate groups) and transforming states (and not just states). To observe the distinctness of each locality in all its plurality, we need to consider not only the institutional structure of the three factors but also the more fundamental logic behind all collective/individual formations in each society in question. In considering these issues, our paper focuses on the case of Japan, in order to analyze contemporary Japan as one of states that exhibits multiple second modernities under the glocalization process. Our findings are based on our observations of Japan's historical and cultural distinctness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper aims at examining the status of the hoiku-shoka (nursery song), usually understood as the origin of modern Japanese musical composition, in the historical context of Japanese music. With its main focus on composition, performance, and venue of performance in the Imperial Court, the paper will discuss mainly the following topic, on what occasion compositions which took over the hoiku-shoka were composed. It has conventionally been maintained that the hoiku-shoka rapidly declined in school education and was completely forgotten after 1885-87, when the Music Study Committee compiled Shogaku Shoka-shu (A Collection of Songs for Elementary School). However, in fact, hoiku-shoka and its style did not completely disappear. This paper tries to prove that hoiku-shoka maintained its own tradition as a new genre (newly composed shoka) in court music with the same position as gagaku (Imperial Court music) or European music. Musical compositions by the court musicians during the 1870s led to their activities thereafter. Thus shoka (song), which originated from hoiku-shoka, has kept its position in the court music partly as a result of the musicians' connections with the Emperor and the Royal Family and also due to the role they had played in large-scale events such as the 1100th Anniversary of the Transfer of the Capital to Kyoto. Meanwhile, music composed by the court musicians was appreciated as an integral part of the musical activity in the Imperial Court. Although gagaku and shoka coexisted in earlier Imperial Court performances, this has not been the case in the gakubu (Imperial Court Music Division) after 1910-1915. While the compositional activities continued till pre-war, the newly composed shoka has completely been excluded from the musical tradition of the Imperial Court. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

When we walk around any contemporary city, we can hear a mixture of sounds, including background music, human voices and alarms from mobile phones. This paper is an attempt to organize the linage of the studies and works on "soundscape" better enable our ability to analyze the confusing sound environment in a large, contemporary city. The concept of "soundscape" was presented by R. Murray SCHAFER, a composer and educator. But how do we distinguish "soundscape" from "sound environment"? Firstly, these notions are examined in landscape studies by comparing them with the viewpoint of visual sense. In this paper, "sound environment" means an objective environment; we can read some "soundscape" from the "sound environment" with our subjective viewpoint. And the heart of SCHAFER'S work was his view of "soundscape design". It was not only to add sounds but also to leave or even reduce sounds accordingly. In this design, the desirable soundscape is "Hi-fi (fidelity) soundscape", which is less noisy and has a clear primary signal. Other 1960s anthropologists paid attention to the functions of loud sounds and noises in different cultures. Claude LEVI-STRAUSS pointed out the functions of noise, which open the door to the numinous world. It separates sacred from secular time and space. These notions were very important devices of intermediate extraordinary time and place. However, SCHAFER'S "soundscape design" concept was widely accepted in Japan and it was quite different from its Western counterpart. TORIGOE Keiko diffused Soundscape in Japan. She and her colleagues connected the notion of soundscape with "Japaneseness". Here it led to some efforts to select the best place and surroundings for political events on local government and national level. The largest project was "the 100 best soundscapes that need to be preserved in Japan". However, their work on Soundscape design could not a high level of great dependence on primarily subjective criteria in defining "any good soundscape". Technologically advanced countries have had many mechanical devices and media connecting the environment and the human body. In landscape studies, SATO Kenji wrote that contemporary people share "common sense" in these societies. He claims that we must not exclude these mechanical and electric features of the environment. In order to subjectively verify this "common sense", I refer to a project in 2004-2007. In view of landscape studies, some Japanese intellectuals formed "The Association to make beautiful Landscape", aimed at critiquing the chaotic landscapes of Japanese cities. They developed a website presenting "the 100 worst landscapes in Japan". However, many people made objections. In particular, IGARASHI Taro, an architect, claims that the Tokyo landscapes they criticize are attractive for many young people, especially those who like cyber movies. Such an argument shows that in this contemporary age, opinions about cities may vary considerably, especially when one factors in generational considerations. What is more, this example shows that SCHAFER'S "soundscape design" notion is insufficient as an instrument for sound environment analysis because it omits a very important aspect of environment perception - the actor's criteria. We have to seek new notions as devices to research these new soundscapes from more relative points of view. To overcome this problem and make use of soundscape as a means of analysis in the sound environment of cities, I examine anthropological and ethno-musicological theories in ethnography. NAKAGAWA Shin speculated on the sounds of the Gion Festival in Japan. He claims that SCHAFER'S narrative of "Hi-fi to Low-fi" is not suitable for non-Western societies and that fieldwork is needed in Non-Western, especially Asian areas. And his field of research, Kyoto, is also a contemporary city. There is also much noise coming from traffic, public television, mobile phones, etc. This means that in modern cities our sound environment is dominated by multi-flow powers. How can we analyze this case? A solution to this problem may be sought in the works of ethnomusicologists. Firstly, I refer to some pieces by Steven FELD, who carried out his fieldwork among the Kaluli people in Papua New Guinea. In his first study, he presented Kaluli's ethno-theory of music. He discussed his book with Kaluli people, and concluded that the sounds in their environment are no less important for them than their songs. This finding motivated him to study the environmental sounds in a tropical forest. In his subsequent research in the forest he focused his attention on the Kaluli's concept "dulugu ganalan", which comprises songs, animal noises and environmental sounds, especially those coming from water. He translated this as "lift-up-over-sounding", and established it as an important concept which expresses their system of society and sound theory. In his studies he was influenced by SCHAFER, referring to SCHAFER'S works and holding a critical view towards the so called objective "soundscape approaches" and taking a more subjective approach. From such a point of view, he insisted that there is a close interaction among sounds in environment, society and this human body and named it "acoustemology". FELD's colleague YAMADA Youichi, who conducted research among the Waxei people in Papua New Guinea, placed more emphasis on the interaction between sound and body. He updated FELD'S acoustemology to "acoustic body theory" claiming that musicking body must feel pleasure. All these theories are products of the analysis of traditional society environment. However, I would like to examine how they work in the confusing sound environment of a contemporary city. The sources of such sound are very close and integral parts of people's lives, causing both pleasure and discomfort according to the subjective responses of the listeners. SUWA Jun'ichiro carried out research in Papua New Guinea, doing his fieldwork on the local song of the city, claiming that in the city's sound-environment, their auditory sense is fragmented. He connected this fragmented auditory sense with their ideology and identity. Returning to NAKAGAWA, he claimed that we need research in Asia. If the field is in Asia, it will be more Low-fi than that of SUWA. In addition to that, people are individuals with their own tastes and preferences for different sounds, as evidenced by the widespread use of portable audio players. This means that we cannot carry out research with both the natural body and individualized devices. We do not share one unified sound or ethno-theory. Rather, we have a cluster, different layers of sounds. This is a common feature of contemporary cities and it resembles FELD'S "Lift-up-over-sounding". We may read this sound-environment as "fragmented" soundscape. Use of these concepts may contribute to the development of acoustic field research in contemporary cities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper explores social stratification and social inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan by comprehensively analyzing the effects of occupation on one's class status. In this paper, the author examines the effects that a person's occupational conditions, such as occupation (interpreted narrowly), employment status, type of employment contract (standard or non-standard), and company size, have on his/her individual income and class consciousness, and how these effects vary within East Asian societies on the basis of each society's unique labor market structure and local institutions. The analysis of the 2005 Social Stratification and Social Mobility (SSM) survey data led to the following findings. On the whole, the effects of occupational conditions on income and class consciousness are similar within all these societies. However, the relative impacts of these conditions differ considerably. While occupation (narrowly interpreted) has predominant effects in Taiwan, the effects of company size and type of employment contract are also considerable in Japan, and partly so in Korea. It is also notable that in the case of Japanese males, company size and type of employment contract have significant effects on class consciousness, even after the effects of individual income are controlled. These effects can be attributed to some factors that are unique to the Japanese management system, such as career-long employment and the wage seniority system that are usually offered to the standard male employees of large companies. From these findings, we can conclude that we should focus on local institutional factors as well as global factors for a better understanding of present-day social stratification and social inequality in East Asian societies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines two topics related to intergenerational class mobility: long-term trends in class mobility in post-war Japan and cross-national comparison. First, the trends in relative class mobility, which is the indicator of societal openness, show an overall stability in post-war Japan. There was no evidence to support the notion of increased rigidity and mobility barriers in recent Japan. This notion was probably derived from the changes in class structure and absolute mobility. Both the share of the upper white-collar class and the proportion of upward mobility were reduced: at the same time, both the share of the unskilled manual class and the proportion of downward mobility were increased. These changes probably affected people's perception of increased rigidity in class structure. Second, this paper examined Japan's position in relation to other industrial societies in the 1970s and 1990s. With regard to relative mobility rate. Japan was located in the middle position implying that it is neither more fluid nor less fluid than other industrial societies. With regard to absolute mobility rate, Japan showed a trend of a rapid increase in total mobility rate following the process of industrialization, just like other late-industrializing societies. The paper examined the relative location of all the nations in our analysis by taking into account the trends of both absolute mobility rate and relative mobility rate during the process of industrialization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to examine who enters senmon gakko (Japanese vocational schools), how they use this education, and how this usage has changed over time. The senmon gakko has not been fully explored as an object of academic concern, since it possesses an amorphous nature derived from the separation of its legal position (as an institution of post-secondary education) and its practical position (as an institution of higher education). Preceding studies have made conflicting arguments regarding what kind of high school students enter senmon gakko. There have been two different positions. The first is the higher educational model, which sees the senmon gakko as an institution of higher education and presumes that the entrants belong to a similar stratum as their counterparts in university or junior college. The second is the post-secondary educational model, which regards the senmon gakko as an institution of post-secondary education and underlines its uniqueness. Today, the senmon gakko is often discussed in educational policies and academic discussions as if it were one of the institutions of higher education. Historically, however, senmon gakko were set up as less prestigious institutions of post-secondary education, beginning in 1976, and were long disparaged because of this. In other words, the position of the senmon gakko has changed from post-secondary education to higher education, and this change is emphasized in this paper. Some indices indicate that the turning point took place in 1990. In consideration of this, the author established the hypothesis that the change in the position of the senmon gakko reflects alterations in the students. This hypothesis is examined by applying a multinomial logistic regression analysis and other methods to the JGSS data set. The results suggest that the hypothesis is adopted. Until the 1990s, the senmon gakko was the unique route for high school graduates from the self-employed and similar strata to attain blue-collar or lower-level white-collar jobs as an initial career. So it can be said that the senmon gakko provided a relatively profitable path. Since the 1990s, however, with the increase in students from the lower white-collar class, senmon gakko students have become similar to university students in terms of social class. Now they are clearly different from high school graduates in their origins. However, from a comparison of entrance (family background and school records) with exit (initial jobs), the senmon gakko provides a smaller pay-out than it did before the 1990s. These findings demonstrate that the change in the users and usages of senmon gakko show a process through which post-secondary education is reorganized into higher education. The Japanese General Social Surveys (JGSS) are designed and carried out at the Institute of Regional Studies at Osaka University of Commerce in collaboration with the Institute of Social Science at the University of Tokyo under the direction of Ichiro TANIOKA, Michio NITTA, Hiroki SATO and Noriko IWAI with Project Manager Minae OSAWA. The project is financially assisted by a Gakujutsu Frontier Grant from the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology for the 1999-2003 academic years, and the datasets are compiled and distributed by the SSJ Data Archive, Information Center for Social Science Research on Japan, Institute of Social Science, the University of Tokyo. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Interest in social capital has grown recently among researchers both in Japan and around the world. It is "bridging social capital" that attracts particular attention today. Minorities tend to be portrayed as people who are denied such social capital. The author argues that it is important to examine the kind of social capital which is generated and utilized in networks developed by minorities themselves. This paper focuses on the "Burakumin," the largest minority population in Japan. Discriminated-against Buraku communities have benefited during the past half century from specific government legislation realized through the efforts of the Buraku liberation movement, as well as various Buraku improvement measures. On the other hand, however, new difficulties have developed recently such as the stagnation of the liberation movement, widening disparities in income and academic achievement within Buraku communities, and the abolition of relevant laws. In this context, we can analyze the impact of environmental changes on social capital and the formation of social networks based on it over time. This paper clearly reveals that there is dilemma between the assumption of homogeneity and the formation of minority networks. It also reveals that class -based disparities can be observed within the network and that the qualitative change of benefits influences the formation of networks. "Bonding social capital" is by no means uniform. We run the risk of overlooking diversity and disparity within the network if we emphasize homogeneity. In addition, the "positive" and "negative" aspects of social capital are not static, but change variously based on influences such as "being valued by people outside of the network" and "qualitative changes over time." This paper examines these dynamic aspects that are specific to the social networks developed by minorities. This paper focuses on "bonding social capital" within minority networks. In the case of social networks formed with the aim of achieving "liberation" from oppression, it is indispensable to build effective relationships with entities outside the network. Therefore, an important future task for the author is to maintain a good balance between "bridging social capital" and "bonding social capital," upon which minority networks rely heavily. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the period from 1975 to 2004, Japan accepted more than 152,000 new immigrant children under the age of 14 years, but there are no surveys or censuses on their academic achievements. This paper examines how "age or grade at the time of immigration" affected the academic achievements of 147 Chinese children who lived in a school district in Osaka as junior high school students. Using cross tabulation, the author finds that the percentage of high-school enrolment in the 1.5 generation (i. e. those who came to Japan as elementary schoolchildren) was much higher than that of the 1.25 generation (i. e. those who came to Japan as junior high school students) and even higher than that of 1.75 generation (i. e. those who came to Japan before the age of 6). In another cross tabulation, the author finds that high school students whose father was not a peasant in China were more likely to receive higher education than other high school students. The author then analyzes the determinants of years of education employing regressive analysis and finds that "Grade at the time of immigration" and "father's job in China" both have a consistent effect on years of education, such that years of education was highest when the child came to Japan as a third or fourth grader in elementary school. It is surprising to see that many members of the 1.75 and 2.0 generation quit school before entering high school. This indicates that the Chinese community (including their parents) are losing control over these children, who no longer speak fluent Chinese at home and school. As soon as the 1990s began, Japan experienced a large flow of immigrant, which lasted throughout the decade, and now most of the newcomer immigrant children in junior high school are members of the 1.75 generation, and soon will be replaced by the 2.0 generation. This paper, focusing on the difficulties faced by 1.75 or 2.0 generation immigrant children in surviving in school beyond the junior high level, acts as a warning that there will be many dropouts among Japanese monolingual immigrant children in the near future if no support or control is provided. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this study is to examine how the relation between general education and the world of work was structured, and what supported it in the early Showa Era, when the relationship appeared, through an analysis of the state of vocational guidance in primary school. Section 1 points out that the "Japanese" pattern of transition from school to work dates from the prewar period, and that earlier studies only clarified the intention and the actual situation on the part of companies or employment agencies. However, in order to grasp the entire historical process of the structuring of the system, it is necessary to elucidate the intention and the actual situation on the part of schools, and to inquire again on the issue of transition as a problem of education. The paper then explains the significance of clarifying the problem mentioned above. Section 2 examines the opinion of the Ministry of Education on the introduction of institutions for vocational guidance, and considers the kind of problems that occurred in school. It shows that setting up a special subject of vocational guidance has consistently been shelved although teachers thought the problems emerged because of the lack of such courses. In the background was an essential aporia regarding vocational guidance. The aporia was caused by the fact that the transition from school to work was not always successful even if vocational aptitude tests were complete, because it depended on the situation of the labor market. Section 3 clarifies that two methods for giving vocational guidance in primary schools emerged. The two methods were as follows: (1) directly helping students to find jobs, (2) cultivating a "spirit of enterprise." In addition, the paper points out that this divergence corresponded to an aporia in vocational guidance, based on "ideal" versus "reality." These methods led to the development of the relation between general education and the world of employment in postwar times, with "continuity in system" and "discontinuity in substance." Section 4 discusses "Love," which was used to support vocational guidance in school. "Love" was a magic word used to justify both methods, and to hinder any examination of the methodology of vocational guidance. The paper then argues that "Love" was the trigger for the emergence of the issue regarding transition as a problem of education. Section 5 is a summary and discussion. It points out that the divergence of methods for giving guidance was an inevitable result considering the matter of transition as a problem of education. Moreover, it hypothesizes that the two methods of vocational guidance in school were united by the justification of the practices using the word "Love". The word "'Love" continued to be used in postwar times. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to examine relations between Japanese and foreigners in terms of educational support in communities from the perspective of the maintenance and change of relations. The paper clarifies the relationship by analyzing the gaze and interactions between undergraduate students and the newcomer children to whom they provide educational support. Previous research has discussed the educational problems of newcomers in the context of Japanese school culture. However, in order to focus on the relationship between Japanese and foreigners and to explain the maintenance and changing of the power of majority, it is necessary to study not only the school but also the relations in the community. In addition, some practical research focuses on educational support activities for newcomers, but is based on experiences rather than a theoretical background, and tends to find that support activities by NPOs have the potential to revolutionize the social system. However, some argue that relations between the majority and minority can be asymmetrical in the context of voluntary support. Therefore, this paper analyzes qualitative data, examining whether asymmetrical power relations between Japanese and newcomers are built or not within support activities in a community by an NPO, and how the relations are maintained or changed. The author interviewed and observed three undergraduate students participating in an NPO that provides educational supports for newcomer children. The following findings are obtained. First, the undergraduates had asymmetrical relations with the newcomer children, as they problematized the children's behavior. However, opportunities stemming from conflicts with the children led to the dissolution of the asymmetrical relations over "problems," as the undergraduates asked "questions" to understand the children. Second, while asymmetrical relations were maintained over "support," there was also a change in the relations with the children and parents. When the focus of narration is the worth of support activities rather than relations with newcomers, the categories of "Japanese who support foreigners" and "foreigners who are supported by Japanese" are fixed, and the asymmetrical relations are maintained. On the other hand, when a person has personal relationships with newcomers, and re narrates the problems and needs of newcomers as his/bet "own problems," the asymmetrical relations change. If Japanese supporters consider the relations between themselves to be more important than those with newcomers, they become blind to their asymmetrical relationship and conceal it under the story of "support." This leads to a paradox of support under which relations are fixed as long as Japanese support newcomers. However, if Japanese re narrate the needs of newcomers as their "own problems," they can free themselves from the asymmetry and create alternative relations with newcomers Previous research failed to sufficiently examine the power relations in support activities. Only looking at the positive side of support by NPOs, however, can blind one to the asymmetrical relations in support. Simply providing support for minorities does not free one from power relations. Research on relations between Japanese and foreigners in support activities in communities should be continued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper describes, in the context of their surroundings, the process through which high school students who came from China in and after the 1970s (Chinese newcomers), rebuild their hopes for the future, which were at one point destroyed by their coming to Japan, and make career choices. Chinese newcomers originally have their own life plans, based on school education and their life experiences in China. Coming to Japan is an interruption of their plans for the future. How do they rebuild a future outlook and pursue a desired career in Japan? It seems that, because newcomer students are at a disadvantage in terms of Japanese language, they are not able to maximize their academic ability, and tend to enter low-level high schools. How does this affect their school life and their academic career? And what kind of support do they need? This paper considers this issue, using the case of Chinese newcomers who were assisted by career counseling activities, at a lower track public commercial high school. The following two points are made clear. First, through their school experiences in China, the Chinese newcomers were imbued with the value that studying should come first and that grades are everything. They had an achievement based future outlook, under which future happiness is seen to depend on good grades and a high academic background. While they wished to go on to university, they were confronted by the anti-school culture in the high school, where studying is not highly valued, and came to feel friction, conflict, and denial. Their desire to go to university declined. In other words, school life in the high school did not offer them a way to achieve what they want in the future. Secondly, university student volunteers helped newcomer students to regain the hopes that they had lost after entering the commercial high school, and encouraged them to go on to university. Student volunteers acted as role models, embodying the pro school culture that Chinese newcomers originally had, and encouraged them to continue to be diligent and to make efforts. Specific information on universities given by teachers is also an important source for making the career choice to go on to university. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines the impact of social class and a variety of attitudes regarding society and education on attitudes toward educational expenditures. In Japan, the rapid rise of educational participation rates has been strongly supported by household expenditures. The scale of private funding is very large in comparison with other countries, and not only high income parents, but also low income ones, make expenditures for their children's education. Therefore, the following question arises: what motivates Japanese people to give education to their children? Previous research on economics and the sociology of education has focused on investment and consumption. However, considering that the motives for educational expenditures are complex and are influenced by a variety of characteristics of parents, including attitudes on society and education, this paper investigates attitudes toward educational expense using data from the 2003 National Survey on Work and Daily Life. In order to identify significant patterns in many variables, decision tree analysis is used as a data mining techniques. Following a brief introduction of decision tree analysis, the technique is applied to delineate the key features that distinguish between people who are eager to pay their children's educational expenses and those who are not. First, the data indicate that many people believe that parents should pay for nearly all of their children's educational costs. Second, decision tree analysis reveals that the most important factor influencing the payment of educational expenses is not the benefit of education, but rather the recognition of educational inequality in contemporary Japanese higher education. People who perceive educational opportunities as being equal are more willing to pay for their children, because they believe that there is stiff competition for educational credentials. Third, investment and consumption are important factors for people who believe there is educational inequality. As a result, the motive for making educational expenditures depends on attitudes toward society and education. On the other hand, the group that showed most strongly negative attitude is people who believe that educational opportunities are closed by family income and that their own subjective social status is low, and that education does not play a central role for achieving high income and social status. This finding suggests that at present, educational costs are very heavy, and that if the burden of tuition fee and other educational expenses clearly brings an awareness of educational inequalities according to family income, many people will perceive education as being meaningless for them. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to reexamine the use of "Comprehensive and Multi-dimensional Evaluation" as the basis for University Entrance Examinations. Though the phrase "Comprehensive and Multi-dimensional Evaluation" itself was first articulated in the 1997 report of the Central Council for Education (Chuou Kyoiku Shingikai), the concept itself came into existence immediately after the postwar period. In fact, "comprehensive evaluation" was merely an excuse for avoiding having to add the score of Japanese Scholastic Aptitude Test (Shingaku Tekisei Kensa, used from 1947 to 1954) into the total score of the University Entrance Examination. Moreover, the term "multi dimensional evaluation" appeared in the outline of the University Entrance Examination (Daigaku Nyugakusha Senbatsu Jisshi Youkou), as it is proposed in the first report of the National Council on Educational Reform (Rinji Kyoiku Shingikai) in 1985. In fact, the report of the Central Council for Education (Chuo Kyoiku Shingikai) in 1971 stated that "Comprehensive and Multi dimensional Evaluation" was scientifically valid as a basis for University Entrance Examinations. The report is famous as the only report based on evidence, and is generally known as the "1971 Report" (Yonroku Toushin). In the interim report, the Central Council for Education stated that follow-up surveys by the National Institute for Education and the Educational Test Research Institute (Nouryoku Kaihatu Kenkyujyo) had proven that a "Comprehensive and Multi-dimensional Evaluation" could be a valid selection method for predicting a good Grade Point Average after entrance to university. However, the two surveys cited contained simple statistical errors. The first, survey by the National Institute for Education, failed to control for the "Selection Effect." A "Selection Effect" is a "restriction in range problem," caused by cutting off the distribution at the passing grade. As a result, there is a tendency to misunderstand the fact that, in actuality, academic achievement tests on University Entrance Examinations have little relationship with Grade Point Average after entering university. To tell the truth, this problem had been pointed out as early as 1924 by Japanese psychologists who were interested in Entrance Examinations. In the second survey, by the Educational Test Research Institute, the inevitable nature of multiple correlation coefficients was ignored. As the number of independent variable increases one by one, the multiple correlation coefficient necessarily reaches the maximum of 1. In this paper, the follow up research data from the Educational Test Research Institute is recalculated using a multiple correlation coefficient adjusted for the degrees of freedom. The conclusion is different from that reached by the Central Council for Education. This demonstrates that there is absolutely no scientific ground for the use of "Comprehensive and Multi dimensional Evaluation." In other words, it is not necessarily correct that putting a lot of effort into University Entrance Examinations and using anything more than academic achievement tests as reference for University Entrance Examination will lead to more students gaining good grades after entering university. If this mismeasure of academic achievement is not properly recognized, the number of university students who cannot achieve even low basic competence level will surely increase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Japan, like in most countries, the equality of educational opportunities is a crucial issue both in academics and in governmental policy. However, the policy of equality of educational opportunities in Japanese higher education has been weakening. The first aim of this paper is to investigate the background of the policy and to clarify the reasons for its loss of importance. With this aim, the author gives an overview of policy and research works on the equality of higher education opportunities in Japan, in comparison with those overseas. The aim of higher educational policy and planning in post world-war II Japan was to rectify disparities in higher education opportunities between regions and social classes by increasing the supply of institutions providing higher education. However, the policy turned drastically from enlargement to suppression in 1975. The establishment of new universities and departments in the metropolitan area were strictly restricted by the Ministry of Education. This policy aimed to reduce regional inequalities in higher educational opportunities, and was largely successful in doing so. However, the policy concentrated on the regional inequalities, leading to a loss of concern on inequalities among social classes, with the exception of student financial aid programs. Secondly, the results of the Student Life Survey by the Ministry of Education (from 2004 by the Japan Student Service Organization) are often used to demonstrate the equality of higher educational opportunities in Japan. On the contrary, however, some researchers argue that the inequality of higher educational opportunity has been increasing or at least not decreasing, using other survey data. This paper examines the equality of higher educational opportunities using new survey data from 2005. The data show large inequalities in university education opportunities, particularly in private universities. In particular, the participation rate is very low among low-income, low-achievement, female high school graduates. This shows that there are still problems of inequality. Thirdly, this survey shows the existence of debt aversion among parents in the lowest income class and in families with mothers having the lowest education levels. It seems likely that debt aversion leads to serious problems because of the inadequacy of student aid programs, coupled with high tuition fees in Japan. The student financial aid programs of The Japan Student Service Organization, the largest public student program in Japan, gives loans, but not grants, to undergraduates. Some parents and students from lower income tiers may decide not to apply to university to avoid a debt burden. This result implies the need for grants to maintain the accessibility of higher education in the future. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The measurement of children's academic achievements and the explanation of differences between social classes should not be dismissed by sociologists of education. Although inequality is a major theme of the field, the sociology of education has lacked empirical evidence on the structure of disparities in academic achievements. This is partly due to the difficulties involved in collecting sufficient data on academic achievement through schools. In and after 2002, studies were begun on the relationship between academic achievement and social class in Japan. At the time, schools were being heavily criticized within the context of the debate over falling children's academic achievements. Some significant surveys were administered at that time, though they were small in number. However, they left some important issue to be solved. The first is that analyses of the determinants of academic achievement are inadequate for clarifying what factors will diminish class differences in achievement. The second concerns the reliability and validity of the variables collected. In particular, variables on the economic conditions of households are lacking. Finally, the surveys were conducted only in large cities. This paper examines the factors that affect children's academic achievements, and the extent of the effect of such factors, through an analysis of the data of the Japan Education Longitudinal Study 2003 (JELS2003). JELS2003 was conducted in two areas: one a middle sized city within the capital metropolitan areas, and the other a small local city. It also contains variables about the economic conditions of households. The major findings of the paper are as follows. 1. In the small local city, the differences of academic achievement between social classes were relatively small. 2. In the middle-sized city within the metropolitan area, children's academic achievements were affected by the level of monthly educational expenses, level of educational expectations of the child, and income level of the family. Inequalities in children's academic achievements in our society should be grasped in the context of the substitution of "parentocracy" for meritocracy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper examines inter/intra family differences and child care support policies in Japan from child-rearing strategies and a gender perspective. For the theoretical consideration of mechanisms of reproduction of family differences, this paper proposes a Child-rearing Code and Gender Code based on B. Bernstein's theory of cultural transmission. The Child-rearing Code system reveals not only inter family differences based on parental economic background, but also intra family differences based on the .sexual division of labor in the family. This paper traces Family Support Policies after World War II, and examines how these policies were gendered and privatized. Especially since the 1990s, various Child care Support Policies have been introduced in Japan not just to support family childcare, but to raise the birth rate, and these policies sometimes functioned to reinforce a Gender Regime. The latter part of the paper focuses on voices of parents, based on an extensive empirical investigation which was conducted in Tokyo from 2000 to 2006. The study describes the isolation of mothers with children in a gendered division of labor situation, the emotional capital in mother child interactions, and the dilemmas of working mothers who have to divide their time between paid work and time spent with their children. It also explores the difficulties faced by fathers who want to, but cannot, care for their children, because of long working hours and business centered social values. This paper also explains the economic difficulties faced by single mothers due to the lack of social security and wage disadvantages in the labor market in Japan. Based on these theoretical and empirical considerations, this paper concludes that the symbolic realization of inter/intra family differences are generated by a gender code which operates with an invisible gender hierarchy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In Japan, disparities in high schools showed an increasing tendency until the end of the 1970s. Since that time, attempts have been made to analyze and reduce these disparities, both in the field of sociology of education and educational reforms. This paper aims to re-examine the challenges in both fields and to elucidate their positive outcomes and limitations, and in addition, to point out a new perspective for future challenges in this area. Academically, the study of disparities began with the application of the concept of "tracking." At the beginning, many types of evils caused by disparities were problematized, and the concept of "tracking" was adopted to document the situation. The concept of "tracking" was compatible with functionalism, which was the main theoretical stream in the sociology of education at that time. The concept of "tracking" was originally used in studies of high schools in the United States to reveal the fact that there were invisible mechanisms for the selection of students in open curriculum systems. However, in Japan, the concept was used to report the fact that there were great differences in the inner processes of schools and subjective aspects of students based on school disparities. In other words, the concept was used to point out the effects of the disparities. As a result, the study of disparities has been developed as the study of "tracking effects." It can be said that studies of the tracking effect could have contributed to investigations of the inner processes of schools and subjective aspects of students. But instead, they took a macro perspective from the studies of school disparities. As a result, disparities were not examined in relation to social structures. Politically, there are two ways to reduce disparities in schools. One is to control the level of achievement of new students in order to prevent the emergence of differences among schools (input control). The other is to control educational activities in the schools to ensure that tracking effects do not take place in each school (through put control). Since the late 1970s, input controls have been carried out through reforms of the entrance examination system of high schools and improvements of the guidance system of junior high schools. However, these controls were too indirect to reduce school disparities. In other words, whether they could reduce the disparities or not depended on their ability to change students' standards for school choice, which were indeed subjective. Through put controls have been carried out as reforms of high schools. High school reforms after the 1980s were generally seen as an attempt to weaken classifications and frames of education. Logically, it seemed that these efforts led to a limitation of tracking effects in each school and to a reduction in school disparities as a whole. However, these attempts were not effective as they lacked a grand design and were done separately for each school. Challenges to the school disparities in both fields mentioned above seems to be homologous. They share the fact that they look at the disparities from a narrow perspective, only in relation to inner processes of each school or the subjective aspect of students. School disparities are social disparities. For example, they involve class differences among the enrolled students, and are related to regional differences. Consequently, in order to reduce school disparities, it is necessary to see them in their social context. The conclusion of this paper, by introducing recent challenges to school disparities, proposes this new perspective. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recently, there has been a great deal of talk about widening social disparities in Japan. A number of books have been published declaring that Japan is now on the threshold of being transformed into a "society of disparities." This paper discusses some of the methodological difficulties that must be taken into account when considering widening disparities between the haves and have nots, seen from the standpoint of the sociological study of education. Firstly, the recently published works, with their declaration that social disparities are widening, are making an assertion about an uncertain future. The same point can be made about studies that examine the actual state of the social disparities on the basis of empirical data. This means, in other words, that any discussion of the effects of various current phenomena characterizing education on future social disparities always contain an element of uncertainty. Secondly, the extent to which social disparities are likely to grow in the future will be significantly affected by our current and future political choices. In determining, for example, the extent to which the ongoing process of globalization will transform economic and educational systems, it is utterly useless to make guesses based on simple forecasts. Rather, considering the combined effects of people's political choices and the social influence of experts at present and in the future, it is extremely difficult to predict the direction of change. Considering the foregoing factors, it is far from easy to carry out studies on how to reform the existing educational system and help alleviate the problems of inequalities that now beset the system, in ways that are acceptable to everybody. This paper calls attention to two crucial points. First, researchers studying the relationship between social inequality and education cannot remain indifferent to the question of political choices or choices among competing values. In other words, they must endeavor to analyze the issues of inequalities in education and formulate, on the basis of their analyses, concrete political visions or political programs. Another important point is that once the social disparities and their extent have been identified through academic investigations, it is necessary to call upon citizens, who have the competence to make political decisions, to decide whether they find the gaps acceptable or not. In order to make this possible, it is essential for school education to perform the function of helping children to develop the ability to make political decisions. And the question of what should be done to reinforce this function of school education needs to be studied in a sincere manner. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Since the mid-1990s, Japanese society has experienced a sharp increase in the number of street homeless people. Most them are relatively old. At present, more than fifty percent of the street homeless are over fifty years old. However, in addition to the older people, we are beginning to see younger street homeless people. In this paper, I define younger as below thirty-five years. The younger people still comprise a small proportion of the street homeless people; that is, they are fewer than ten percent of the entire street homeless population. However, they should not be neglected merely because they have until now constituted a negligible-sized group. Younger street homeless people are a completely new phenomenon for the Japanese. They might be the heralds of the changing structure of Japanese society. This paper uses the life histories of younger street homeless people to describe and analyze two distinctive processes in their experiences; these processes are the "process of becoming" and the "process of remaining." Usually, in their endeavor to explain both processes, scholars advance claims that are strongly economic. The scholars may be correct as long as their focus is on older people. However, the issue is slightly different in the case of younger people. Younger people often tell us that their job losses have been spontaneous. While such answers should certainly not be examined superficially, it is also important that the experiences and pathways of younger people be analyzed by including variables other than economic ones; these variables are the state of the social world and that of the inner world. Lastly, this paper reconsiders the experiences of younger street homeless people from a structural perspective. The combination of the theory of individualization and the theory of the urban underclass enables it to do so. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Scholars have argued that interpersonal networks are more dominated by kin and work ties in Japan than in America. This paper seeks to examine the extent to which these differences manifest in the voice calling patterns of smartphone users in these two countries. We draw on data collected from a smartphone application that we designed to anonymously collect mobile log and pop-up survey data. The application was used to collect data from 226 adults in living in Japan and 195 adults living in America. Using descriptive and multivariate statistics we compare the voice call interaction patterns of respondents in these two countries. We conclude by discussing the extent to which the concept of interpersonal collectivism can be applied to understand different patterns of mobile communication in Japan and America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the development of science and technology, a series of creative techniques have been proposed in Japan since 1930s. By illustrating some specific creative techniques in Japan, this paper analyzes the regional characteristics of creative techniques in Japan, namely, integration, reformism, locality, operability, specialization and simplicity. A combination of such local knowledge theories as post-colonial scientific views, philosophy of scientific practice and cultural anthropology contributes to an analysis of the regional characteristics of creative techniques in Japan which reflect the local knowledge and methods. The findings suggest that creative techniques with unique Chinese characteristics should be incubated in the Chinese local culture; hereby, the Chinese local culture deserves to be valued. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper compares media relations in Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and the United States. There are several significant findings. First, the media-public relations practitioner relationship is more informal and closer in Asia than it is in the U.S. Second, media ethics, such as gift giving and informal gatherings, are different in these Asian cultures and in the U.S. Finally, the U.S. journalists and public relations practitioners have more positive attitudes toward on-line types of source-reporter relations than Asian journalists and practitioners do. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed based on the findings of this comparative analysis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

At China-Japan-Korea summit meeting in 2010, the government leaders from the three countries agree to promote the establishment of China-Japan-Korea Free Trade Agreement (CJKFTA) to accelerate the regional trade liberalization. China's agricultural commodities hold comparative advantages in the trade among the three countries, but the environmental impact may rise from the successive enlargement of export and domestic production scale. Thus there is a need of assessing the environmental impact of such a trade policy to help the negotiators understand and pay more attention to the environment issues during CJKFTA negotiations, and help lobby the governments to carry out appropriate policy instruments for adaption or mitigation. The Chain Reaction Assessment Method (CRAM) serves to be the analysis framework, under which a Computable Partial Equilibrium (CPE) model is employed as the major analysis tool. This methodology is suitable for quantitative evaluations of economic and environmental impacts of trade policies, with the capacity of in-depth analysis on more disaggregated industrial sectors and in a more explicit view. This paper carries out simulations in three policy scenarios with discriminated levels of regional trade liberalization. Comparison of the simulation results of the FTA with the baseline scenario indicates that CJKFTA will improve the development of China's agriculture by increasing the trade volume and domestic production. Meanwhile, negative environmental impacts can be expected, including the increase of water resource consumptions and pollutant emissions, such as COD, TN, TP, agricultural chemicals, agricultural films, and green house gases. Therefore, necessary policy countermeasures should be taken to mitigate such impacts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dai Shu Shu (Algebra) and Wei Ji Su Yuan (The Roots of Calculus) translated by Hua Hengfang (1833-1902) and John Fryer (1839-1928), mathematical works in the late Qing Dynasty had exerted great impact on the internationalization of Japanese mathematics, and the influence had lasted until the Meiji Restoration period. This paper focuses on the Chinese ions of these works such as a missionary in China, which had exerted great influence on the internationalization of Japanese mathematics during the Meiji Restoration period. Firstly, a synopsis is offered of some maths works introduced into Japan translated by others except Hua Hengfang and their influence on Japanese mathematics. Secondly, the author of Notes to the Method of Algebra and his mathematical researches are introduced, together with an analysis of the Notes and the western mathematics and the literature of the latter spread into Japan during the early period of Meiji Restoration via comparison between the Notes and the Chinese translation. Finally, some accounts are offered of Japanese scholars during the Meiji period who referred to and cited from Chinese translations of mathematical works like the Origin of Calculus in their studies or translations of western ones. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In ancient times, china and Japan witnessed long and profound cultural exchange and Wuyue Culture had a close relationship with prehistoric Japan. This paper explores the influence of Wuyue culture from Pre-Qin stage to Wei and Jin Dynasties on prehistoric Japan, such as the relationship between the Yayoi people and Wuyue emigrants in east--movement to Japan, the eastward dissemination and spread of rice culture; the dissemination of smelting and casting technology of Iron and the technology of textile, etc. The large-scale eastward movement of Wuyue culture plays a great role in promoting the economic, cultural and social development for Japan after the 7th century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Ouchi district of Simogou Town in Fukushima Prefecture prospered during the early Edo Era as a rest stop on the main Aizu West Road, but it was left behind in the transport revolution of the Meiji Era because of its remote mountainous location. As a result, a "lived-space" containing an abundant "rotating time" was created in it. After the post-war reconstruction and into the latter half of the 1960s. however, the people of Ouchi were rather disrupted by frequent waves of modernization such as dam development, legislative selection to the "Preservation Districts for Groups of Traditional Buildings." tourism, and resort development. This paper studies the case of Ouchi by focusing on preserving the rest stop and developing tourism and by studying their spatial practices to determine in what different dimension they have introduced the modernization and how the contradictory order and system was formed within it. In order to approach this subject, the author has traced the spatial practices in modern Ouchi. The "representation of space" -the touristic space in Ouchi-was built through the practices that prioritize to maintaining the local life system. In consequence, the "lived-space" was variously created in the "representation of space" -Ouchi-where "rotating time" flows. In this "spatial practice" at Ouchi. we would find a perception that connects the "lived-space" and "rotating time" to the alternative production process of social organization and structure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Tetsujutsu Sankei is written by the wasan mathematician Takabe Katahiro, and as a magnum opus of mathematics, it is the most important classic in the history of Wasan. This paper mainly analyses the mathematics thought in Tetsujutsu Sankei from the angle of Chinese-Character Cultural Circle. With its focus on the relation between the traditional Chinese mathematics and the mathematics in Tetsujutsu Sankei. It is helpful to understand the outstanding mathematical work comprehensively and make a fair and objective appraisal. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In the midst of the ongoing cultural globalization, many rural areas in Japan are poorly equipped to enjoy cultural activities. Cultural sociology has worked on political issues that have had ramifications on the popular or ethnic culture, hut not on issues related to institutions that support cultural activities. On the other hand, the regional development movement that uses cultural resources has attracted attention in its practice of regional construction. Some cities obtain cultural resources from all over the world: they attract the people who form the creative class, and are thus in a position to target further cultural development. Other areas, however, are not always able to do that. This paper focuses on the issues of Local diversity and endemism to discuss this situation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

"Shokyō-yōmon Kada-shū," a collection of various pieces of kada kept at Kanagawa Prefectural Kanazawa Bunko Museum, consists of three volumes of notations of Tendai shōmyō (Buddhist chants) of Myōon-in School, a no longer existing branch of Tendai shōmyō, that were written from the 13th to the 14th centuries. They were designated important cultural properties of Japan in 2006. This paper analyzes the musical structure of kada, a kind of shōmyō. The purpose of the analysis is to elucidate the differences in the musical structure according to various verse forms (for example: shikada, verses written in Chinese style with 4 lines of 7 or 5 Chinese characters per line, and kunkada, verses written in Japanese style with 4 lines of a combination of Chinese characters and Japanese letters to transcribe a total of 7+5 syllables per line) and what characterizes melody that is particular to kada regardless of verse forms. More than 250 kada compiled in these volumes were studied by examining hakase notations (neumatic way of indicating melody) written around each character or letter. At the end of the last volume (Chū) of 'Shokyō-yōmon Kada-shū" is a template of annotations of kada melody for shikada expressed with □, ○ and △ which is important in understanding the musical structure of kada. □ indicates melody which changes according to the intonation or pronunciation of the characters or letters; ○ indicates a fixed melody that is not influenced by the intonation/pronunciation of the characters or letters; △ indicates melody which is more or less fixed but may change depending on the pronunciation/intonation of the character after. A study of the lyrics reveals the characteristic verse form of kada compiled in 'Shokyō-yomōn Kada-shū" - that most of the kada are composed of 4 lines, in that case there is a · mark is written in red in the middle of each line and that each line is composed of 2 parts, I and II. For example, in the case of a typical verse form in which there are 7 characters to each line (shikada), the first, second and fourth lines have 1234 · 567([ I = 1234] · [II = 567]), whereas I of the third line alone is divided into two parts, 12 · 34 · 567 ([I =12 · 34] · [II = 567]) . Thus, even if the number of characters of each line decreases - for example, if there are 5 characters to a line then it can be divided into 2+3, the · mark of I of the third line is omitted. In the case of kunkada, although the number of Japanese letters increase, the position and number of · marks follow those of shikada. This is because the Japanese letters of kunkada are partially linked, 2 or 3 letters together, with red lines to make 7 blocks per line. This principle implies that in the case of shikada priority is given to rhythm rather than to the meaning of words, whereas in the case of kunkada · marks are written in units of phrases and that the meaning of words are respected. As a result it was found that there is a special, fixed melody just before the pauses between the characters and the last 1 or 2 characters of each line and that it is this fixed melody, which does not change regardless of the changes in verse forms, that characterizes the melody of kada the most. Furthermore, the position of the character that is expressed with □ on the template, which should be influenced by pronunciation, is also more or less fixed, appearing at a specific position in each line. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to present a new perspective on the theory of the beneficial and costly spheres by means of case studies on conflicts in the siting of waste disposal facilities. This theory is one of the main paradigms in environmental sociology in Japan, but it has not adequately analyzed the relation between a costly sphere and its precedent. The construction of a second waste disposal facility in Kashiwa city reduced the burden of waste disposal, which was earlier concentrated in another part of the city. In contrast to this, the second waste disposal facility in Hinode town was constructed at the same site as the first facility. As a result Hinode town not only faces problems from the first facility but must also bear the additional cost of the second facility. Thus, the two cases of siting locally unwanted facilities widely differ with regard to their problem structures. I call the former case "cost sharing siting" and the latter. "cost overlapping siting." In cost sharing siting the purpose of constructing the facility is to achieve "fairness of distribution"; thus, the locals who oppose the siting tend to claim that public officials are unfair with regard to the siting process. However. in cost overlapping siting, people opposing the project Support "fairness of distribution." Further, the former type can achieve local consensus on the necessity of the facility more easily than the latter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although U.S.-Japanese communication has been the frequent focus of intercultural communication scholars, there have been few studies of interpersonal U.S.-Japan communication from a critical metatheoretical perspective. This paper attempts to fill in this large gap. First, the differences between an approach focusing on cultural differences and a critical metatheoretical approach are discussed. Then a case study based on the author's personal experience of having lived 19 years in Japan is presented in order to illustrate the ways in which a critical metatheoretical approach is able to account for many crucial aspects of interpersonal communication between U.S. Americans and Japanese that would otherwise be neglected and ignored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explores how schoolgirls in the Meijiera (1868-1912), who were the first generation of girls to attend school, associated themselves with their alma maters after graduation, and what networks they developed with their former teachers and classmates. More specifically the report examines whether their circles of close friends characterizing schoolgirl culture were maintained and expanded after graduation or whether their real lives and social positions specified their networks after graduation. The paper looks at Saibi Kai (Saibi Society), the alumni association of Ishikawa Prefectural Daiichi Girls' Middle High School, and examines how the Meiji-era alumnae were involved in the alumni association networks from the Taisho (19112-1926) to the prewar Showa period (1926-1989), by analyzing the "news on members column in the alumni bulletin. The results clarified the following points. 1. In examining the development of class reunion networks during the first half of the Taisho period, this study focused on the differences in profiles between members whose up-to-date information appeared in the column and those whose information did not, and used this to extract some characteristics of the networks. This examination shows that members' involvement in the network was largely affected by residence in Kanazawa City (regional factor), their locality, and good academic achievement during their school days, and not by such factors as their social status under the old system and legal domiciles in the family registry. The members also retained their connections through formal exchanges such as class reunions and sports meetings rather than through such informal means as letters and postcards. In other words they formed a network where reformation on members was exchanged through activities in Kanazawa City, the location of the school, [ml] which functioned as the center of the network. 2. The author also analyzed the profiles of members who had taken leadership iformal activities and members who had developed strong connections through informal gatherings. The analysis shows that many of the husbands of such members enjoyed prestigious social statuses as high-ranking military officials bureaucrats, university professors, and so on, and that the first generation of schoolgirls enjoyed rich, privileged lives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

What significance did people give to "entering university from local areas" in Japan in the period following the Second World War? And how have their views changed in the time since? To answer these questions, this paper focuses on the "advanced course" of Tottori prefectural senior-high schools, using the methods of political-sociology. The "advanced course" of Tottori prefectural senior-high schools is sometimes called a "publicly funded cram school." The teachers of the prefectural schools give instruction to students who are preparing for a new chance to enter university after failing the first time. In the period around 1960, there were still no private cram schools in Tottori Pref., but the number of students hoping for a second chance to enter university was rapidly increasing. In response teachers at one prefectural senior-high school began to give them instruction on a volunteer basis, and a few years later, the Board of Education institutionalized it as the "advanced course." This system was spread within the prefecture by the Board. Judging from this analysis, it may be said that the Governor, administrators and teachers recognized the disadvantageous condition of the local prefecture, and devised a policy to train talented youth as a means to overcome the backwardness of their home region. However, a debate on whether the "advanced course" of prefectural senior-high schools should be maintained or not began in Tottori Pref. about 2005. Private cram schools asked for the abolition of the "advanced course," because the social changes since 1990s had hurt their business. As a result, this demand became a focus of public policy in the prefectural assembly. The groups on both sides of the issue disagreed fundamentally on whether the course should be maintained or abolished, but agreed m regarding the "advanced course" as a device for meeting the "needs of individuals." With the massification of university education, the existence of the "external effect" meaning the social profit brought about by higher education, has come into question. In addition, the "needs of society," meaning the survival of the local prefecture, is not recognized within the policy of the modern "non-profit-sharing" model. In comparison with the "supplementary courses" established by PTAs, which perform a similar function in senior high schools of other prefectures, people do not feel a justification to spend public money on Tottori prefecture's "advanced courses." This leads to the hypothesis that the significance of "entrance into university from local areas" changes with the movement in perspective from social profit to personal profit. This means that the circuit between "education" and "society/economy" has been severed. Hence, the nurturing and outflow of talented youth from local prefectures is no longer seen as the main issue. However, local prefectures have been seriously affected by recent changes in both the industrial structure and decentralization. Now is the time to rebuild the tripartite affinity between "education," "society/economy" and "local areas." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper analyses the discourse on Japanese composition writing education (tsuzuri-kata) in the pre-war period and attempts to elucidate the development of the autopoietic educational system along with the rise and changes of the concept of "children." The discourse on writing education provides an image of the way of second order observation on children's observation in a Luhmannian sense: (1) What were the unique characteristics of children, which separated them from adults? (2) How should adults, as socializing agents, be caring for children? The findings are as follows: Beginning around 1900, the concept of "children" as something different from adults, but who were in the process of becoming adults, was discovered, along with an image of adults providing care for children. The "nature" and "life world" of children was discovered first:, followed by the finding of the children's "interior," especially the "childlike" interior. Finally, in the 1920s, the ability of children to "see" and "feel" things beyond the assumptions of adults was discovered. There, new practices arose, in which socializing agents demanded that children see and reflect themselves by writing, and through that, came to be "ideal children" and "future adults". In relation to this phenomenon, N. Luhmann suggests, in his educational system theory, that the relationship between children's observations and socializing agents' second order observations enables education to become an autopoietic system. Now that we have seen the details, we can refine it. By seeing "children" and their interior as half black-box and half guidable, education was able to become autopoietic. Moreover, since the system was developed, greater freedom for children and amhiwflence between children's freedom and educational intentions were repeatedly discovered within the educational discourse. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Yano and Hamanaka have analyzed recent trends in the ratio of advancement to higher education in Japan, and concluded that the increased financial burden on households has been a blocking factor in recent years. They argue that a public policy for reducing the financial burden is needed, and that if such a policy is implemented, it will lead to increased advancement to higher education. As methodology they adopt a time-series multi regression of Japan as a single unit, using several economic variables such as starting salary of high school graduates, household income, unemployment rate and tuition fees. In this paper, the author uses a similar time-series multi regression, but broken down into 47 prefectures, and with the addition of variables describing the educational system such as student capacity in metropolitan areas and in local prefectures. From this analysis, the author finds that economic factors do not have a significant effect on the advancement ratio, and that educational system variables have a greater influence in determining the advancement ratio. In contrast to Yano and Hamanaka, the author argues that the negative attitude toward advancement to higher education in recent years lies not outside of the educational system, but rather inside of the system of higher education. Curricular innovation to provide more relevant content is the key to attracting more students to higher education. In an age where more than 50% of youngsters advance to higher education, enriching teaching content is a more important ask than providing financial support. Researchers on higher education should pay greater attention to the educational system itself rather than factors outside of the system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Miaofalianhuajing Shiwen, the annotations of Miaofalianhuajing, is a very significant "writing composed by a Japanese scholar. It was finished in A. D 976. This book involves various problems, such as characters, phonology and exegetics, so there are great values for the language research. The research value of phonology in Miaofalianhuajing Shiwen will be revealed in this paper. We will give some examples such as stress, weak stress, and changing the pronunciation because of taboo to discuss these problems initially. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The school system continues to occupy a central position in the system of social distribution. However, the school is changing from a social screening institution, as it was in the 1970s, to a support institution. Schools now tend to support the decision-making of students based on their own academic achievements and career plans. It is difficult for schools to intervene in students' decision-making in the way they did in the 1970s. However, the relationship between student's school records and their academic and career achievements has not been broken down despite the drastic change in this internal process. In this paper, the authors describe this mechanism in the school by investigating one commercial high school in the Metropolitan area. The authors examine data from the "Student Kartes" of all students in 2002. In these documents, teachers record students' academic achievements and their process of career determing. The authors then analyze how students move between the various channels offered by the school to make academic and career choices, and show some typical patterns. The main conclusions are as follows. First, many students failed to attend group counseling formally provided by the school, and teachers need to give individual support to students. Second, ironically, due to the fact that academic affairs were not highly valued at the commercial high school and that academic competition was not stiff, students with a strong commitment to school tended to have better achievement than those who had a weak commitment. In that sense, the school, as a support institution, also functions as a social screening institution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper elucidates historical changes in the images of homoeroticism between male students in the Meiji Era and examines the factors behind this change. During the Meiji Era, intellectuals subscribed to a morality that prohibited homosexuality. However, some male students, known as kouha (solid students), shared common values that placed a positive value on homoeroticism between male students. They loathed falling victim to women's charms, and aspired to develop ideal relations between themselves and other elite male students. In the 1900s, the number of girls attending school increased markedly, and the presence of female students increased. These women came to be seen as suitable love or marriage partners for male students. In modern Japan, the emergence of female students helped to form the ideology of romantic love and a new positive image composed of love, marriage, and family. These changes brought about by the emergence of female students had an impact on the images of homoeroticism between male students. After the 1900s, a form of homoeroticism called "love between men" became popular among the nampa (soft students), and the kouha students lost their monopoly on homoeroticism. However, "love between men" was just a substitute for love between men and women. On the other hand, the kouha students strengthened their belief that they should avoid falling in love, as they thought it was too feminine. Therefore, they called close relations between men "friendships between men," avoiding the use of the word "love." In this way, homoeroticism between male students was separated into "love between men," as an imitation, and "friendship between men." Homoeroticism between male students was transformed into a form adapted to heterosexism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to discover a route for the resolution of "differences in scholastic ability," which are a serious problem in Japanese Education, using the idea of "Effective Schools". "Effective Schools" are schools which have relatively small differences in scholastic ability between social groups. This report looks at the continuation of effects of schools, and studies the characteristics of "Effective Schools" in Japan. In conventional studies on "Effective Schools" in Japan, seven characteristics are clarified: (1) Ordered child groups, (2) Mutual empowerment by students, (3) A school administration that values teamwork, (4) Connections between schools and outside organizations, (5) A positive school culture, (6) A system that encourages learning, and (7) Leadership. These were found in data from a single year, however, and were not based on data collected continuously. Therefore, surveys to date are inadequate. This report demonstrates the existence of "Effective Schools" and analyzes the characteristics of schools in one city in Hyogo Prefecture, based on continuous data. The findings are as follows. To begin with, from an analysis of scholastic ability data, it is clear that the evaluation of "Effective Schools" is considerably affected by grade groups. In previous studies in this area, attention had not been given to the differences between grade groups, and this suggests a danger in relying on data for a single year. In addition, caution must be exercised in basing policymaking on data on scholastic ability performed in a single year. Next, while the results of the surveys varied greatly by grade groups in most schools, there were two schools (A and B) that were continuously effective. School A was unified several years ago. The teachers are building a new school culture, involving "watching and checking inside school" and "taking learning hours." On the other hand, School B is characterized by "good class atmosphere" and "self direction in learning." The two schools seem to have very different characteristics, but it can be pointed out that teachers of both are supportive in various aspects. Comparing these with the seven characteristics of "Effective Schools" in Japan, School A is a school that has (1) Ordered child groups and (6) A system that encourages learning (in School). By contrast, School B has (2) Mutual empowerment by students and (6) A system that encourages learning (at home). Moreover, both schools have (3) A school administration that values team-work and (5) A positive school culture. From those analyses, it can be hypothesized that "Teacher Culture" and "School Culture" are important factors in the study of "Effective Schools." [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Today, regional disparities in education can be seen from the following six aspects. (1) Disparities between areas (disparities between cities or towns) (2) Disparity inside areas (disparities between elementary school areas) (3) Visible disparities (4) Invisible disparities (5) Disparities in school education (6) Disparities in social education Among these disparities, this paper focuses on disparities inside areas, invisible disparities, and disparities in social education. The reason is that these are the new disparities found in mergers between municipalities (a contemporary phenomenon in Japan), movements of population and the decentralization of power. In other words, under the decentralization of power, communities are called on to be economically and educationally independent from the central government, and these new disparities are related to the educational power of communities and to the power of social education connected to them. They are also related to the urgent educational issues that must be tackled together by educational officials, people involved in schools and social education, and local residents under the decentralization of power. The two principal directions for this task are as follows. (1) Cooperation between schools and communities by strengthening support from educational administration to schools and communities, and strengthening cooperation involving both school education and social education. (2) Improving the specialization of education in a broad sense. In other words, improving technical cooperation with specialists such as teachers, leaders of social education, medical personnel and welfare personnel. These points will be crucial determinants of the success or failure of education under the decentralization of power. In addition, the author uses data on administration in cities and towns in Shiga prefecture, which are familiar to him. Nevertheless, the manuscript consists of some guesses without actual evidence in some points; therefore it has in some sense the character of the presentation of a hypothesis. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this paper is to examine the formation of "disparities" in the transition from school to work, and to discuss ideal methods for support. In the early 21st century, young people were able to become full-time workers even if they had become part-time workers after leaving school. In other words, Japanese society compensated for the initial "disparity" in the transition from school to work. However, the following two points were clarified in February 2006, according to a survey carried out on 2, 000 young people in Tokyo. First, in the period from 2001 to 2006, the selection of full time worker was nearly completed at the point when young people left school. Second, academic background is growing and social background is weakening as factors for the selection of full time workers. To put a brake on the expansion of "disparities," it is necessary to secure higher education as a right, and create laws to provide equal conditions to irregular workers, and to provide support for the transition from "Freeter" (job-hopping part time workers) to full time worker. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this article, I consider forestry households that are faced with financial difficulties from the viewpoint of the New Economic Sociology in order to demonstrate the structural backgrounds of forest devastation in Japan. First, I discuss recent studies on forest devastation in sociology and point out that it is insufficient to explain the background of the problem on the basis of the price difference between imported logs and domestic logs or the decline of villages. Further, I examine that the New Economic Sociology considered in this paper is useful in providing an account of how forest devastation has spread in Japan in the last 20 years. Next, I focus on the changing social networks within the wood industry to examine how the type of crisis that forestry households presently experience has changed from that in the 1980s. This change in the type of crisis indicates that the severance in the social interrelations between forestry households and sawmills came about because sawmills were disembedded from the traditional networks of wood trade, and forestry households were unable to tackle financial difficulties with the existing practices. I then show that Japanese forestry households were inevitably involved in cutthroat price competition and were forced to overproduce. Finally, from the abovementioned analysis, we may reasonably conclude that the viewpoint of the New Economic Sociology is the most effective framework to analyze the current mechanism of forest devastation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this paper is to analyze the relationships between "adults" and "children" in the Play Park movement in Setagaya (the pioneering adventure playground movement in Japan) and to describe the freedom of children from the sociological viewpoint. In modern society, the image of "children" is related to that of the "adults" who care for them. Nevertheless, there are many statements that insist on allowing the children's free will distancing from adults'. Studies that begin with such statements end up finding that the statements themselves are mere reflections of the asymmetrical relationships between children and adults. Thus, they again insist on the "real" freedom of children. However, the Play Parks,-- whose motto is "Play freely on your own responsibility" --have succeeded in neutralizing the asymmetry and realizing the freedom of children by following certain mechanisms. First, they develop an original logic regarding children's play and then allow children to take care of themselves. Second, adults can also share this logic, which liberates them from the inconvenience of taking care of children. Since it is adults who support the provision of space for children to be free, this may be a kind of utopia. However, modern fiction still considers "adults" as social agencies and never abandons the realm where "adults" should give special consideration to "children." If we are unable to ignore the fiction, we can learn some implications from the Play Parks. Although they are limited places, the asymmetry between "children" and "adults" is being neutralized inside these Play Parks and both "children" and "adults" can act freely. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Based on Eiji Ishikawa's structure design cases for Japanese suits, the design features of Japanese suits were described in detail in this paper. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]