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Plastic bags are one of the most widely used packaging materials in industries. Lower production cost, lightweight and high strength envisage its use in food packaging, carrier, and transportation industries. However, these plastic bags are non-biodegradable and cause serious water and soil pollution. It is one of the most thrust areas of research to overcome this problem in the current world. In the present investigation, fabrication, and characterization of an environmentally friendly and biodegradable "jute fibre reinforced paper composite" and "reinforcement free paper laminate" subjected to drop test were done. The standard procedure of the "MIL-STD-810G 516.6" drop test was followed. The adhesion between the matrix (paper) and reinforcement (jute fibre) was produced by applying a chemical-free adhesive made of flour and water. There were four different types of samples: single paper (SP), reinforcement-free paper laminate (RFPL), single-layer jute fibre reinforced paper composite (SLJPC), and double-layer jute fibre reinforcement paper composite (DLJPC). The microstructural characterization of the fractured surface after the drop was done using a scanning electron microscope operated at a voltage of 20 kV. The DLJPC samples had the maximum density and envisage drop-strength of 7 times as compared to the SP samples having the lowest density. The drop-strength exhibited linear regression with density for all the samples. The microstructure of the as-received matrix showed a non-homogeneous distribution of fibres along with micro-voids which were susceptible sites for the fracture. Unlike as-received matrix fibres distribution, the reinforcement fibres were aligned in two mutually perpendicular directions which leads to its strengthening. Hence, it can be said that the non-uniform structural properties envisaged by the as-received matrix can be compensated by uniformly distributed structural properties of the as-received reinforcement when both come together as a composite. The primary fracture mechanism of SP samples exhibited fibre breaking along with a few fibres' delamination. However, in the case of the RFPL sample, the nature of adhesion applied was capable to hold both the interfaces and the primary fracture mechanism was fibre breaking. It is suggested that the adhesive applied transmitted load through the interfaces. Unlike SP sample, the RFPL sample exhibited some adhesive pull-off. The fractured surface of the SLJPC sample showed that the matrix did not subject to fracture, however, reinforcement did fracture hence the load was transferred from matrix to reinforcement followed by a rupture of the reinforcement. Therefore, the primary fracture mechanism for the SLJPC sample was reinforcement rupture. The DLJPC sample showed a delamination of matrix and reinforcement.

The Microwave-Assisted Pyrolysis (MAP) method has the potential to be applied for the synthesis of dye adsorbents. In this work, the activated carbon (AC) was synthesized from the paper waste by the MAP method. The deinking paper waste was carbonized and activated using microwave heating with a frequency of 2.45 GHz and various power outputs (450, 600, and 800 W). The activation was carried out using ZnCl2 solution as an activating reagent. The impregnation with ZnCl2 is expected to give a clearer porous structure by absorbing microwave heat from inside and outside at the same time. The heating rate during the activation process can reach 211°C/min, which shows that the MAP method has the potential to provide a faster heating rate and shorter processing time compared to the furnace pyrolysis. The effect of the synthesis parameter such as impregnation ratio, time, and radiation power was studied from the adsorption efficiency on methylene blue (MB) dye. The activated carbon was characterized using the proximate test, SEM, and XRD. Best Result of the MAP method was obtained with a ratio of 1:1 (ZnCl2: Carbon) within 5 minutes of radiating, power of 800 W, with the results that AC can adsorb MB solution up to 2100 ppm with a maximum adsorption capacity of 1036.3 mg/g, and the efficiency of 99.87%.

Deforestation issues increased dramatically every year specially to produce paper. Therefore, to supplement the limited wood fibre resources, non-wood fibres especially sugarcane bagasse introduced an alternatives resolve for raw material is considered in paper-based industries. This study addresses the analysis of magnetic sugarcane bagasse materials as substitute fibres in papermaking. Paper is generally made with cellulose fibre which has some specific features used for educational, packaging, and cleaning purposes. Sugarcane bagasse (Saccarhum officinarum) is popular for its cellulose, holocellulose, and lignin that far more convenient than wood fibres. Meanwhile, the demands of magnetic material in magnetic papermaking industry has increased due to its excellent mechanical characteristics. As the magnetic paper shows some superiority in properties such as renewable use and folding resistance. The used of filler in this study is to alter the properties such as texture, opacity, brightness, dimensional stability, and overall printability. Thus, the used of ferrite (Fe) magnet as a filler can enhance the paper properties. Ferrite is recognized as a hard-magnetic material with distinct properties such as good mechanical hardness and chemical stability, therefore it is a much more convenient material for magnetic paper production. Through the observation under Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), the image obtained shows that magnetics sugarcane bagasse paper was more convenient to be used as an alternative for paper making. Next, Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) recognizes the presence of a functional group of the magnetics sugarcane bagasse paper. Moreover, the chemical properties obtained from this study show that the magnetics sugarcane bagasse was as good as the commercial paper available in the industries. To increase the integrity of the paper, the radiation process by using gamma-ray was done to the paper to see the different for pre and post radiation.

In present investigation, an attempt was made to optimise the peak stress for paper laminate composite using FRANC2D software. It was observed that the laminate having the triangular geometry supposed to be most appropriate as it has the lowest value of peak stress contour compared to other models like parallel strip, up-down tapered and down-up tapered. The minimum peak stress was observed for the samples having triangular geometry while the maximum was observed for down-up tapered samples. Therefore, the hypothesis adopted to use in-built materials with variables reinforcement area and strip geometry and length in the FRANC2D software to optimize the sample geometry and then apply it to the paper laminate by considering its mechanical properties might be use to optimize the peak stress of paper laminate composite in tensile loading conditions. It was also observed a length of one-quarter of the length of the plane strip, might be the optimum length of the paper laminate samples. However, it feels that, the above model can be further modified considering a more significant mechanical properties as well as different sample geometries.

The numbers of Malaysian construction industry had been increasing in several years with the large construction building and infrastructures projects had been constructed. Therefore, these developments led to an increase of cement production. The production of cement will cause wider environmental implication such are air pollution, water pollution and soil pollution which are very dangerous for human health. This is due to the manufacturing of cement that release dust, toxic and carbon dioxide emissions, which is a significant contributor of greenhouse gases. To overcome this problem, several researches had been conducted for the past few decade to find a new waste material that have same mechanical properties which can replace cement content in construction. One of the most promising materials that shows great potential is eggshell as a cement replacement. It is reported that the global egg production will increase to about 90 million tons by 2030, therefore the waste of eggshell will be increased too. This paper study the mechanical properties of eggshell as a cement replacement in concrete. Several papers had been reviewed and the results are presented in order to shows the performance of eggshell in concrete. The result shows that the concrete with less than 15% replacement of eggshell produced higher compressive and tensile strength compared to normal concrete. Moreover, the flexural strength of concrete containing eggshell up to 20% replacement shows comparable results with normal concrete. From the results, by replacing cement with eggshell up to 15% show a good performance as well as can reduce the use of cement and reduce the eggshell wasted in landfill.

The recycling of paper and paperboard waste for obtaining powder cellulose has a positive impact on environmental and economic benefits due to its possibility to be applied in various fields of industry, including the fabrication of wood-polymer composite1,2. The extraction of cellulose from cellulose-containing wastes can be carried out by their mechanical disintegration with acid or alkali hydrolysis. In comparison with the known method3 the proposed method can be realized under more gentle conditions. For this aim, recycled de-inked waste paper was cut into small pieces (d < 5 mm) which were soaked in 0,05% hydrochloric solution at hydromodulus 1/20 (paper/water) for 2 hours at the intensive mechanical stirring for paper pieces disintegration. After soaking, the excessive water was pressed, and the disintegrated paper mass was dried, at first, at 60 °C for 16 hours and then at 120 °C for 2 hours. After drying, the paper mass was milled in a planetary mill for 15 minutes at a moderate rotation speed. The obtained cellulose particles were characterized by physicochemical properties. It was found, that obtained recycled paper particles (RPAP) had a similar contact angles with water compared to reference cellulose powder. However, polarity of RPAP was 20,5%, but of reference cellulose – 43,5%. RPAP could be characterized as more amorphous than cellulose because its crystallinity index was 61%, but reference cellulose powder – 81%. Using laser granulometry, it was found, that 99% of particles were less than 200 μm, and 90% of particles were less than 140 μm.

Several Indonesian paper mills utilize used paper as feedstock as the price is much cheaper and abundant availability, but the strength of the paper product tends to decrease. Xylan which is extracted from corncobs is a potential additive for upgrading the quality by modifying the fibre surface. This research studies the effect of sodium hydroxide concentration for extraction to produce an acceptable strength of paper product. The extraction process is at temperature of 90°C for 2 hours in a stirred tank reactor and the xylan product is deposited with 10 N acetic acid at pH of 4.5 - 5.0. Using 16% of NaOH concentration, the extraction produces 21.82% yield of xylan. With addition of this xylan product at mass ratio between xylan and corncobs of 5% increases 30.1% of the tensile strength and 31.83% of the tire strength. The optimum concentration of the use of NaOH in xylan extraction was at 16% NaOH with the largest xylan yield obtained at 21.82%.

This study aimed to develop paper packaging from rice straw fibers with its function as antibacterial activity obtained from pomelo (Citrus maxima) peels. Paper with ca. 106.42 g/m2 basis weight, 0.34 mm thickness, 34.15 % brightness and 78.7 N.m/g tensile index was prepared from rice straw fibers and pulps. Bioactive compounds of crude pomelo peels extracted using maceration technique with 75% (v/v) ethanol were coated onto rice straw papers at concentration of 10, 15 and 20 % (w/v). The coated papers had similar thickness, and slightly lower tensile index and brightness as compared to those of control papers. Scanning electron microscopy confirmed the changes of surface and cross-section structures of coated and uncoated papers. The rice straw coated papers had relatively greater barrier property to prevent water absorption. In addition, the coated papers with pomelo peel extract showed significant antibacterial activity against food pathogenic bacteria, including Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus cereus and Escherichia coli. This study reveals the benefits of natural by-products as a potential material for active packaging.

Oil palm trunk is lignocellulose biomass and agricultural residual waste that has not been utilized to its maximum potential. The feasibility of paper production from oil palm trunk (OPT) was studied for one alternative application. OPT was treated with 8% (w/v) alkaline solution (NaOH), subsequently with a different concentration of H2O2 solution (2, 4, 6 and 8% w/v). The results showed that the brown color of OPP was converted to a pale yellow color after bleaching with H2O2 while hemicellulose and lignin were also removed. Arrowroot flour was used as a binder for mold oil palm paper. The optimum condition for oil palm paper production was 15% (w/v) NaOH for 60 min then 6 % (v/v) H2O2 for 30 min. The obtained OPP paper showed a density of 183.53 ± 1.86 g/cm3, a water absorption of 0.0904 ± 0.0010 mL/cm2, a tensile index of 2.60 ± 0.07 Nm/g and a burst index of 1.22 ± 0.04 kPa m2/g. All value properties of the obtained OPP paper showed that the OPP value was lower than that of available commercial Kraft paper (KI125 and KT125). Meanwhile, this OPP paper process could continuously improve to be a container formation.

In this work, pulp/lyocell wet-laid paper sheets have been consolidated by hydroentanglement techniques. Scanning electron microscopy has been used to evaluate the structures of wet-laid paper sheets before and after hydroentanglement. Wet tensile strength along longitudinal (preferential) and transverse directions show the effect of hydroentanglement techniques on the mechanical properties of wet-laid paper sheets. In addition, the air permeability and water absorbency properties of materials have been evaluated. The results show that the structures of wet-laid paper sheets become fluffy and fiber entanglements increase after consolidation. The wet tensile strength values of wet-laid paper sheets at the longitudinal and transverse directions are increased by 109.0% and 78.7%, respectively after hydroentanglement. The air permeability and water absorbency of wet-laid paper sheets are increased by 957.6% and 137.0%.

Zeolite powders were first treated with hydrochloric acid, then reacted with sodium chloride, and sodium zeolite (Na-Zeolite) powders were obtained. Further Antibacterial zeolite powders were prepared by loading metal ions such as, Ag+ and Zn2+, Ag+ and Cu2+, Zn2+and Cu2+, Ag+ and Cu2+and Zn2+, through ion exchange. The powders were characterized by minimum Inhibitory concentration (MIC), SEM/EDXA and XRD. Antibacterial paper with antibacterial zeolite powders as filler was fabricated. The results demonstrated that MIC of loading (Ag++Zn2+) zeolite was 125ppm against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli . MIC of loading (Ag++Cu2++Zn2+) zeolite was 62.5ppm against Candida albicans and Aspergillus Niger. By adding 6% of (Ag++Zn2+), (Ag++Cu2+), and (Ag++Cu2++Zn2+) antibacterial zeolite powders, respectively, antibacterial paper were prepared; and the antibacterial rate of these papers against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans and Aspergillus Niger for 4h is close to 100%.

This work presents an enhancement of the voltammetric signal on an electrochemical paper-based analytical device (ePAD) using a graphene oxide (GO) modified carbon electrode. The ePAD is fabricated using a screen printing technique for fabrication of the hydrophobic area and three electrode strips. The graphene film was directly prepared on ePAD by dropping 2 µL of GO dispersed in water onto the working electrode surface and leaving it to dry at room temperature. The electrochemical reduction process of GO was carried out by applying a constant voltage of -1.20 V (vs. Ag/AgCl electrode strip) in 0.1 M KCl for 800 s. The GO-modified carbon working electrode on ePAD was readily obtained and ready to use after removing KCl solution. We tested the enhancement of the voltammetric signal on ePAD with a 6 mM [Fe(CN)6]4–/3– redox couple in 0.1 M KCl supporting electrolyte solution. Our results obtained from cyclic voltammograms showed that the unmodified working electrode and the GO-modified working electrode on ePAD provided similar anodic and cathodic peaks. Due to accelerated electron transfer process, it was found that the GO-modified working electrode on ePAD provided approximately a 2-fold increase in voltammetric signals when compared to the unmodified working electrode on ePAD. The reproducibility (inter-day precision) of the voltammetric signal measurement using a GO-modified working electrode on ePAD was acceptable. The relative standard deviation (RSD) was 5-8%. Therefore, the GO-modified carbon working electrode on ePAD offers an effective approach to enhance the signal and sensitivity for chemical analysis.

In this report, synthesis and characterization of gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) from gold leaf by electrolysis in two different media (gel and paper) in presence of sodium chloride (NaCl), glucose (C6H12O6) and polyvinyl pyrrolidone (PVP) at room temperature were investigated. Graphite was used as two electrodes, NaCl was used as an electrolyte, C6H12O6 was used as reducing agent and PVP was used as stabilizer to control the aggregation of the nanoparticles. UV-Visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) were used to confirm the characteristics and morphologies of the synthesized AuNPs.

Recycling of paper materials or other type of cellulose fibres is important regarding saving nature resources and environmental protection. Cellulose dissolution and regenerating from various materials is one of recycling possibilities. Cellulose dissolution by NaOH/urea system has a great potential due to the use of harmless reagents, and at the same time is challenging due to the forming of gel-like substances, when cellulose has degree of polymerization more than 1000. It was found that microcrystalline cellulose and cotton cellulose were dissolved in NaOH/urea, but tissue paper, filter paper and waste paper were not dissolved completely. Additives of Kraft pulp and pulp waste dissolved and regenerated from NaOH/urea and cupriethylendiamine (CuETD) in amount 0-30% from paper composition increased mechanical properties of paper sheet. CuETD additive was more effective than NaOH/urea additive, however latter has potential for further research as environmentally friendlier.

The separation of oil from water is significance for environmental de-pollution application. To obtain selectivity of liquid, filter papers were coated to bear highly hydrophobic and oleophilic functionality that can allow only oils to pass through them. The coating solutions were prepared by mixing poly(methylhydro siloxane, PMHS) and fumed silica at various proportions. To determine an optimum coating condition, properties of the treated filter papers were investigated by measuring water contact angle and surface free energy, examining surface morphology and testing for selective removal of diesel oil from water. The optimum coating solution was at the PMHS:fumed silica weight ratio of 1.25:1.00. The treated filter paper exhibited high hydrophobicity with water contact angle of 142.80 ± 0.36 degrees and surface free energy of 0.78 mJ/m2. In addition, it exhibited high selective removal of diesel oil from water with oil absorption capacity of 2.3 g/g.

This work developed activated carbon loaded lignocellulosic fibers (kraft pulp) by pulp refining process and used them to form activated carbon paper (AC-paper). AC-paper was used for the removal of dye and heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions. In pulp refining process, kraft pulp was mixed with activated carbon using high consistency refiner with the addition of cationic starch as a binder. The effects of cationic starch and activated carbon concentration on AC-paper properties were investigated. Activated carbon amount of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50%, and cationic starch amount of 0, 0.25 and 0.50% (% by oven dried weight pulp) were examined. The AC-paper was prepared at basis weight of 60±5 g/m2. Paper mechanical properties, including density, tensile index, burst index, ring crush index, and tear index, were tested according to ISO 5270. The results show that all paper strength properties declined when the amount of activated carbon was increased. Especially, when the activated carbon content above 30%, paper strength was greatly reduced. The improvement of paper strength was observed when with the cationic starch was added. However, the increased of cationic starch amount from 0.25 to 0.50% showed no significantly difference in paper strength. Paper adsorption of dye (methyl orange, (MO)) and heavy metal ions (zinc and iron) were also studied. The AC-paper prepared from fiber with 50% activated carbon and 0.50% cationic starch provided highest adsorption values of both dye and metal ions from aqueous solutions. In this work, the use of 30% activated carbon and 0.50% cationic starch in pulp refining process was chosen as a suitable condition for the preparation of activated carbon loaded fiber because the activated carbon content above 30% could disrupt paper strength. The fiber obtained from this suitable condition gave the paper with adsorption values of 0.62, 16.38 and 16.72 mg/g for MO, Zn2+, and Fe2+, respectively. The developed activated carbon loaded lignocellulosic fibers could be potentially used for various specialty paper products, such as absorbent paper, filter paper and active packaging, in the future.

Polyaniline-zinc oxide composite on Kapok paper were fabricated for methylene blue dye removal in aqueous solution. Kapok fibers were fabricated into papers. The fabricate paper served as substrate for the zinc oxide-polyaniline composite. Zinc oxide particles were deposited on the Kapok paper using an in-situ method while polyaniline molecules are deposited on paper using Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction (SILAR) method. The polyaniline molecules were deprotonated using sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to be able adsorb cationic dyes in aqueous solution. The samples were characterized using scanning electron microscope (SEM), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) spectroscopy and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. Results show that the deprotonated polyaniline nanocomposite was able to remove at about 75% more dye compared to the as-synthesized polyaniline nanocomposite.

Nanostructured zinc oxide (ZnO) particles were grown on paper substrate made from Abaca hybrid 7 pulp. Microwave irradiation technique was used at power levels (180 and 540W) and exposure times (5, 10, 20 and 25 minutes). Chemical transformations were observed using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy. The effects of the power levels and exposure times on the morphology of the nanostructures were determined using scanning electron microscopy. FTIR spectra proved the embedment of ZnO on the paper substrate. Power levels and exposure times affected the distribution, particle size and structure of the ZnO nanoparticles. Higher power level and longer exposure resulted to the formation of more ZnO with larger particles. Grainlike and flowerlike ZnO nanostructures were formed at lower and higher levels, respectively.

Nickel cobaltite (NiCo2O4) nanowires were successfully grown on the surface of carbon fiber via hydrothermal treatment, followed by annealing. After 2 h, SEM revealed the formation of NiCo2O4 nanowire arrays on the surface of the carbon fiber paper. With increasing hydrothermal time from 2 to 12 h, the NiCo2O4 nanowires also self-assembled into urchin-like morphologies. When used as catalysts for hydrogen evolution reaction, the NiCo2O4 nanowires exhibit an onset potential for the cathodic current at-0.13 V vs. Ag/AgCl in 0.1 M KOH.

Fabrication and mechanical properties of the bio-composites between water hyacinth natural fiber and paper mulberry have been investigated. The fabrication was performed using the hand lay-up technique. Untreated and treated water hyacinth fiber were used as reinforcements, in the ratio of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by weight, with paper mulberry as a biomatrix. It has been found that paper mulberry reinforced with 15 % treated WH fiber showed maximum tensile strength and impact energy. The optical and scanning electron microscopic morphology of the obtained composites displayed a rougher surface and the decrease in the fiber diameter when treated with sodium hydroxide (NaOH). This improved the interlocking between the matrix and its reinforcement.