Search

Abstract: Canada's commercial seal hunt warrants close examination in that it is the largest kill of marine mammals on earth, it exists for commercial reasons, it targets deep diving seals with unique physical adaptations, and it is conducted in a particularly remote and uncontrolled environment amidst unstable sea ice and extreme weather conditions. For these reasons, commercial sealing in Canada has been the subject of regular veterinary scrutiny for more than five decades. In that time, despite repeated recommendations and some changes to the regulations, considerable evidence continues to be presented during each new season of poor welfare outcomes for seals. To add to the discussion we (Butterworth and Richardson) (2013) [1] reviewed multiple studies on commercial sealing, government reports, trade journal articles and recommendation reports, in an attempt to answer the question of why, despite the efforts of veterinary advisors and government to improve the situation, seals continue to die in inhumane ways. In examining the available evidence, the environment in which commercial sealing occurs, and the physical adaptations of seals, the authors concluded that generally accepted principles of humane slaughter cannot be implemented effectively and consistently in the context of commercial sealing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Shipping in the Canadian Arctic has a long history, encompassing diverse maritime pursuits, ranging from traditional Inuit subsistence practices to European exploratory expeditions, whaling, and fur trading. The escalating impacts of climate change in the Canadian Arctic have created ample opportunities for Arctic shipping activities related to fishing, cruise tourism, resource (mineral) transportation, research, and government services. Nowadays, the necessity of developing a sustainable economy, the need for environmental protection, and the imperative of reconciliation with Indigenous Peoples present considerable challenges for the Canadian government in regulating Arctic shipping. To comprehend the contemporary issues of Arctic shipping governance, this paper conducts an overview of the history of Arctic shipping activities in Canada and reviews Canada's diverse policies and laws that have been instituted to govern Arctic shipping. Drawing upon the analysis of these policies, the article advocates for a collaborative governance framework to cope with the multifaceted challenges confronting the governance of Arctic shipping in Canada. Such a framework ought to prioritize enhancing cooperation, integrating unilateral and multilateral policies and laws, respecting the rights of Indigenous Peoples, and involving Inuit in Arctic shipping governance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract Global warming is already affecting the oceans through changes in water temperature, acidification, oxygen content and sea level rise, amongst many others. These changes are having multiple effects on marine species worldwide, with subsequent impacts on marine fisheries, peoples' livelihoods and food security. This work presents a review of the recent literature on the current and projected impacts of climate change on Canada's Pacific marine ecosystem. We find that there is an increasing number of studies in British Columbia focusing on changes in ocean conditions and marine species responses under climate change, including an emerging literature on the socio-economic impacts of these changes considered to be a knowledge gap. According to the literature, it is well established that ocean temperatures are increasing over the long-term, especially, in southern areas of British Columbia. Warming trends are increasing in the spring and are strongest in summer. However, there are important uncertainties regarding other climate drivers, such as oxygen concentration and acidification, stemming mainly from the insufficiency of data. Pacific salmon, elasmobranchs, invertebrates and rockfishes are amongst the most vulnerable species groups to climate change in British Columbia. Also, shifts in stock distribution and fish abundance under climate change may have a significant impact on fish supply affecting the livelihoods and food security of some British Columbians. The magnitude of these impacts is likely to vary according to a latitudinal gradient, with southern coastal areas being more affected than northern and central areas; challenging multiple areas of governance, such as equity and fishing access amongst First Nations; and institutional arrangements for transboundary stocks between the U.S. and Canada. Highlights • Climate change is impacting marine species worldwide, affecting marine fisheries, peoples' livelihoods and food security. • There is an emerging literature on the socio-economic impacts of climate change at the local level. • This paper presents a review of the literature published on these impacts in British Columbia's marine species and fisheries. • Socio-economic impacts will vary according to a latitudinal gradient with unequal distribution of losses in marine catches. • We identify some of the risks that fisheries, communities and the economy are facing in the region due to climate change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper presents a novel approach to assessing the cost of container liner shipping through the Northwest Passage (NWP) on northern local communities. Based on some representative communities, concerns of the residents of these Canadian Arctic regions were assessed. Two essential factors to the well-being of the community members—air pollution and oil spills—are considered in our model. The approach was therefore used to evaluate the socio-economic impact of Arctic container liner shipping in Canadian Arctic regions. More specifically, the approach adopted a) uses a logit model to estimate the market share of NWP for commercial liner shipping; b) investigates different scenarios to evaluate the feasibility of commercial liner shipping through the NWP; c) incorporating concerns from the local communities, conducts a socio-economic analysis for the communities. With the analysis of the socio-economic impacts on local communities, the study would help guide governments on how to evaluate and calculate transit fees for transiting NWP. The study is imperative in supporting decision-making to shape Arctic policy. Furthermore, it gives stakeholders an idea of the market dynamics of shipping in the Arctic area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Marine spatial planning (MSP) is a governance approach to managing the multitude of pressures currently being exerted on marine ecosystems. A key component to this approach is acknowledgement that stakeholder engagement is essential for success. During the planning phase of the Marine Plan Partnership (MaPP) initiative, the Partners (the B.C. provincial and 18 First Nations governments) employed, what was termed, an advisory approach to engagement. This advisory approach committed the Partners to engage meaningfully with stakeholders and the public, consider their feedback, work towards balanced solutions, and incorporate what was found to be agreeable. However, it did not require a consensus among participants in order for advice to be accepted or acted upon. Planning occurred over a three-year period in four sub-regions encompassing 102,000 square kilometers of coastal and marine waters on the North Pacific Coast of Canada. Engagement spanned more than 10 sectors of special interest and 22 coastal communities throughout the planning area and included interested members of the general public. Upon plan completion, there was broad stakeholder support for the final sub-regional plans and the Regional Action Framework. The purpose of this paper is to describe from the MaPP governance partners' perspective, the components of the MaPP advisory-based stakeholder engagement policy and key lessons learned about the factors contributing to the success of its approach. The paper draws upon analysis of MaPP Partner discussions and reflections during and after the planning process, and includes the results of an internal evaluation of stakeholder engagement by independent consultants who surveyed the MaPP team, stakeholders, and the public. • Extensive stakeholder and public engagement during development of marine plans. • Engagement successful through funding, inclusivity, accountability, and capacity. • Inclusion of stakeholder and public advice into the marine plans. • Engagement methodology has led to stakeholder and public by-in of plans. • Stakeholder engagement has been carried forward to implementation phase. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The global geoduck market evolved substantially over the past four decades. This paper identifies the key transitional periods and discusses the catalysts that contributed to the evolution of the global geoduck market since its commercial inception during the 1970s. Specifically, this paper focuses on how the transition to rights-based fisheries management in Canada׳s wild geoduck fishery fostered changes in product form and ex-vessel prices that impacted the entire wild geoduck industry. This evolution in turn facilitated the emergence of intertidal and subtidal geoduck aquaculture, which led to further changes in the global geoduck industry including changes in: sources of supply, volume of production, trade patterns, primary markets, preference for product attributes, and fishery value. The global geoduck industry is still evolving, and this paper identifies and discusses the key drivers and constraints facing the market as it moves forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In 2015, the Government of Canada committed to protecting 5% of marine and coastal areas by 2017, and 10% by 2020. While admirable progress towards this target has been made, less attention has been given to improving the quality of protection afforded to marine areas. Extensive scientific study supports that several factors are critical to the success of Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) for marine biodiversity conservation and management objectives, including no-take areas and prohibitions on extractive and industrial activities. However, the majority of Canada's MPAs allow extractive uses within their boundaries. As Canada works toward international and national commitments to marine protection targets, it is critical to consider the degree of protection afforded by the legal designations used to create these areas. This paper reviews the current inconsistent standards of protection across marine protected areas (MPAs) designated under the Oceans Act , Canada's flagship legislation for marine protection. Recommended amendments to the law include standards of protection that would exclude all extractive industrial activities from MPAs in order to better guide the designation and decision-making processes for marine protection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Alternative food networks (AFNs) for seafood employ different approaches along their diverse value chains, yet typically share five common attributes – supporting small-scale and place-based fishing operations through the provision of traceable , sustainable , and high-quality seafood products to customers. While a range of benefits from AFNs have been described, the potential for broad impacts of seafood AFNs remains largely unknown due to a range of constraints, including a lack of understanding of consumer preferences related to different seafood attributes, including those central to AFNs. This paper utilizes an online survey of consumers in Canada (n = 2006) to assess the potential demand for products supplied through seafood AFNs. Results indicate both barriers and opportunities for growing seafood AFNs. While respondents' top three consumed seafood species (salmon, tuna, and shrimp) aligned with North American consumption patterns, a willingness to substitute between species was also indicated, which could present market opportunities for seafood AFNs offering a variety of product options based on local seasonality and abundance. Respondents prioritized product quality attributes situated at the consumption end of the value chain (e.g., taste, appearance, freshness, affordability, health benefits, and seafood type) over harvesting-related features (e.g., sustainability, production method, and fair compensation to harvesters). In addition, despite some degree of willingness to pay (WTP) – especially for high quality seafood – respondents were not willing to pay large price premiums for other features emphasized by seafood AFNs. Finally, different consumer segments interact differently with seafood AFNs' five key features – for example, higher WTP was evidenced amongst younger consumers. Overall, the paper suggests that seafood AFNs should consider emphasizing their high-quality product offerings, pricing their products competitively, and targeting specific consumer segments when looking to expand into new markets. • Consumer preferences affect alternative food networks (AFNs) for seafood. • These preferences vary across regions and demographic groups. • Seafood AFNs may benefit from targeted marketing to these regions and groups. • Willingness to pay for seafood AFNs' product attributes is low to moderate. • Consumers prioritize consumer-facing over harvesting-related seafood features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Access, defined as the ability to use and benefit from available marine resources or areas of the ocean or coast, is important for the well-being and sustainability of coastal communities. In Canada, access to marine resources and ocean spaces is a significant issue for many coastal and Indigenous communities due to intensifying activity and competition in the marine environment. The general trend of loss of access has implications for these communities, and for Canadian society. In this review and policy perspective, we argue that access for coastal and Indigenous communities should be a priority consideration in all policies and decision-making processes related to fisheries and the ocean in Canada. This paper reviews how access affects the well-being of coastal communities, factors that support or undermine access, and research priorities to inform policy. Recommended actions include: ensuring access is transparently considered in all ocean-related decisions; supporting research to fill knowledge gaps on access to enable effective responses; making data accessible and including communities in decision-making that grants or restricts access to adjacent marine resources and spaces; ensuring updated laws, policies and planning processes explicitly incorporate access considerations; and, identifying and prioritizing actions to maintain and increase access. Taking action now could reverse the current trend and ensure that coastal and Indigenous communities thrive in the future. This is not just a Canadian issue. Globally, the ability of coastal and Indigenous communities to access and benefit from the marine environment should be at the forefront in all deliberations related to the oceans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper provides an example of how one group of fishermen, operating in an ITQ fishery in British Columbia, Canada, used a licence bank to attempt to mitigate the negative consequences of ITQs. After ten years in operation, the licence bank is self-sustaining and has realized modest and limited success. The authors identify a number of lessons learned from the experience, as well as highlight the opportunities that licence banks offer as an alternative mechanism to redress the negative consequences of ITQs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Atlantic Canadian fisheries policy exhibits a tension between competing objectives of economic efficiency, and of well-being and equity within coastal communities and small-scale fisheries. The struggle between different actors over these objectives has generated distinct forms of neoliberalism in different regions and fishing fleets. In the lobster fishery, the right to fish has been concentrated since limited-entry licensing policy was introduced in the 1980s. This paper examines actors and events at two scales, including Lobster Fishing Area (LFA) 34 Advisory Committee meetings involving fishermen, representatives of Fisheries and Oceans Canada (DFO), and other stakeholders, and broader scale strategies of the Canadian Independent Fish Harvesters Federation (CIFHF). A Foucauldian perspective aids in understanding how fisheries governance is the product of struggles between the power and agency of individual fishermen, fishing organizations, processing companies, the DFO, the Minister of Fisheries and the courts. While many theorists view fisheries through the lens of the “tragedy of the commons”, alternative tragedies are developing in Atlantic Canadian fisheries. These include rising levels of debt, reduced earnings, vulnerability to financial volatility, loss of fishing rights within communities, and too much processor control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The ultimate intention of seafarer welfare services is for maritime workers to be served in Canada as systematically and effectively as possible while considering the greatest possible sensitivity to their needs. This paper provides an overview of such services available in Canadian ports and includes case studies of the Port of St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador (NL), and of the Catholic seafarers' ministry, Stella Maris. Two research questions were addressed: 1) where and how is the welfare of foreign seafarers in Canadian ports inadequate, and 2) how can the expertise and resources of those already involved be marshalled to improve support? Existing research on seafarers' welfare was synthesized, seafarers' welfare professionals across Canada consulted through interviews and surveys, and key informants were interviewed in the Port of St. John's, NL. The research findings show that Canadian charities, businesses, government, and labour representatives are united in support of seafarers' welfare. Furthermore, there is a general interest in filling gaps where they are found, particularly through participation in the Canadian National Seafarers' Welfare Board. Welfare organizations also actively promote cooperation, professionalism, and the development of new resources for seafarers' welfare. However, there are still gaps: foreign seafarers are offered a wide range of services in many Canadian ports but internet and enforcement of the Maritime Labour Convention, 2006′s standards for shore leave and crew change are still pressing welfare issues. Welfare workers are stretched thin everywhere and some busy ports must make do with the best efforts of shipping agents where welfare workers are absent. In response to these limitations to seafarer welfare supports, we recommend that the Canadian government, as agents active within a maritime nation, and the maritime community take a more active role in supporting seafarers' welfare, including financially and through welfare boards. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Successful and early distress communication at sea is critically important for improving the survivability of marine accidents. A wide range of communication methods is available for seafarers to make distress calls. In particular, emergency radio beacons (i.e. emergency position indicating radio beacons (EPIRBs) and personal locator beacons (PLBs)) provide a reliable, commercially available means by which distress notification and incident location can be provided, particularly if time is not available to establish communication by radio or telephone. Given the importance of these devices, the International Maritime Organization (IMO) provides guidance for flag states to incorporate radio distress beacons within legal and search and rescue (SAR) frameworks. National regulations in Canada stipulate additional performance requirements for radio frequency transmission, operation and use. The governance structure for emergency radio beacons in Canada is comprehensive and complex, and worldwide accident statistics show that when EPIRBs and PLBs are used, the rescue rate increases. Still, in Canada, a significant proportion of maritime activities (e.g., fish harvesting) do not require the use of these devices, and it is in these sectors where the greatest number of fatalities is occurring. Our paper explores the governance structure for the development and use of EPIRBs and PLBs in Canada, identifying where challenges and gaps exist and considering ways to close these gaps. Discussion is provided on the flexibility and adaptability of the governance system to incorporating new information and changes in technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This paper begins by reviewing the structure and evolution of polar bear (Ursus maritimus) management in Canada and in the Territory of Nunavut since the inception of the Agreement on the Conservation of Polar Bears in the 1970s. This is followed by the paper''s main focus, the examination of the socio-economic and cultural importance of polar bears for Inuit and the success of the Agreement in supporting contemporary Inuit subsistence relations in Nunavut. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines the challenge of knowledge co-production and the implications for learning and adapting in the context of a narwhal co-management in Nunavut, Canada. Knowledge co-production is the collaborative process of bringing a plurality of knowledge sources and types together to address a defined problem and build an integrated or systems-oriented understanding of that problem. The paper considers knowledge co-production by examining five interrelated dimensions: knowledge gathering, sharing, integration, interpretation, and application. Voices of hunters, community representatives, and managers engaged in co-management are highlighted to identify primary challenges and opportunities. The analysis reveals how compartmentalized views of knowledge continue to constrain adaptive and collaborative management. An understanding of knowledge co-production processes, however, may help to overcome the resilience of top-down management approaches. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The roots of the Canadian harp seal hunt can be traced to the 16th Century. But in the mid-20th century, opposition to the commercial hunt became widespread after television images of seal pups being killed with clubs on the pack ice off the coast of Newfoundland were broadcast around the world. International conservation groups, animal welfare groups, animal rights groups, and foreign governments have been calling for the Canadian government to end the commercial seal hunt on the grounds that it is inhumane and that harvest levels are unsustainable. The Canadian government defends the traditional practices of hunting harp seals, argues that seal pelts are an important source of income for sealers, and insists that the killing methods are humane and that harvest levels are sustainable. Emotions run high on both sides of the debate. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate whether or not there is a purely economic argument for ending Canada''s commercial seal hunt. The paper finds that the benefits of ending the commercial hunt exceed the costs, but not unequivocally. However, the paper argues there should be a higher criterion—the Pareto criterion—for ending the commercial hunt; that is the hunt should end only if winners compensate the losers. The paper goes on to argue that an effective way to satisfy this criterion is to introduce a system of individual transferable quotas (ITQs) and let the market reveal the value of the commercial seal hunt. In addition to many other advantages such as improving the safety and efficiency of the hunt, the ITQ market could provide a mechanism by which those willing to pay to end the hunt could do so directly to sealers thereby ensuring that the hunt is scaled back or ultimately ended only when it is economically efficient and unambiguously welfare-improving. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper proposes a novel framework to conceptualize and investigate license and quota holdings within fisheries jurisdictions and regions. We motivate and develop the framework by drawing together two bodies of literature that have been relatively disparate: one on fisheries industrialization and the other, from food studies and food systems scholars, on consolidation and concentration in farming and agrifood value chains. An important observation from food studies and food systems research is that a spectrum of logics -- from productive through to speculative -- motivate farmland accumulation and shape patterns of ownership, investment, and power in farming regions. We apply the framework to investigate license holding portfolios within the federally-managed fisheries jurisdiction off of Canada's western-most province, British Columbia (BC). We calculate the market value of a selection of large portfolios. We also begin to explore power dynamics, finding that those with large and valuable portfolios are uniquely positioned to exercise and expand control within the jurisdiction. Fisheries and marine policy researchers should assume that hedge funds, private investment and equity firms, and other publicly traded businesses now regularly assess the investment potential of licenses and quota; case-based, comparative, and policy-oriented research are all urgently needed. • Reviews literature on consolidation and concentration in farming; highlights patterns relevant to industrial fisheries. • Proposes a novel framework to conceptualize and investigate commercial fishing license and quota holdings. • Applies framework and calculates market value of a selection of license portfolios active in Pacific Region (BC, Canada). • Large and diverse portfolios are valuable assets; holders are uniquely positioned to exercise control in various ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Weather is a key factor influencing occupational health and safety (OHS) in the fishing sector, and this relationship is the subject of a growing body of research. However, the issue is rarely considered through a governance lens. Drawing from a larger study of weather and fishing safety in Atlantic Canada, the current paper examines a regional weather/fishing safety governance ecosystem. Using insights from actors (meteorologists; professional fishers) and a review of relevant policy literature, we articulate existing policies that attempt to directly address weather concerns while exploring key challenges facing these efforts. Findings emphasize that governance efforts to mitigate weather-driven fishing incidents typically focus on either shaping risk communication (e.g. public marine forecasts), or enhancing meteorological capacity among fishers through training requirements. While these efforts serve to improve awareness and decision-making capacity, weather remains only one of many factors influencing fisher decisions. Other critical safety factors (fishing access; inter-fisher competition) are shaped by other agencies and policies that i) are more likely to explicitly prescribe fisher behaviour (e.g. when & where fishing may occur), and ii) have not traditionally considered either weather or safety. In this context, mitigating the impacts of weather is best accomplished by bringing a meteorological & health and safety perspective to fisheries management. This could reduce tensions between safety and other factors influencing fisher decisions. • Policies addressing the impacts of weather on fishing OHS focus on i) shaping marine forecasts and ii) training mandates. • Such policies define & enforce boundaries, creating discrete, manageable units (e.g. spatial zones; categories of expertise). • Rigid adherence to policy-defined boundaries presents challenges to effective weather/OHS management; • Collaborative, informal relaxation of key boundaries (e.g. forecast zones; fishing seasons) can have positive OHS outcomes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canada's ocean ecosystem health and functioning is critical to sustaining a strong maritime economy and resilient coastal communities. Yet despite the importance of Canada's oceans and coasts, federal ocean policy and management have diverged substantially from marine science in the past decade. In this paper, key areas where this is apparent are reviewed: failure to fully implement the Oceans Act , alterations to habitat protections historically afforded under Canada's Fisheries Act , and lack of federal leadership on marine species at risk. Additionally, the capacity of the federal government to conduct and communicate ocean science has been eroded of late, and this situation poses a significant threat to current and future oceans public policy. On the eve of a federal election, these disconcerting threats are described and a set of recommendations to address them is developed. These trends are analyzed and summarized so that Canadians understand ongoing changes to the health of Canada's oceans and the role that their elected officials can play in addressing or ignoring them. Additionally, we urge the incoming Canadian government, regardless of political persuasion, to consider the changes we have documented and commit to aligning federal ocean policy with ocean science to ensure the health of Canada's oceans and ocean dependent communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The world׳s eel fisheries are in a state of crisis. While an increasing number of studies have documented the biophysical dynamics of the decrease in eel populations in Canada and around the world, studies documenting fishing practices, fisheries management, and the impact of eel declines on the livelihoods of fishermen are still rare. This paper aims to contribute to this discussion by examining the American eel ( Anguilla rostrata ) fishery in the St. Lawrence River Estuary, positioning it within larger historical, economic, and socio-environmental contexts. More particularly, it explores the issues these fishermen face as a consequence of the declining eel population, changing management practices, global trends in eel commercialization, and initiatives taken to promote eel fishing and the landscape that surrounds it as an important component of natural and cultural heritage. It is argued that these changes, many of which have been amplified by neoliberal policy shifts, have contributed to the marginalization of eel fishers and are making their future increasingly uncertain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-indigenous species (NIS) can create significant risks when introduced to foreign ecosystems. One of the many vectors facilitating the global transport of NIS is ballast water, and as commercial shipping increases so does the threat of ballast water-mediated introductions. Despite Canadian regulations, consistent with international guidelines put forth by the International Maritime Organization in the early 1990s, ballast water remains a potential vector for the introduction of many NIS to Canadian marine ecosystems: there have been no new introductions in the Laurentian Great Lakes Region since 2006, yet marine ecosystems continue to see the introduction and establishment of NIS. This paper details and analyzes the development of Canadian ballast water management (BWM), in the context of marine ecosystems, and identifies issues therein. BWM in Canada has a number of management gaps that have persisted since large-scale BWM began in the late 1980s. These include BWM exemptions for vessels not exiting the North American continental shelf, and limitations of effectiveness of mid-ocean exchange as the predominant management method in marine ecosystems. In addition, ballast water regulations for the Canadian Arctic may require additional consideration as the Arctic will likely continue to see an increase in both warming and commercial shipping in the future, thereby increasing the potential risk of NIS. In order to adequately protect all Canadian marine ecosystems, it is recommended that the current BWM regime: fill gaps in management to help prevent further introduction and spread of NIS; focus equally on both marine and freshwater regions, and; look to other aggressive BWM strategies such as those being developed by the state of California. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Arctic coastal populations share a close relationship with their environment consisting of linkages among communities, landscapes and seascapes, and the social institutions developed to sustain the system. This cultural–biogeophysical dynamic is termed throughout the section as a social–ecological system (SES). Marine mammals constitute a large portion of the subsistence diet for these communities, and as such represent key ecological services provided by the system. At the same time, marine mammals have gained iconic status as symbols for climate change in the North. A tension results between the demands of balancing on one hand good policy optics consistent with national and international norms and, on the other hand, flexible and adaptive institutions able to take on the task of managing resources in a dynamic, changing North. This tension and associated policy solutions such as co-management are explored in a series of papers focusing on marine mammal management dilemmas and policy practices around the circumpolar North. This introduction communicates the problem context and describes the five papers making up this special section. A guiding premise to this work is that new international pressures to implement moratoria on marine mammal hunting in the North ignore critical human dimensions of marine mammal management. Such policy proposals are unlikely to succeed in areas that require collaboration across scales. Simultaneously, new local-scale participation in multi-level management regimes holds promise for creating more resilient marine mammal SESs. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Canada has had experience with a number of different rights-based management programs for fish harvesting for more than thirty years. These programs have spanned both coasts, as well as been applied to fisheries in the central region. This paper sets the institutional context within which these programs operate, reviews selected programs for instances of successes and/or failures, and presents some lessons learned. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: The protection of imperilled fish species is increasingly urgent given ongoing fisheries declines and the degradation of aquatic habitats. In Canada, threatened aquatic species were less likely than terrestrial species to be listed under the Species at Risk Act (SARA), the main legal instrument for bestowing protection, in the early years of the Act's implementation. In this paper, the existence of economic thresholds that might have hampered the protection of Canadian marine and freshwater fishes is examined. The analysis of the socio-economic data used to inform listing decisions about threatened fish taxa over the past decade reveals that the likelihood of being listed declines non-linearly with increasing estimated costs of protection but does not vary with proposed threat status. The estimated threshold cost (i.e., the point at which the likelihood of not being listed=0.5) was ∼$5,000,000 (∼$1,400,000 to ∼$31,400,000, 95% CI) per decade for freshwater species but only ∼$90,000 ($∼50,000 to ∼$140,000, 95% CI) per decade for marine fish taxa. In fact, no marine fish species with an anticipated cost of listing greater than zero was listed for protection. The presence of existing management legislation and qualitative statements about negative impacts of listing on exploitation generally led to denying protection to marine but not to freshwater species. These findings highlight both a large and inconsistent emphasis on costs of protection in SARA listing decisions, to the detriment of marine fish species. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The governance framework for wild-capture fisheries varies widely across the world, but most frameworks generate and use science advice in decision-making, developed with some level of peer-review. The Canadian Science Advisory Secretariat (CSAS) oversees the peer-review process of science related to the management of Canada's fisheries and oceans; the resultant publications with science advice are the main source of scientific evidence used in decision-making in Canada's fisheries. The CSAS has a publicly available policy intended to ensure transparency and timely dissemination of publications that is currently under review. To examine the effectiveness of the existing policy, inform its revision and development of similar policies in other jurisdictions, this paper evaluates the timeliness of the publication of scientific information to support the management of Canada's fisheries and oceans from recent CSAS meetings against current policy deadlines. It was found that from 2017 to 2019, implementation of the policy was poor, with most documents published late, if at all. Furthermore, the science advice considered most during fisheries management decision-making was often not publicly available until after the decision was made and communicated. Despite having a policy to promote transparency, public engagement in policy and decision-making is being limited and a common understanding of the science evidence underlying advice inhibited. Transparency, which is becoming a cornerstone principle in modern fisheries management, is being compromised in Canadian fisheries management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Canada''s Arctic environment is rich in hydrocarbon resources. As international attention turns to the Arctic to meet global energy demands there is increased recognition of the need to advance upstream impact assessment and decision-making to plan for energy development. There have been several applications of strategic environmental assessment (SEA) over the past decade in the international offshore energy sector; however, SEA remains underdeveloped offshore in comparison to project-based environmental impact assessment and unchartered territory in Canada''s Arctic. This paper examines stakeholder perceptions of the opportunities and risks of advancing SEA for offshore energy planning and development in Canada''s Beaufort Sea. Results indicate a number of perceived opportunities for SEA, including improved regulatory efficiency, better regional baselines and planning practices, an opportunity to assess cumulative effects, more meaningful project-based assessment, and greater certainty for industry stakeholders. At the same time there are a number of perceived risks, including foregoing anticipated development opportunities, the loss of flexibility in decision making, adding another layer of bureaucracy, and the added uncertainties of a novel approach. The implications of these findings for advancing SEA in the offshore energy sector are discussed. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Anticipating the impacts of a new policy before implementation on a complex social–ecological system is a challenging task for managers and policymakers. This paper reports on the development and use of an agent-based model (ABM) dedicated to support marine park managers in their effort to devise policies to sustainably manage whale-watching activities. The ABM, called the Marine Mammal and Maritime Traffic Simulator (3MTSim), represents the spatiotemporal dynamics of marine mammals and navigation activities in and around the Saguenay–St. Lawrence Marine Park in Canada. In the context of updating the current regulations on whale-watching in the Marine Park, 3MTSim was run to evaluate the merits of a proposed set of rules compared to the current regulations. To do so, a set of variables related to policies’ impacts on the three spheres of sustainable development, namely the impact on whales (Environment), on whale-watching companies (Economy), and tourist experience (Society) was analysed. 3MTSim''s simulations highlighted that the proposed rules are expected to improve the situation regarding whale conservation and tourist experience with only marginal impact on the whale-watching industry. In the proposed regulations, one rule is expected to be very influential on whale-watching activities. This rule limits to 10 the number of whale-watching boats allowed to stand within 926m of any boat in observation mode. Assuming efficient law enforcement, 3MTSim predicts a significant decrease in overall boat concentration around whales in the Marine Park, which is one of the management objectives benefiting both whales and tourists. Interestingly, 3MTSim reveals that this rule could indirectly force some boats to observe second-choice whales present in higher abundance rather than some more attractive species scarcer in the region. This highlights the following management tradeoffs: Reducing boat exposure for the humpback whale and endangered blue whale is likely to increase it for the more abundant fin whale listed as of special concern (Canada''s Species at Risk Act) and minke whale. This work demonstrates the utility of ABMs to support policy analysis in the context of sustainable management in a Marine Park. ABMs developed in close relationship with end-users are unarguably a tool of choice to manage complex social–ecological systems since they provide insight into phenomena hard or impossible to measure in the real system. Despite the labour intensive nature of their implementation, this investment is worth the effort. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines Canadians'' willingness to pay to recover the populations of three marine mammal species found in the St Lawrence Estuary. The valuation approach utilized a stated preference tool that is somewhat a hybrid between contingent valuation and a choice experiment with multiple species recovery program options and choices framed as referenda. Program options involved the use of a marine protected area and restrictions on whale watching and shipping industries. The estimated willingness to pay (WTP) for different levels of marine mammal recovery ranged from $77 to $229 per year per household and varied according to the species affected and the recovery program effort. A series of tests revealed that people would be willing to pay more for programs that contribute to greater increases in marine mammal populations, but the additional value of programs that improve a species status beyond the “at risk” threshold is relatively small. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Like many other coastal states, management of Canada’s offshore areas is complicated by the division of authority among differing government departments and agencies. However, as a Confederation, this administrative complexity in Canada is further exacerbated by the jurisdictional division of powers between the Federal Parliament and the Provincial Legislatures. The most common tool for overcoming this division and facilitating cooperation are formalized non-binding agreements known as Memoranda of Understanding (MOUs). While there are a large number of MOUs in existence in Canada, few are being implemented. In part, this is because the non-binding nature of the agreement means that either party may discard their obligations at will. This has led to many useful MOUs being discarded and years of work and resources expended negotiating these agreements being wasted. This paper discusses the findings from three such agreements, each focusing on efforts to manage Canada’s offshore resources. It highlights the importance of six factors capable of increasing the likelihood that any given MOU aimed at collaboration between different authorities will be successful. These factors include: a foundation of cooperation, clear statement of priorities, feasible and adaptable work plans, integration at various management levels, a legislative foundation, and adequate financial resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Internationally, shark conservation is now being recognized as a major environmental challenge, but management efforts to halt the overexploitation of sharks have lagged behind. This review examines the state of knowledge for shark species in Canadian waters and analyzes the role of existing management and legislation in ensuring shark conservation. Despite Canada''s early leadership, the present management framework reveals major shortcomings with regard to legal protection, bycatch and finning regulations. These problems are not unique to Canada but illustrate broader issues pertaining to the global management of endangered fish species. To strengthen the conservation and management of sharks, this paper recommends a set of key policies and management priorities, which exemplify proper precautionary management of endangered shark species in Canada and could serve as a blueprint for improving conservation efforts internationally. A structured approach for grading progress in shark conservation efforts against best practices is also presented and could be used as a goalpost elsewhere. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper reports on the outcomes of a project that engaged researchers and fishers together in adapting participatory social science approaches to the purposes and the constraints of community-based fisher organizations. The work was carried out in the Scotia-Fundy Region of Atlantic Canada (the Bay of Fundy and Scotian Shelf) between 1999 and 2003. After a period of reflection on what was collectively learned from our experiences in this project, the academics went back to the community partners in a recent workshop for further discussion and refinement of the lessons. We conclude that true participatory fishery research, utilized in support of community-based management, can be a particularly powerful tool. However, it has few effective shortcuts, it must deal early in the research process with power imbalances, and it should involve significant political engagement and empowerment through co-learning. This assessment of participatory research in coastal fisheries also has significant implications for how we think of social capital and on how we may develop community-based resource management for a sustainable future. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: This paper examines why market and government institutions failed to prevent over fishing in the Southern Gulf snow crab fishery, whereas non-market institutions succeeded. A general conclusion is that the institutional environment in which economic behaviour must be coordinated for successful fisheries management is complex. More specifically, collective action dilemmas arise from the interdependency of human and fish species interactions. However, successful institutions are capable of resolving these dilemmas when they achieve credible commitment. Coordination mechanisms such as co-management contracts, horizontal patterns of communication and win–win negotiations all contribute to building an institutional arrangement in which participants are motivated to comply with conservation objectives. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

After almost a century of benign neglect, Canadian aquaculture policy emerged in its modern form after 1984, when the federal government led a complex intergovernmental process of policy renewal. After an initial period in which the foundations for the new policy were laid through intergovernmental agreements, both the federal and provincial governments adopted numerous policies aimed at the promotion of the aquaculture industry. This paper assesses these developments and trends in Canadian aquaculture policy against the requirements for “smart regulation” set out by Neil Gunningham. It finds the Canadian efforts to be wanting, focussing too much on substantive policy tools designed for aquaculture industry development and not enough on the procedural tools required for policy legitimation. As a result, the industry, and Canadian government policy, now face severe potential legitimation problems. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

In the context of the growing climate emergency and the negative social and environmental impacts of the industrial food system, significant attention is focused on the question of how we will feed ourselves sustainably. Small-scale fisheries are receiving more attention and communities are increasingly resisting a resourcist perspective that treats fish as a commodity by engaging in efforts to (re)envision fisheries as part of food systems. This paper presents four case studies from freshwater and marine fisheries across Canada to demonstrate ways of using food systems as an organizing concept to protect small-scale fisheries, build sustainable communities, and influence fisheries governance and policy. Insights are shared from the lobster fishery in Shelburne County, Nova Scotia; fish and country foods harvesting in Kakisa, Northwest Territories; traditional fisheries of Batchewana First Nation on Lake Superior, Ontario; and the national sustainable seafood partnership program, SeaChoice. We conclude by providing our collective ideas for how governance and policy may better support sustainability at the nexus of fisheries and food systems, emphasizing a need for structures and policies that are better adapted to the contexts of small-scale fisheries and that empower community participation in decision-making. • The food system is an integrative lens for analyzing small-scale fisheries. • Policy needs to support sustainability at the nexus of fisheries and food systems. • Communities are mobilizing to influence governance of food and fishing systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fishery and wildlife managers face important challenges in reconciling recovery of historically over-harvested or extirpated populations of marine mammals with effective fisheries management. For example, the reestablishment of sea otters in British Columbia (B.C.) has had repercussions that led to one of the more interesting resource management problems involving commercial fisheries in Canada. As a case study, this paper reviews the history of sea otter exploitation and reintroduction in B.C., and discusses the nature and context of the problem today. Fisheries and marine mammals in Canada continue to be managed under overlapping legislative mandates and often with quite different goals. The case study highlights persistent social and institutional constraints on reconciling marine mammal-fishery conflicts. To reduce tensions and uncertainty, Fisheries and Oceans Canada should prioritize intensive marine mammal sampling programs for non-endangered species to disentangle fishing and predation effects, and fully implement Species At Risk Act and Fisheries Act measures to reduce uncertainty among increasingly diverse stakeholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Canada is a signatory to United Nations conventions on sustainable development and has entrenched sustainability goals in legislation and policies relating to natural resource sectors including aquaculture. Monitoring and measuring progress towards sustainable development requires the development of sustainability indicators (SI) that, when measured, indicate movement towards or away from a stated policy objective, as well as providing the public with a measure of government accountability. This paper examined the SI used by the Canadian government to assess the social, economic and environmental sustainability of aquaculture production in Canada, whether they adequately measure policy outcomes, and whether national-level SI indicators are appropriate to assessing sustainability at the community-level. The analysis reveals that the Canadian government has made virtually no progress towards translating sustainable aquaculture policy aspirations into measurable SI that evaluate policy outcomes. The mismatch between national policy goals and on-the-ground consequences are highlighted in a community case study of finfish aquaculture in Port Mouton Bay (Nova Scotia). Aquaculture SI and sustainability narratives are discussed in relation to emergent governance arrangements (certification programs) and an international development initiative, Blue Growth, for the world's oceans. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reports on the results of an investigation of management costs in the fisheries of Iceland, Newfoundland and Norway and discusses them in a more general framework. Management costs are defined ascosts necessary to overcome the problems associated with common property. The question of whether management costs should be paid by industry is discussed, as is the likely effect of user pay on the efficiency with which management is provided. Since management has public goods characteristics, it is likely that there is an unavoidable role for government in providing these services. The question of who pays for it is separate, and recovering costs from industry has both efficiency and optimal taxation aspects. A greater involvement in management by industry further raises the question of compatibility between the industry's interests and the public interest. Measured as percent of gross value of fish landings the management costs are by far highest in Newfoundland (15/25%), lowest in Iceland (about 3%), with Norwayin the middle (about 10%). Management costs thus appear to be substantial and quite variable. This gives rise to three conclusions. First, when calculating optimal harvesting and investment paths one must take the management costs of implementing these paths explicitly into account. Second, what is the economic efficiency of management? Couldthe same level of benefits be produced at lower costs? Third, can fisheries management expenditures of the magnitude discussed be justified in the sense that the benefits exceed the costs? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Government of Canada is in the process of developing an oceans strategy and management regime for sustainable ocean development. Thispaper examines the implications of this approach. It develops a basic economic and management framework for dealing with sustainable oceans development, examines some of the issues associated with ocean industries in Canada, and points out some of the inadequacies of Canada's present management of ocean industries (a method that utilizes an individual-industry focus). The paper supports the thesis that a sustainable ocean management regime could be more efficient and effective in solving some of the current and future difficulties faced by Canada's ocean industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]