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This study aimed to investigate content depicted by social media influencers and examine how its engagement aligns with the theoretical components of social comparison theory, providing an understanding of how adolescents view self-image. The parasocial relationships between social media influencers and adolescent followers on Instagram were investigated by exploring how the relationship dynamic is challenged with paid endorsements, envy by followers, and strategic communication. Incorporating content analysis with thematic analysis from the most popular social media influencers on Instagram, findings revealed a relationship between hashtag usage and the adolescent creation of self-image micro realities. The analysis demonstrated a strong correlation between social media influencer-follower engagement, hashtag use, and self-image micro realities. Guided by the social comparison theory, it was hypothesized that content from social media influencers would depict themes that contain appearance-focused content, are congruent with an unrealistic self-image for adolescents, and use metadata tags or hashtags that directly correlate to adolescent followers and self-body images. The research found that adolescent followers create self-image micro realities because of engaging content on Instagram.

Many studies have highlighted how social comparison can influence self-efficacy for exercise, body dissatisfaction, and motivation to exercise, especially on social media; in addition, several studies have supported how attitude toward exercise and confidence toward exercise correlate with one another. However, these dependent variables have not been examined in the context of Generation Z men in Appalachia. Despite the lack of literature on this demographic, it is important to study Generation Z Appalachian men because of the frequent health problems this demographic faces, such as obesity. Therefore, this pretest-posttest between-subjects lab experiment investigated how an athletic influencer on social media related to Generation Z Appalachian men’s self-efficacy, body dissatisfaction, and likelihood to participate in exercise behaviors (motivation) through the lens of social comparison theory. In addition, this study also explored how attitude toward exercise and self-efficacy toward exercise related with each other. Findings indicate that upward social comparison had a significant association with body dissatisfaction increasing. This indicated that when someone from this demographic negatively compares their own body to an athletic influencer, the more body dissatisfied they are. In contrast, when participants upward compared, a significant association showed that self-efficacy and motivation dwindled. Furthermore, self-efficacy had a significant association with positive and negative attitudes toward exercise. The results support that the higher the self-efficacy toward exercise, the more positive their attitude was toward exercise; in contrast, the lower the self-efficacy, the more negative their attitude was toward exercise. This study offered advances in social comparison theory regarding influenced Generation Z Appalachian men’s body dissatisfaction, while also supporting that athletic influencers have the capability to shift those perceptions and behaviors based on how this demographic compared themselves to them. This study also offered how this demographics’ attitude can shift based on how much self-efficacy they have after viewing an athletic influencer. Future limitations and implications are discussed.

In November 1945, Johnson Publishing Company released its second publication titled Ebony, a magazine modeled after Life magazine, which featured photographic spreads and stories about various topics about the Black community. Five years later, the publishing company released Tan Confessions, an African American confessions magazine inspired by True Confessions, printed from November 1950 through October 1952. The magazine was renamed TAN and rebranded into a homemaker’s magazine. This research analyzes the content of these magazines and 619 letters to the editor— 350 letters from volumes one and two of Ebony and 269 letters from volumes one and two of Tan Confessions. The study looks at the magazine content and letters to the editor through the theoretical lenses of social comparison theory to examine how the editors of Ebony and Tan Confessions published and categorized letters to the editor, which serves as a representation how they presented reader reaction to their audience. This research is relevant and important to not only the history of Black magazine publication, but it is an essential piece of the rich and longstanding American magazine history. Johnson Publishing Company created an empire by printing a succession of high-circulating magazines that were unlike any before them because they published aspects of African American life that were not seen in mainstream media at the time.

This thesis integrates social comparison theory (Festinger, 1954) and psychological reactance theory (Brehm, 1966) to examine the effects of controlling language and comparison types on psychological reactance and attitudes. Two 3 (comparison types: upward contrast vs. no contrast vs. downward contrast) × 2 (controlling language: high vs. low) independent group experiments were conducted. Both studies revealed main effects of controlling language on perceived threat to personal freedom and anger in response to the message. The results also revealed the main effects of comparison types on anger to the messages and attitude to recycling. For anger to the message, there were no interaction effects between comparison types and controlling language on it in neither of these studies. However, for attitude to recycling, Study 1 revealed that the effect of controlling language on it could be overwhelmed and neutralized by the effects of both upward contrast and downward contrast on it.

With advertising tactics becoming predominantly digital, social media outreach methods have secured their place in the tool belts of many brands. This thesis discussed three objectives in showcasing how Twitter’s involvement in online conversation could help the feminine product brand, Always. On the discovery of the dropping confidence levels in young girls, Always took to Twitter to encourage girls to never quit and to pursue sports and other activities #LikeAGirl. Additionally, Social Comparison Theory and the thin-idealization were studied in media images to discuss the reasons for the low self-esteem in girls. Ending observations determined that Always and its hashtag successfully created and sustained positive conversations in social media platforms. Moreover, future consequences could be promising through changing image standards in the media as well as positive influences taking action in children’s lives.

Female body image concern has been widely studied in the literature, but fewer studies have examined the relationship between social networking site use and female body image concern. Using objectification theory as a framework, the present study explored how appearance comparison and feedback comparison influence body shame, disordered eating, and cosmetic surgery interest in the context of the social networking site Instagram. A national sample of female Instagram users (N = 245) completed an online survey. Results of the serial mediation model showed that body surveillance had an indirect effect on disordered eating and cosmetic surgery interest via appearance comparison on Instagram and body shame. Body surveillance, however, did not positively predict disordered eating and cosmetic surgery interest through the mediating variables of feedback comparison on Instagram and body shame. A significant positive relationship emerged between body surveillance and appearance comparison, as well as between appearance comparison and body shame. Body shame positively predicted disordered eating and cosmetic surgery interest. Feedback comparison, on the other hand, did not reveal significant direct relationships with any of the variables within the serial mediation model. These results suggest that objectification theory should be expanded to incorporate appearance comparison and cosmetic surgery interest within its framework. Furthermore, female Instagram users need to be aware of the negative consequences Instagram use could have on their body image. Media literacy programs on body image should develop sessions emphasizing the role Instagram use plays in the development of body image concern. Disordered eating clinicians and cosmetic surgeons must consider the potential influence of Instagram use and appearance comparison on their patients’ body image concern or interest in undergoing cosmetic procedures.

The purpose of this study was to expand on the current literature on the use of racial and cultural matching to determine if allocentric-idiocentric match predict treatment improvement above and beyond racial matching. Participants consisted of 60 clients with a primary diagnosis of schizophrenia attending a partial hospitalization program. Of the 100 participants that enrolled in the program only 60 were retained in the program until the 90 day follow up assessment. The participants were administered the INDCOL at intake. Additionally, at intake they completed a demographic survey, and the K10, while their primary therapist rated them on the FARS depression, interpersonal and thought process scales and on the mGAF. Participants and therapists were coded as being matched or mismatched on culture, based on INDCOL scores, and on race, based on self-reported race on the demographic survey. Hierarchical multiple regressions were completed to determine if cultural matching better predicted changes in outcome scores beyond the influence of racial matching. The results indicated that cultural matching was unrelated to treatment outcomes, but that racial matching was related to increased depression and interpersonal challenges at follow-up. The study was limited due to a small effect size of changes in outcomes from intake to follow-up. The implications for the use of racial and cultural matching as a means of improving treatment outcomes were discussed.

Muscle Dysmorphia (MD) is a pathological disorder that arises from men's extreme desire for the socially valued, "perfect" male physique and most often appears in male bodybuilders and weightlifters. Predictive factors for this disorder include body dissatisfaction, physical perfectionism, steroid use, and restrictive eating behaviors. Gender-role norms and media images contribute to the development of MD symptoms, with some researchers theorizing that women's social and economic achievements produce "gender-role strain" on some men, who then feel the need to engage in hypermasculine behaviors (such as extreme muscle building) to counteract such strain. Thus, sexist attitudes also may predict MD symptoms. 182 male recreational weightlifters were recruited from Powerhouse Gyms in the Detroit Metro area to fill out a survey assessing: 1) four components of MD, 2) body dissatisfaction, 3) physical perfectionism, 4) intent to use steroids, 5) restrictive eating behaviors, 6) hours spent working out in the gym, and 7) sexist attitudes. A series of multiple linear regression analyses demonstrated that steroid-use intent significantly predicted three components of MD symptoms. As expected, body dissatisfaction, physical perfectionism, and hours spent working out were also significant predictors of MD components. However, restrictive eating was not a significant predictor. These findings suggest that MD is more similar to obsessive-compulsive disorder than to eating disorders. In addition, sexist attitudes significantly predicted the MD component of Bodybuilding Dependence, thus lending support to the "gender-role strain theory" of MD.

Social Comparison Theory explains how viewing images can affect body satisfaction with two processes: upward and downward comparison. Upward comparison, which is defined as comparing oneself to a more attractive person, can result in depression and body dissatisfaction. Downward comparison, which is defined as comparing oneself to a less attractive person, can increase mood and body satisfaction. Previous research has shown that individuals with eating disorders, such as anorexia, have a deficit in emotion recognition due to their high levels of body dissatisfaction. Building upon this finding, the current study was designed to examine the effect that priming normal individuals (i.e., those without an eating disorder) with pictures depicting thin women will have on these individuals’ performance on an emotion recognition task. The current study included three priming groups: thin ideal prime, overweight prime, and a control prime. Exposure to images of thin women was expected to increase body dissatisfaction, whereas exposure to overweight images was expected to increase body satisfaction. After priming, all participants performed an emotion recognition task. Participants viewed a series of faces on a computer screen and chose one of four emotions (happy, sad, surprise, or anger) to describe the face. Based on previous findings, I hypothesized that the individuals primed with the thin images would take longer to respond and be less accurate, when recognizing the emotions than both the control and overweight prime. Results indicated that exposure to thin media images did notnegatively affect emotion recognition performance. Yet, participants in the overweight prime group were significantly faster when recognizing emotions than both the control and thin ideal prime group.

This qualitative study investigated the impact of social influence on weight loss, more specifically, the internal and external elements that effect response and success of those who are trying to lose weight. The research focused on three questions: (1) How great of an influence does self-efficacy have in weight loss success? (2) How great of an influence does social comparison have in weight loss success? (3) Which factor has the largest impact on weight loss: self-efficacy, peer efficacy, or positive social support, or negative social support? Data was collected by the researcher conducting semi-structured interviews. These interview were conducted with 22 participants who are actively trying to lose weight by participating in a weight loss group called Taking Off Pounds Sensibly. These participants were all women, with ages varying from 20-64. Four main themes emerged from the interviews: the influence of self-efficacy on one's success in losing weight, the impact of social comparison, the influence of significant other's communication towards a participant's weight loss, and the importance of supportive peer communication for participants to stay on track with weight loss. Results demonstrated the correlation of positive communication from significant others with increased success in participant's weight loss. Findings also revealed that although weight management is an ongoing struggle for some, having a support group leads to a more positive attitude and motivated mindset, which then leads to a more successful outcome.

Appearance management and dress clearly extend beyond the bounds of clothing, to anything that is worn on the body that individuals use to construct the visual self, including tanned skin. A risky appearance management technique because of its required exposure to harmful ultraviolet radiation, tanning can result in life-threatening health conditions such as skin cancer, as well as undesirable appearance outcomes such as skin spots and premature wrinkles. Thus, insight into tanning motives could present catalysts for behavior change as well as identification of barriers to behavior change. The following research questions were explored through five in-depth interviews that resulted in qualitative data:1. Do women introduce reference comparison individuals or groups in their indoor tanning practices that are reflective of social comparison theory?2. Do women who engage in habitual indoor tanning practices see/use the outcome (tanned appearance) to develop or combat social anxiety, low self-esteem, and poor body image? If so, how?3. Does a relationship between life span and habitual indoor tanning practices exist?4. What, if any, influence do adult women's lifestyles play in their use of habitual indoor tanning?5. What barriers exist that prevent behavior change with respect to the use of indoor tanning as a type of appearance management?Content analysis served as the method of analysis, with six overarching themes emerging:self-esteem, satisfaction with appearance, occupation, desire to curb the aging process, and disregard of health risks. The emergent themes harvested from this study present a strong foundation for understanding motives of women who habitually participate in the activity of indoor tanning. This exploratory research provides insight from women themselves who demonstrated repetitive appearance management regimens that result in positive social comparisons in spite of known long-term risks, both to appearance and health.

Media and society have always shared a mutual fascination in regard to gang life, especially through the use of “hood” films like Menace II Society. Stereotypical images of African American youth continue to exist and are extremely prevalent within this film. Over the years, African American youth seem to be depicted less and less in versatile roles, if depicted at all in Hollywood films, and is an issue that requires further examination. Through the use of frame analyses with social comparison theory as the theoretical base, this research examines messages regarding drugs/crime, family, and education and possible interpretations based on this film. Furthermore, this research discusses the possible impact these messages may have on youths’ self-perceptions. Results indicate that crime/violence tends to be seen as a form of power, drugs as a form of wealth, the black family as resilient and non-traditional in its family structure, and education as insignificant.

The Big-Fish-Little-Pond Effect predicts gifted students educated in heterogeneous settings develop higher academic self-concept than those educated in homogeneous settings. Academic self-concept of students in multi-age classroom using the Primary Years International Baccalaureate Program (Primary IB) was compared to academic self-concept of students in single-aged classroom learning traditional curriculum. Data were collected (N=65) on third and fourth-graders using the Self-Description Questionaire (Marsh, 1992). It was hypothesized that gifted and non-gifted students educated in multi-age classrooms taught with Primary IB have higher academic self-concept than children in single age classrooms. Results of 2x2 ANOVA indicated no significant differences between gifted and non-gifted students in these settings. In this study, academic grouping and curriculum have no significant effect on student's academic self-concept.

This research examined the role that idealised image characteristics have in determining post-exposure body image and amount of self-reported social comparisons. This was tested by exposing female undergraduate students to media-portrayed idealised images that varied in their level of relevance, salience, or attainability. A negative impact of these images was indicated by greater post-exposure body dissatisfaction and body size estimation inaccuracy. In contrast, a positive impact was considered to have occurred when body dissatisfaction decreased and body size estimation was more accurate. If the images had a neutral impact on body image, one would expect little difference between groups or over time. A further aim was to determine whether a higher level of trait tendency to compare was related to more negative responding at post-exposure. In addition, thin ideal internalisation and restraint were examined as possible moderators. Studies 1, 2a, 2b, and 3 indicated that idealised image relevance and salience had little differential impact on post-exposure body image. That is, exposure to thin idealised images, irrespective of the salience and relevance manipulations, resulted in similar post-exposure body dissatisfaction and body size estimation. In contrast to this, the attainability of the image seemed to influence post-exposure responding, at least in terms of body size estimation (Study 4). Higher trait tendency to compare was associated with a greater amount of self-reported comparison with the images, but had little impact on body image. Surprisingly, these results were not moderated by thin ideal internalisation or restraint. The role of individual differences was explored with additional analyses in Study 5, which revealed that, when the power is sufficient, thin ideal internalisation, restraint, and self-reported comparisons with the images predicted post-exposure body dissatisfaction, but not body size estimation. Overall, this program of research suggests that idealised image features do not play a vital differential role in determining post-exposure body image, unless it is the body itself that is being manipulated. Results from this research support the idea that the mere presence of an idealised body is sufficient to activate negative responses, and there was little, if any, evidence for the occurrence of positive responses. These findings are discussed in terms of social comparison and schema theory, and in terms of their practical implications.