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College students in the United States report elevated rates of food insecurity, an experience that is longitudinally associated with disordered eating behaviors, including binge eating. Intuitive eating has emerged as an adaptive eating style that is potentially protective against binge eating and is characterized by reliance on one’s internal cues for hunger and fullness, predominantly eating for such physical reasons, and flexibility within eating-related decisions. Emerging work suggests that individuals experiencing food insecurity demonstrate less intuitive eating, and it remains unclear whether engagement in intuitive eating functions as a protective factor, weakening the link between food insecurity and binge eating. The current thesis aimed to replicate previous findings of associations between binge eating and food insecurity and relevant domains of intuitive eating (e.g., reliance on hunger and satiety cues and eating for physical rather than emotional reasons) and evaluate whether intuitive eating moderated the association between food insecurity severity and binge eating. Data were collected from 493 college students between the ages of 18 and 25 (mean (SD) age=19.56 (1.43) years; 79.5% female; 90.1% white). Bivariate analyses found a significant positive correlation between food insecurity severity and binge eating and a significant negative association between intuitive eating domains and binge eating. Contrary to hypotheses, multiple regression analyses revealed that no significant interactive effect existed between the food insecurity and intuitive eating domains. With the inclusion of intuitive eating domains in the models, food insecurity severity was no longer associated with binge eating. This study is the first to leverage a continuous, severity-based approach to measuring food insecurity and contributes to the growing body of literature examining associations between food insecurity and eating behaviors. The present findings suggest that intuitive eating could be one mediating factor in the relationship between food insecurity and binge eating, though future research is required to examine such relations longitudinally to determine the direction of causality, temporal associations, and possible underlying mechanisms.

Socioeconomic status (SES) has been shown to reliably predict parenting practices, family well-being, and psychological outcomes throughout the lifespan. The current study employed a cross-sectional, quantitative design in which adult participants (N = 336) completed an online survey measuring demographic variables, financial stress, attachment security, and psychological well-being. The study results suggest that (a) both current and family history of financial stress negatively predicted attachment security, (b) SES positively predicted general psychological well-being, although individual SES factors (e.g., income, subjective SES, financial stress) demonstrated nuanced relationships with well-being, life satisfaction, and resilience, (c) family history of financial stress and attachment security mediated the relationship between calculated social status and psychological well-being, and (d) the mediated relationship between calculated social status and psychological well-being via the pathway of attachment security was significant for racial/ethnic minorities, but not for White participants. The present findings contribute to the current literature by (1) including multidimensional measurements of SES, (2) addressing nuances in the relationship between SES and attachment, (3) emphasizing the role of financial stress on attachment security, and (4) providing initial cross-cultural considerations in the relationships among SES, attachment, and psychological well-being. Future researchers are encouraged to conduct longitudinal analyses, amplify sample recruitment efforts, and expand SES, attachment, and racial/ethnic identity measurement. Lastly, the current study has significant clinical implications regarding multiculturalism and social justice, relational schemas developed in context of financial stress, and cognitive appraisal regarding subjective SES.

While executive functions (EFs) in children have been shown to be highly related to socioeconomic status (SES), other factors may also influence this relationship, including parenting stress and social support. In this study, the utility of a mediated mediation model in explaining the relationship between SES, parenting stress, social support, and child EFs was examined. The model posited that SES exerts its effects on parenting stress partially through social support that the parents enjoy. At the same time, the model posited that SES exerts its effects on EFs in children partially through parenting stress. Seventy-two children and their parents were recruited through local daycares and preschools. While the hypothesized mediated mediation model was not supported, significant associations between SES, parenting stress, social support, and EFs in children were obtained. The findings from this study may provide an avenue for better understanding the complex relationship between SES and EFs in children.

This dissertation extends Fundamental Cause Theory (FCT) to the study of holistic mental health. Using multiple quantitative methods and data from wave three of the Midlife in the United States (MIDUS) study, I explore if socio-economic status (SES) can be considered a "fundamental cause" of holistic mental health. To do so, I advance four hypotheses that address each step necessary to demonstrate a fundamental cause. Results show promising evidence that FCT can be extended to predict mental illness and positive mental health outcomes and that SES can be considered a fundamental cause of holistic mental health. High SES is associated with greater holistic mental health outcomes, and there are also significant mediation effects between SES and holistic mental health through exposure to risk and protective factors. Additionally, there is mixed evidence that mediation is an emergent mechanism between high SES and greater holistic mental health and that the deployment of health resources improves holistic mental health. This represents an advancement of sociological mental health theory, serves as an exemplary study of how sociologists can investigate positive mental health inequalities, and has critical policy implications for how to best improve community mental health.

Socioeconomic status (SES) is a key covariate in analyses by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA). In its technical documentation, PISA offers evidence for the Economic, Social, and Cultural Status instrument (ESCS) as a valid measure of SES. This dissertation, however, offers both conceptual and empirical arguments that ESCS does not meet the realist and pragmatic requirements set forth by modern measurement and validity theories. I further demonstrate how the adoption of non-measurement models in ESCS has undermined the trustworthiness of PISA’s most recent headline findings. Finally, I offer guidance for improving the validity of SES measurement in future PISA cycles.

University of the Pacific 2023 This study was an attempt to better understand important mechanisms that may moderate the relationship between Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and negative outcomes such as anxiety and depression in females as they are diagnosed at a much lower rate and represent an underserved population. Using archival data from the National Institute of Mental Health this study investigated whether parental warmth and social competence were associated with decreased levels of anxiety and depression in 8-year-old females with ASD with average cognitive abilities. It was found that social competence was a significant factor in decreasing anxiety and depression. Surprisingly, parental warmth was not found to be significant. This research adds to the paucity of data relevant to autistic females with average and higher cognitive functioning. Potential interventions, as well as implications for future research are discussed.

Digital devices and the Internet have revolutionized students’ lives at school and homeover the years. Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has becomeindispensable in the lives of young people. However, the physical availability ofcomputers and connectivity does not mean that all young people are able to usetechnology and derive benefits equally from potential opportunities to be online and usetechnology. Inequality in society is still an important issue in education and impacts thedigital divide, which has been described as four dimensions, including ICT access, digitalskills access, motivational access, and usage diversity in Resources Appropriation Theory(RAT) (2005). In the present quantitative study, the researcher investigated the digitaldivide among students in the U.S. by using a large dataset, International Computer andInformation Literacy Study (ICILS) 2018. The data was collected from 6,790 eighthgradestudents in the U.S. The study's purposes are (1) to examine the relationshipbetween the four types of digital divides suggested by the Van Dijk model and theliterature, (2) to reveal the effect of students’ socioeconomic status (SES) on the digitaldivide, and (3) to propose a model explaining the digital divide among students. The datawith 6,385 participants were screened to understand the assumptions for structuralequation modeling (SEM). Missing data were handled with multiple imputation methods. Then, SEM was conducted in two stages (1) testing the measurement model for twolatent variables and (2) testing the hypothesized model. The results of this study indicatedthat the current structural equation model provided partial support to the initiallyproposed model developed based on Van Dijk’s model and the literature. Even thoughthere are similar relationships between SES and four types of the digital divide, students’SES and digital skills did not impact students’ use of technology for study purposes as inthe proposed model. Besides, motivational access is another important divide amongstudents. The results of this quantitative study provide generalizable information aboutthe digital divide among students, which may help school leaders and policymakers makeinformed decisions to tackle the problem in schools.

Essentialism is the tendency to believe members of a category share an underlying essence that predicts their behavior. The majority of research on essentialism has focused on race and gender, and thus less is known about the essentialism of other categories such as ethnicity and socioeconomic status (SES). Using a predominantly Hispanic, low-income sample, we examined whether adults essentialize ethnicity and SES and whether their essentialism level is shaped by their own ethnicity (Hispanic, non-Hispanic) and SES background. Results suggested that participants essentialized ethnicity to a high level and essentialized SES to a limited degree. Contrary to our prediction, adults’ own ethnicity and SES did not affect their essentialism of ethnicity and SES respectively. However, Hispanic participants essentialized SES more than non-Hispanic participants. Future research on a broader range of Hispanic samples is needed to test the underlying mechanism and implications of such belief patterns.

Growth in outdoor climbing recreation has resulted in social and ecological impacts to the complex systems in which the activity occurs, necessitating adaptive management strategies that address the impacts and respond to changing conditions. Use of the Adaptive Management Framework (AMF) can aid land managers in developing policies that reach desired social and ecological outcomes (Williams & Brown, 2014). An assessment of current policies and a representative model of the social-ecological system in which climbing occurs could help land managers conduct systems-informed policy planning as part of the AMF. This study uses text to data analysis to identify and compare how social and ecological variables are described by existing climbing management plans (CMPs) across six land manager groupings (International, National Park, Forest Service, State, Coop/coalition, and Local/private). Causal link statements derived from collected CMPs were then analyzed to construct a cognitive map of the system to test 5 different policy scenarios. Results indicated the outdoor climbing system consists of 31 variables and 99 relationships among all variables. No significant difference was found across policy scenarios tested, suggesting a need for further development of the model through the refinement of the state of variables and the degree of relationship they have over other variables in the system. By establishing a model of the outdoor climbing system for policy planning, this study lays a foundation for the incorporation of systems thinking to the adaptive management of outdoor climbing.

The purpose for this quantitative non-experimental, correlational, explanatory study was to determine the predictive accuracy of family and community demographic variables found in United States census data at the community level for the OST in reading. Specifically, the study extended the work in order to analyze the reading student proficiency results from the 2017 OST for third grade, and 2010 Ohio census data. Three research questions were utilized, which include how accurately out-of-school family and community capital factors predict a school district’s percentage of students scoring proficient or above on the 2017 OST third grade reading assessment and how accurately out-of-school socioeconomic factors predict a school district’s percentage of students scoring proficient or above on the 2017 OST third grade reading assessment. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory was used as the main framework to guide the study. The researcher employed a non-experimental quantitative study with a correlational design. This study utilized secondary data from the 2017 third grade Ohio State Test for reading as published on each school district’s annual Local Report Card. SPSS was used by the researcher in analyzing the research data. The data analysis involved performing hierarchical multiple regression analyses. This study established that out-of-school family and community capital factors significantly predict a school district’s percentage of students scoring proficient or above on the 2017 OST third grade reading assessment. An increase in the percentage of parents with a high school education by one unit resulted in an average increase in reading scores by 0.599, while holding all other predictors constant. Similarly, an increase in the percentage of parents with a bachelor’s degree by one unit resulted in an average increase in reading scores by 0.391. Lastly, an increase in the district percentage of single parent households by one unit resulted in an average decrease in reading scores by 0.698.

Time for Well-Being is a sociological examination of how socioeconomic status and the social experience of time jointly influence well-being in formative life course conjuncture periods. It is based on qualitative and quantitative analyses examining the relationships between the social experience of time and sociodemographic characteristics. I draw on Interaction Ritual Theory, the Theory of Conjunctural Action, theorizing from the sociology of emotions, the sociology of the life course, and from the interdisciplinary literature focusing on the individual and social experience of time to show how the temporal characteristics of a particular context are instantiated by the intersections of socioeconomic and gendered inequalities, shaping individual and community well-being. Chapter 2 honors the perspectives of first-time fathers, showing that both SES and the sociocultural experience of time are salient when it comes to family structure change, with ramifications for inequalities in well-being. Through the lens of Interaction Ritual Theory, Chapter 3 examines how the COVID-19 pandemic shaped the socioemotional experience of time, aggregating up to community well-being. Chapter 4 incorporates both qualitative and quantitative analyses to examine how socioeconomic and neighborhood characteristics influence the experience and ramifications of time scarcity in early retirement. Through this mixed-methods approach, my dissertation contributes to the sociology of everyday life, the sociology of the life course, and to the sociology of time by providing a rare case study on the relationship between sociotemporal disparities and well-being.

Background: Blood thinners such as warfarin have been a healthcare staple in treating stroke (and stroke prevention), atrial fibrillation, and venous thromboembolism. In recent years, Factor Xa inhibitors such as apixaban and rivaroxaban have been replacing warfarin prescribing. Warfarin is an excellent baseline medication due to its generally low price, common medication, and narrow therapeutic window. Apixaban and rivaroxaban have larger therapeutic windows and typically have standard dosing once a day or twice a day. Non-adherence to medication is an ongoing problem in healthcare. For the medicines of warfarin, apixaban, and rivaroxaban, being adherent is crucial. Medication adherence can be affected by the medication regimen, cost of the medication, and other healthcare costs. Warfarin is cheap, but constant visits to clinics, dose changes, and monitoring may cause patients not to be adherent. Apixaban and rivaroxaban have better regimens but can be very costly depending on insurances and copays. Socioeconomic factors such as race, gender, and income may also contribute to non-adherence to therapy; these factors can affect the quality of the patient’s life. Objective: The primary objective of this retrospective cohort analysis is to examine the use of the anticoagulants of warfarin, apixaban, and rivaroxaban regarding what could alter the patient’s adherence to the medications. The objective will have specific aims, including what socioeconomic factors could take part in the choice of medication, the differences in adherence to the medications through medication possession ratio (MPR), and if the medications can affect the total healthcare expenditures of the medications that are being evaluated. Methods: Datasets from the Medical Expenditure Panel Survey (MEPS) from 2016-2018 were used. The medications and the socioeconomic factors that may affect the medication of choice were evaluated through frequency and chi-square analysis for the categorical variables and a one-way ANOVA for the continuous variables. The adherence to the medications through the evaluation of MPR was done by creating a calculation for MPR and using a one-way ANOVA and using logistic regression to further evaluate the association to these factors for the adherence to the medication. Total healthcare expenditures descriptive values were evaluated through one-way ANOVA, and then a regression was performed to assess the association of the other variables to the expenditures. Results: The socioeconomic and sociodemographic factors such as race, gender, insurance coverage, and poverty level are associated with the choice of therapy that the patient has undertaken. Socioeconomic status is an area in research that has been gaining traction, and projects such as this one and the analysis performed are essential in determining these associations and trends. Medication adherence is essential for patients' health and well-being, but adherence is something that can be difficult to analyze. Adherence can be affected by instances such as the medication of choice, income level, education level, race, and some diagnostic conditions in terms of MPR and odds ratios. However, the adherence to the medication can be evaluated with equations such as MPR, and looking at the averages are helpful to gather intel on the medication adherence. The medications of warfarin, apixaban, and rivaroxaban have differences, and warfarin was found to have the most adherent patients in terms of MPR. The total healthcare expenditures are also associated with medication choice, which in turn can affect adherence to the medication; the sociodemographic factors of the individuals whose information was reported can also play a part in these associations.Conclusion: The socioeconomic variables of gender, poverty level, income, total healthcare expenditures, and insurance coverage were associated and strongly indicated to possibly have an effect on the choice of medication that is used for therapy.

Previous research has not sufficiently investigated diabetes mortality disparities among American Indian and Alaskan Native (AI/AN) people by education. While AI/A health has drastically changed over the last few decades, large gaps in health outcomes and rampant health disparities persist across tribal communities. This current study uses 2014 - 2018 Multiple Cause of Death data collected by the Center for Disease Control to expand upon previous research, asking (1) How large is the racial/ethnic disparity in diabetes-related mortality between non-Hispanic whites and the AI/AN population and does it vary by age and sex? And (2) How does educational attainment impact the racial/ethnic disparities documented in Q1? The results suggest that education is a key factor in understanding diabetes mortality disparities between the AI/AN population and non-Hispanic whites. The AI/AN population displays substantial differences by education, with the most pronounced mortality disadvantage found among the more highly educated AI/AN individuals compared to their non-Hispanic white counterparts.

In the everyday environment, we receive information from various sensory inputs, and yet, we perceive and integrate the incoming information in a way that is meaningful. Remarkably, infants and toddlers are capable of sensory integration early in life. By integrating information, particularly speech, infants ultimately learn to reproduce language by late toddlerhood. These language skills form a foundation for learning and achievement later in life, and there is documented evidence that language skills vary by experiences related to socioeconomic status (SES). Language disparities can be measured early in development, and continue to divide throughout childhood. Although there is clear evidence that language learning trajectories are influenced by SES, less is known about multisensory integration (MSI) as they are measured here and how these skills may differ as a function of SES. Here, MSI was investigated to gain insight into the potential changes that occur in MSI and expressive vocabulary for 68 toddlers between 18 months and 24-months. Finally, this relationship was investigated in the context of SES. At 18-months, toddlers demonstrated significant matching for nonsocial conditions, and at 24-months toddlers also matched for low competition social trials, thus demonstrating an improvement in matching from 18 to 24-months. There were no significant relationships between MSI and expressive vocabulary, and only one unexpected relationship between MSI and SES. These findings extend the research from Bahrick and colleagues (2018) by supplementing the previously studied 12-month-olds and 2-5-year-olds with an earlier age (e.g., 18-months), and open new doors for studying toddlers’ emerging social MSI.

Students’ expectations for their own educational attainment are strongly associated with actual educational attainment (Beal & Crockett, 2010), and thus, understanding factors that may be associated with students’ educational expectations can aid in increasing educational attainment among youth. One factor that may impact students’ educational expectations is their school’s climate. Dimensions of school climate such as student-teacher relationships and their impacts on academics have been extensively studied (Thapa et al., 2013); however, given the increasing diversity of the U.S. population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019), demographic-related aspects of school climate (such as school misfit for under-represented demographic groups and interracial climate) are crucial to consider because these reflect a school’s respect or devaluation of demographically underrepresented students. Feeling devalued in school, in turn, may lead students to feel discouraged from engaging in academic preparation, resulting in lower educational expectations. Therefore, demographic-related school climate may be indirectly related to educational expectations through academic preparation. There were three aims in the proposed study. The first aim was to examine the longitudinal associations between various dimensions of school climate and educational expectations using regression analyses. Second, I assessed whether academic preparation mediated the relationship between school climate and educational expectations by using path analysis in a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework and testing indirect effects. The third aim was to assess whether the central pathways of interest varied by students’ race and SES using multiple group analysis in an SEM framework. Results from the current study indicate that none of the measured dimensions of school climate (i.e., global perceptions of student-school misfit, subjective social status, interracial climate, student-teacher relationships) were significantly associated with students’ educational expectations nor does academic preparation mediate the relationship between school climate and educational expectations. However, results do find main effects for the link between school climate and academic preparation, such that more positive student-teacher relationships, better interracial climate, and higher global perceptions of student misfit are related to higher levels of high school and college planning. In addition, multiple group analysis revealed that student-teacher relationships have a stronger association with college educational planning for Latinx compared to White students. Multiple group analysis by students’ SES generated errors that could not be resolved, and thus these results are not presented. The current study brings awareness to the struggles marginalized students face in school and how the school context can shape students’ academic preparation behaviors.

Students’ expectations for their own educational attainment are strongly associated with actual educational attainment (Beal & Crockett, 2010), and thus, understanding factors that may be associated with students’ educational expectations can aid in increasing educational attainment among youth. One factor that may impact students’ educational expectations is their school’s climate. Dimensions of school climate such as student-teacher relationships and their impacts on academics have been extensively studied (Thapa et al., 2013); however, given the increasing diversity of the U.S. population (National Center for Education Statistics, 2019), demographic-related aspects of school climate (such as school misfit for under-represented demographic groups and interracial climate) are crucial to consider because these reflect a school’s respect or devaluation of demographically underrepresented students. Feeling devalued in school, in turn, may lead students to feel discouraged from engaging in academic preparation, resulting in lower educational expectations. Therefore, demographic-related school climate may be indirectly related to educational expectations through academic preparation. There were three aims in the proposed study. The first aim was to examine the longitudinal associations between various dimensions of school climate and educational expectations using regression analyses. Second, I assessed whether academic preparation mediated the relationship between school climate and educational expectations by using path analysis in a structural equation modeling (SEM) framework and testing indirect effects. The third aim was to assess whether the central pathways of interest varied by students’ race and SES using multiple group analysis in an SEM framework. Results from the current study indicate that none of the measured dimensions of school climate (i.e., global perceptions of student-school misfit, subjective social status, interracial climate, student-teacher relationships) were significantly associated with students’ educational expectations nor does academic preparation mediate the relationship between school climate and educational expectations. However, results do find main effects for the link between school climate and academic preparation, such that more positive student-teacher relationships, better interracial climate, and higher global perceptions of student misfit are related to higher levels of high school and college planning. In addition, multiple group analysis revealed that student-teacher relationships have a stronger association with college educational planning for Latinx compared to White students. Multiple group analysis by students’ SES generated errors that could not be resolved, and thus these results are not presented. The current study brings awareness to the struggles marginalized students face in school and how the school context can shape students’ academic preparation behaviors.

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations among socioeconomic status (SES) and coping in Latino youth, and to examine if youth perceived stress accounts for this relationship. Correlational analyses were used to examine the association among SES variables and youth coping. Regression analyses were used to examine a model that included all SES variables as predictors of youth coping, and path analyses were used to test the direct and indirect associations among socioeconomic status, youth perceptions of family stress, and youth coping. Results indicated that SES was not significantly associated with youth report of coping strategies in Latino youth. Model fit statistics showed the data did not fit the model for any of the six hypothesized models, and youth perceptions of family stress did not explain the association between socioeconomic status and youth report of coping strategies. Further research that examines various aspects of SES in conjunction with cultural and contextual level variables is needed to fully understand the associations among SES and coping in Latino youth.

The purpose of this study was to examine the associations among socioeconomic status (SES) and coping in Latino youth, and to examine if youth perceived stress accounts for this relationship. Correlational analyses were used to examine the association among SES variables and youth coping. Regression analyses were used to examine a model that included all SES variables as predictors of youth coping, and path analyses were used to test the direct and indirect associations among socioeconomic status, youth perceptions of family stress, and youth coping. Results indicated that SES was not significantly associated with youth report of coping strategies in Latino youth. Model fit statistics showed the data did not fit the model for any of the six hypothesized models, and youth perceptions of family stress did not explain the association between socioeconomic status and youth report of coping strategies. Further research that examines various aspects of SES in conjunction with cultural and contextual level variables is needed to fully understand the associations among SES and coping in Latino youth.

One theorized explanation for the disparity in divorce rates between low- and higher-income couples is a difference in the amount of time couples spend together. Time is an important component of relationship maintenance but increasing demands outside of the home are decreasing the amount of shared time between spouses (Nomaguchi, Milkie, Beard, & Thompson, 2019). Low-income couples may experience the greatest time deficits as they face a greater number of stressors that take up time, diminishing the quantity of time they have available. They may also need to use the time they do have available to deal with stressors rather than engaging in more enjoyable leisure-like activities, diminishing the quality of time they share. Using a sample of N = 26,557 respondents from the American Time Use Survey, the current study examined whether household income was associated with how much time married couples spend together, and how happy and how stressed respondents reported feeling while spending time with their spouse. Results indicated that low-income couples spent more time together overall, and more time together in leisure activities, and reported greater levels of happiness and stress during shared time compared to higher earning couples. Although these findings provide evidence that low-income couples do not lack shared time together, spending time at home with one’s spouse may not be beneficial if that time is characterized by high levels of stress, suggesting that quality of time may be more important in understanding the disparity in divorce rates between low- and higher-income couples.

One theorized explanation for the disparity in divorce rates between low- and higher-income couples is a difference in the amount of time couples spend together. Time is an important component of relationship maintenance but increasing demands outside of the home are decreasing the amount of shared time between spouses (Nomaguchi, Milkie, Beard, & Thompson, 2019). Low-income couples may experience the greatest time deficits as they face a greater number of stressors that take up time, diminishing the quantity of time they have available. They may also need to use the time they do have available to deal with stressors rather than engaging in more enjoyable leisure-like activities, diminishing the quality of time they share. Using a sample of N = 26,557 respondents from the American Time Use Survey, the current study examined whether household income was associated with how much time married couples spend together, and how happy and how stressed respondents reported feeling while spending time with their spouse. Results indicated that low-income couples spent more time together overall, and more time together in leisure activities, and reported greater levels of happiness and stress during shared time compared to higher earning couples. Although these findings provide evidence that low-income couples do not lack shared time together, spending time at home with one’s spouse may not be beneficial if that time is characterized by high levels of stress, suggesting that quality of time may be more important in understanding the disparity in divorce rates between low- and higher-income couples.

Parental mental-state talk predicts several aspects of their child’s mental-state understanding. Research has identified a number of age-related changes in how parents talk about mental states (Taumoepeau & Ruffman, 2006). However, little research has examined the impact of socioeconomic status (SES) on mental-state talk. Here, we examined the mental-state talk used by a socioeconomically diverse sample of parent-child dyads during a picture-book activity. The number of cognition labels used by parents was positively correlated with SES, and parents from lower-SES backgrounds used more indirect methods of conveying mental-state information. Analyses also revealed that child age influenced whose mental states parents referred to and the type of mental states they labeled the most. These findings suggest that the methods parents use to describe mental states is influenced by SES and child age, which has implications for children’s socio-cognitive development.

Hate crimes in the United States have increased in recent years, as has the number of juvenile victims (Federal Bureau of Investigation [FBI], 2016, 2017). Furthermore, adolescence is a key time for social identity development (Erikson, 1968). Thus, understanding how adolescents explore and commit to various social identities (such as minoritized racial groups), as well as factors that impact this development (e.g., experiences of discrimination) is very important. The current study investigated adolescent social identity exploration and commitment in four domains: ethnic/racial identity, gender identity, religious identity, and American identity. These scales were modified from the widely used Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (Phinney & Ong, 2007). Additionally, relationships between the difference identity components and parent SES, adolescent age, and experienced discrimination were tested. The sample consisted of 200 high school students from Toledo, OH (Mage = 16.21, SD =1.14). The sample was diverse; for example, 47% identified as Black/African American and 21.5% identified as White. There was also a large subsample of nonreligious participants. The domains showed adequate differentiation, suggesting separate factors rather than a single variable of social identity. There were differences in exploration and commitment by identity domain, group, and SES. Adolescents’ identity commitment was highest on gender identity. Black/African American (versus White), religious (versus nonreligious), high religiosity (versus low), and high American identity (versus low) participants showed higher means in most identity components than their respective comparison groups. Parent SES had significant positive associations with exploration and commitment in all social identity domains. Age and discrimination were positively related with some but not all social identity components. This research provides practitioners and researchers alike with more information on how different domains of identity function, and onivdifferential identity development between demographic groups. These results support the importance of investigating the relationships among parent SES, American identity, and religious identity (both affiliation and strength). Implications, future directions, and conclusions are discussed. This study emphasizes the importance of studying many facets of identity development and using diverse samples to compare group experiences.

Can long-term care needs be predicted? Previous studies examined the relationship between lower levels of SES and the diminishing effect on a person’s health and functional status. Additionally, other studies examined functional status and the relationship to a person’s well-being, health, and health behaviors influence on one’s life course. Few studies have attempted to predict the amount of long-term care an individual may need based on health behaviors and socioeconomic status factors and their relationship to the number of chronic illnesses diagnosed to a person. This study attempts to assess this relationship, utilizing logistic regression, with a representative sample of older U.S. black and white adults. As life expectancy continues to increase within the United States, the attempts to address our nation’s care of the elderly becomes increasingly important since it is not a matter of whether one will need long-term care but when it becomes necessary.

The observation that general cognitive ability measured in children raised in higher socioeconomic status (SES) homes is more heritable than when measured in children raised in lower SES homes has been found in samples collected in the United States (Tucker-Drob & Bates, 2016). Relatively fewer studies have examined the moderating role of SES on the etiology of academic achievement. The present study seeks to explore the effects of this gene x SES interaction and a possible shared environment x SES interaction in a sample of twins participating in the Western Reserve Reading and Math Project. Data from five time points representing ages 8 to 15 with math achievement measures (N=222-528) and reading achievement measures (N=280-498) were used to assess the effects of SES (measured at the family, neighborhood, and school level) on estimates of the contribution of genetics, shared environment, and nonshared environment on variation in achievement. Significant moderation of genetics, shared environment, and non-shared environment were found for math achievement at ages 10.9 and 15.1 and for reading achievement at age 10.9. The significant effects were found in the opposite direction of those found for general cognitive ability: genetics accounted for more variation in the achievement outcome at the lowest end of SES than at the highest end of SES, and the shared environment accounted for more variation in achievement at the highest end of SES than at the lowest end of SES.

Socio-pragmatic cues are essential for supporting early word learning. Children use social cues, such as eye gaze and pointing to isolate and learn about referents in their environment. To what extent might individual variability in children’s ability to capitalize on these word-learning strategies relate to the well-documented differences in vocabulary development associated with socioeconomic status? To answer this question, we asked 170 2.5- to 3.5-year-olds to identify the referents of novel words based on cues from either the experimenter’s gaze alone, or that gaze in combination with a pointing gesture. We found that socioeconomic status correlates with the use of eye gaze and point following for learning new words. Further, children from higher socioeconomic status households more reliably used these cues. The results of this study could have implications for our understanding of the differences in vocabulary development, as well as on how to best intervene in children’s early word-learning skills.

Socio-pragmatic cues are essential for supporting early word learning. Children use social cues, such as eye gaze and pointing to isolate and learn about referents in their environment. To what extent might individual variability in children’s ability to capitalize on these word-learning strategies relate to the well-documented differences in vocabulary development associated with socioeconomic status? To answer this question, we asked 170 2.5- to 3.5-year-olds to identify the referents of novel words based on cues from either the experimenter’s gaze alone, or that gaze in combination with a pointing gesture. We found that socioeconomic status correlates with the use of eye gaze and point following for learning new words. Further, children from higher socioeconomic status households more reliably used these cues. The results of this study could have implications for our understanding of the differences in vocabulary development, as well as on how to best intervene in children’s early word-learning skills.

Relationship between organizations and ecosystem services produced in the Truckee-Carson River System is many-to-many. This implies that production of each ecosystem service requires inputs from multiple organizations, and each organization is involved in co-production of several ecosystem services. Given geographical location of the Truckee-Carson River System and unfolding effects of a changing climate such as chronic water shortages punctuated by periods of floods, it is inevitable to make challenging decisions about which ecosystem services should be produced in a particular year or season. Analyzing what organizations are involved in production of selected ecosystem services and how they are linked to production of each ecosystem service could be the first step towards understating complexity of a decision making context and role that organizations play in allocation of limited water resources in the Truckee-Carson River System.

San Diego is known for its temperate Mediterranean climate and beaches; however, human activities that compromise water quality degrade environmental conditions and impose economic and social costs. Urban runoff is one of the most serious threats to San Diego's coastal water quality, contributing to harmful algal blooms, low dissolved oxygen concentrations and impacts on economically important marine and estuarine taxa. Nutrients and toxins originate from residential, agricultural and industrial sources, and the land usage within watersheds determines their loadings. Economic development that improves human well being may either benefit water quality or further contamination of coastal ecosystems. The purpose of this study was to identify relationships between chemical and isotopic indicators of water quality and land usage and watershed socioeconomics composition. I found that areas with low socioeconomic status (SES), mostly in the southern watersheds, exhibited lower water quality scores based on composite indices. Interestingly, coverage of open, developed, impermeable or agricultural land uses was not directly correlated with water quality as I expected. Overall, water quality declined in southern watersheds where residents have the poorest socioeconomic status. My thesis suggests that anthropogenic activity and low socioeconomic status contribute to poor water quality and contamination of coastal environments. The role of economic development in transforming land use and affecting water quality needs to be evaluated in relation to other hydrologic factors that determine export of nutrients from watersheds to the ocean.

This study provides a deeper understanding of the challenges teachers face as their efficacy develops in different conditions of SES. Nine randomly selected elementary teachers were interviewed and took the short version of the Teacher’s Sense of Efficacy Scale (Tschannen Moran & Hoy, 2001). Each teacher’s school’s rank on the state’s Top-to-Bottom list and the schools’ free or reduced-priced lunch percentage were collected as contextual data. The question this phenomenological study examined is "Does the environmental factor of poverty influence self-perceptions of teacher efficacy? And, if so, how?” This study showed that as the condition of poverty increased, the quality of the environmental conditions for learning decreased, which resulted in a continuum of ease between high SES and low SES schools in regard to demands on teachers. As poverty increased, perceptions of their efficacy were encumbered. The data also presented a pattern of relatively higher levels of efficacy for the teachers new to their current positions. The TSES data, while a statistically reliable tool, proved to be only a minor indicator of the continuum but when coupled with the interview data, the continuum of ease became more conspicuous. An item analysis of the TSES instrument also supported this temporal quality to efficacy. This research adds to the current literature by providing a deeper exploration of teachers’ lived experiences. The analysis provides us with a better understanding of what factors are most relevant in the development of teachers’ sense of efficacy within the context of teachers’ lived experiences.

College persistence and completion rates for students from families earning low incomes are consistently lower than for students from wealthy families. Some of these inequitable gaps may be associated with students’ perceptions of fit and belonging at higher education institutions dominated by upper-middle-class systems and norms. This mixed-methods study investigates how structural fit and sense of belonging are related to persistence choices made by low-income students who are members of a college-access program. Findings from 628 completed surveys suggest that sense of belonging is associated with persistence choices, but structural fit factors dominate persistence choice in multivariate analyses. Findings from 14 individual interviews support the survey findings, with participants discussing their adjustment to college and experiences as college students. The overall results of the study support earlier research findings of the centrality of financial aid and other aspects of structural fit in college persistence choices as well as the importance of all students feeling that they belong and are valued on college campuses.

AN EXPLORATORY STUDY OF VALUE- ADDED AND ACADEMIC OPTIMISMOF URBAN READING TEACHERSThe purpose of this study is to explore the correlation between state-recorded value- added (VA) scores and academic optimism (AO) scores, which measure teacher self-efficacy, trust, and academic emphasis. The sample for this study is 87 third through eighth grade Reading teachers, from fifty-five schools, in an urban school district in Ohio who have VA scores. Teachers were given an AO survey to find out through quantitative methods what relationship exists, if any, between value-added and academic optimism scores. The findings of this study is that no correlation was found between AO and VA. However, by exploring other confounding variables, other concepts were confirmed. The question driving this research may promote discussion about what teacher characteristics are actually effective and desirable and whether a district would like their teachers to duplicate them or not.

Background: Depression is a major public health problem worldwide. It is estimated that 350 million individuals around the world are affected by depression. Depression is known to be more prevalent in women than men. Several social, economic, biological, behavioral, psychosocial, and health-related factors have been identified as predictors of depression in women worldwide. However, whether or not these factors have similar effects on Omani Arab women, and the mechanism of their effects on depression among adult Omani women have not been well examined.Aims: This study focuses on assessing predictors of depression among adult Omani women, including socioeconomic status (SES), material circumstances, bio-behavioral, psychosocial, and health care system factors, as well as age. Moreover, this study examined the utility of the revised Social Determinant of Health (rSDH) conceptual model in assessing the predictors of depression in the targeted population.Method: A cross-sectional study was conducted involving 240 adult women, 18-72 years old from urban and rural areas of Wilayat (province) of Rustaq. An Arabic version of the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI-II) scale was used to assess depression scores. A bivariate analytical model was used to identify correlations between each independent variable and depression in adult Omani women. Path analysis using Partial Least Square Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was used to test the effects of factors within the conceptual model (rSDH), the mediator effects of latent variables between SES and depression, and the effect of age as a moderator of the association between SES and depression. Results: Fifty-two of the participants (21.7%) were found to be depressed. Of all participants, 12.5% were mildly depressed, 6.7% were moderately depressed, and 2.5% were severely depressed. Depression scores were significantly correlated with education level, employment, place of residence, number of children, domestic violence, social support, coping strategies, seeking professional help, comfort level regarding talking to a health care professional, perceived stigma, and age. Path analysis results showed that the examined factors explained a variance of 62% on the dependent variable (depression scores). Moreover, path analysis through PLS-SEM indicated that the bio-behavioral latent variable is the significant mediator of the association between SES and depression. Age was not a significant moderator of the association between SES and depression.Conclusion: Depression scores are high among adult Omani women and different factors were linked to higher levels of depression among those women. It will be important to consider socioeconomic, bio-behavioral, psychosocial, and health care system factors, as well as material circumstances, that may all impact the mental and emotional health of Omani women. This study is a step towards exploring predictors of an important mental disease as well as developing cost-effective prevention, promotion, and management programs to address the mental and emotional needs of adult Omani women.

The minority and socioeconomic gaps in academic achievement have brought much focus to urban schools; and while many efforts have been implemented to close these gaps, the discrepancies in academic outcomes remain, as existing research confirms. This study analyzes the impact of an urban district's CTAG (Closing the Achievement Gap) school based mentoring program on academic (GPAs and Ohio Graduation Test math and reading passage) and social performance variables (emergency removals, suspensions, expulsions, and juvenile court involvement). A causal-comparative approach was utilized to compare the outcomes of the three participating groups (middle school only participants, high school only participants, and participants who received both middle and high school CTAG services) in relation to their academic performance and reduction in exclusionary discipline practices that place students at a higher risk of school failure due to being excluded from class and school. This research sought to answer the question; "Is there a difference in academic and social performance based on the level of CTAG mentoring participation?" Quantitative procedures were utilized to compare the three groups, while also factoring in school attendance as a covariate in the analyses. The examination revealed that there was statistically significant evidence to conclude that students who participated in the CTAG program in both middle and high school were more likely to earn higher GPAs and pass the OGT reading and math, and less likely to exhibit chronic absenteeism, get expelled, or be involved with juvenile court.

Passing the National Council Licensure Examination (NCLEX) is required for a graduate of an accredited nursing program to practice nursing. The current study investigated first time student success on the NCLEX-RN, which is the examination used to grant licensure to Registered Nurses (RNs) after graduation from an accredited institution such as a school or a college of nursing. Universities, colleges, faculty, students, parents, healthcare employers, the National Council of States Boards of Nursing (NCSBN), and society in general have a vested interest in the success of nursing students on the NCLEX-RN. It is imperative that nurses are properly prepared and competent in providing safe and reliable healthcare services. Failure to pass the NCLEX-RN prevents practice as an RN, resulting in potential financial hardship, professional embarrassment, and a continued shortage of qualified RNs.Existing data from nursing students at a large, Midwestern university were analyzed. The main purpose of this study was to examine the relationship between Socioeconomic Status (SES), the ACT, and the NCLEX-RN. Through moderation and mediation logistic regression models, the above relationships were investigated. Additionally, Conditional Process Analysis was used to gain a more in-depth understanding of the complexity of the relationship between SES, ACT, and the NCLEX-RN. Proxies of SES were explored, which included: (1) Pell Grant Eligibility, (2) Student Race, (3) College Generation (i.e., first-generation or non first-generation), and (4) Zip Code.

This study compared two groups of Title I schools to determine the impact on student achievement when given the opportunity to receive supplemental educational services. Two groups of schools from the five school districts were selected for this study. The study employed a causal-comparative design using post hoc data from two administrations of the Washington Measurement of Student Progress assessment in Reading and Mathematics. The selected two groups of Title I schools, consisted of the participating Title I schools (those schools receiving SES support), and the non-participating Title I schools (those schools not receiving SES support). To provide descriptive information on the key variables as well as to determine whether or not the schools were comparable, a series of independent samples t-test and Pearson correlations were conducted. To address the research questions, a series of hierarchical regressions were utilized to analyze the differences in student achievement among Title I schools, including their subgroups. The variables grade level, gender, ethnicity and socio-economic status and SES status were compared across schools. The independent and dependent variables were measured by using the Grade 3-5 Reading and Mathematics school aggregate data derived from the Measurement of Student Progress (MSP). In terms of supplemental educational services, SES status, the results indicated that the addition of SES status was an influence on school performance on only three of the sixteen hierarchical multiple regression models, consisting of academic outcomes: 2011 Grade 5 female math scores, 2011 Grade 3 low income math scores, and 2011 Grade 5 low income reading scores. Each of the three were negative predictors where the betas were negative, meaning that the Title I schools that did not receive supplemental educational services outperformed the Title I Schools that did receive supplemental educational services.

Abstract: Background: Environmental Injustice (EI) suggests that socioeconomically disadvantaged citizens/minority groups have a higher than average exposure to environmental contaminants and bear more subsequent health risks than their socioeconomically advantaged/majority group counterparts. In order to investigate EI and adverse health outcomes from environmental contaminants in Canada, a measure of SES is needed. Objective: 1) Construct and validate an index to measure socioeconomic status (SES) and minority status in Canadian children; 2) Examine the co-localization of SES and air pollutants emitted by industry, using the index created in Aim 1. This second aim will provide evidence to support or disprove the existence of EI among Canadian children. 3) Determine if there is a difference in EI in urban versus rural areas of Canada. 4) Examine whether environmental pollutants and SES are related to childhood cancer outcomes in Manitoba. Methods: Variables were examined at dissemination area level (DAs, regions containing 400-700 residents, n = 52970 in Canada): 1) Census data (2006): extracted from CANSIM [2]; 2) chemical data (tonnes, n=201): from National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI, 2006) [3]; 3) Carcinogens (International Agency for Research on Cancer class 1) (n=15, tonnes); 4) Distance from the center of DAs to nearest emitting facilities: from available latitude and longitude of each emitting facility; 5) children’s cancer data (n=531) from the Manitoba Cancer Registry (1997-2007); 6) Urban and rural DAs, unique identifiers or “UARAs” (urban and rural area codes) were extracted from GeoSuites. [5] Aim 1: Twenty-two Census items were used with principle component analysis to create a valid SES index. The index was validated by examining its association with preterm birth (gestational age < 37 weeks), term low birth weight (LBW,

INTRODUCTION: Syndromic surveillance is a method of rapid disease detection based on categories of syndromes, or signs, experienced before the full onset of disease. It is increasingly being used by government agencies and health departments to identify disease outbreaks in a timely manner. Environmental exposures are known to induce respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms, tend to have a seasonality component, and adversely affect the health of millions of people. OBJECTIVE: In this study, we assess the availability of environmental exposure data for air pollution (PM2.5, ozone, and NO2), pollen, and water contaminant exposure for use in a syndromic surveillance project. We also evaluate: 1) the general proximity of HMO populations to monitors, and 2) distribution of SES characteristics of the area populations with respect to monitor locations. METHODS: We collected exposure data, patient population data, and Census tract SES data for two metropolitan areas where Kaiser Permanente (KP) provides medical services: Atlanta, Georgia and the northern Virginia, District of Columbia (DC), and Baltimore area. Exposure data for air pollution and pollen were collected for 2013-2014. Straight-line distance from a monitor to the nearest KP clinic, and from each Census tract centroid, to the nearest air pollution or pollen monitor was computed using the Euclidean distance formula. RESULTS: Air pollution is routinely monitored by a Federal mandate, is universally available, and easily obtained. Pollen data is collected by private entities, which in some cases hinders access. Water quality data is generally publically available, but it is collected at the source and not easily traceable to water delivery endpoints. In both Atlanta and DC, Maryland, and Virginia most of the clinics (78% and 94%, respectively) are located within 10 miles of an air pollution monitor; approximately 83% and 94% of the KP populations were located within 10 miles of an air pollution monitor. SES populations differ substantially by race, age, income, and education with respect to the nearest monitor. However, the median and interquartile range of various air pollutants does not differ much across the monitors – indicating that, on average, there is little SES gradient in type of level of air pollution exposure. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, this study adds knowledge regarding future considerations about the coverage of environmental monitors and to what extent exposure measure estimates can be assigned to certain populations located near monitors.

Humans are social beings so much that the feelings of not being connected to others may increase physical and mental problems. Despite ample research documenting the health risks of social isolation, we still do not understand the mechanisms through which social isolation affects health. Existing research lacks an overarching framework that would explore a broader context of social isolation and health including socioeconomic, relational, and psychosocial characteristics. This is a goal of the present dissertation. This study builds on the large body of research that has investigated the relationship between social isolation and health by considering two aspects of social isolation defined as no confidant and loneliness. In order to address the problem identified above, this study proposes a conceptual framework designed to study social isolation in relation to other important factors that are presumed to interact with social isolation. The proposed framework includes the following propositions: (a) a lower level of socioeconomic status leads to social isolation; (b) a lower level of social ties leads to social isolation (c) social isolation is associated with a lower level of psychosocial resources (i.e., perceived support, personal mastery, and self-esteem), net of SES and social ties; (d) adverse effects of social isolation on health is partly mediated by psychosocial resources; (e) negative impact of chronic stressor (i.e., economic hardship) is greater among those who are socially isolated; (f) positive impact of psychosocial resources on health is weaker among those who are socially isolated. Analyses of a nationally representative longitudinal sample from the U.S. generally support these arguments. This study found that social isolation is a product of both socioeconomic status and social integration: Higher education, being employed, and having more income all contributes to the lower likelihood of social isolation; community ties, social network ties, and intimate ties are associated with lower chance of reporting social isolation. This study also found that social isolation predicts lower level of each of perceived support, personal mastery, and self-esteem, net of SES and social ties, and these associations in turn mediate adverse effects of social isolation on health. Furthermore, this study found that social isolation moderates the association between chronic stressor and health. Findings showed that social isolation amplifies adverse health effects of economic hardship and attenuates protective effects of psychosocial resources. The implication of main findings, the study limitations, and the recommendation for future research are also discussed.

Humans are social beings so much that the feelings of not being connected to others may increase physical and mental problems. Despite ample research documenting the health risks of social isolation, we still do not understand the mechanisms through which social isolation affects health. Existing research lacks an overarching framework that would explore a broader context of social isolation and health including socioeconomic, relational, and psychosocial characteristics. This is a goal of the present dissertation. This study builds on the large body of research that has investigated the relationship between social isolation and health by considering two aspects of social isolation defined as no confidant and loneliness. In order to address the problem identified above, this study proposes a conceptual framework designed to study social isolation in relation to other important factors that are presumed to interact with social isolation. The proposed framework includes the following propositions: (a) a lower level of socioeconomic status leads to social isolation; (b) a lower level of social ties leads to social isolation (c) social isolation is associated with a lower level of psychosocial resources (i.e., perceived support, personal mastery, and self-esteem), net of SES and social ties; (d) adverse effects of social isolation on health is partly mediated by psychosocial resources; (e) negative impact of chronic stressor (i.e., economic hardship) is greater among those who are socially isolated; (f) positive impact of psychosocial resources on health is weaker among those who are socially isolated. Analyses of a nationally representative longitudinal sample from the U.S. generally support these arguments. This study found that social isolation is a product of both socioeconomic status and social integration: Higher education, being employed, and having more income all contributes to the lower likelihood of social isolation; community ties, social network ties, and intimate ties are associated with lower chance of reporting social isolation. This study also found that social isolation predicts lower level of each of perceived support, personal mastery, and self-esteem, net of SES and social ties, and these associations in turn mediate adverse effects of social isolation on health. Furthermore, this study found that social isolation moderates the association between chronic stressor and health. Findings showed that social isolation amplifies adverse health effects of economic hardship and attenuates protective effects of psychosocial resources. The implication of main findings, the study limitations, and the recommendation for future research are also discussed.

African American students are experiencing less success in academic achievement than other groups, and African American males are performing less well than African American females. This study explores descriptions of the K-12 academic experiences and outcomes among opposite gendered sibling pairs who were raised in low to middle socioeconomic status (LMSES) families situated in southeastern Michigan. This study was conducted to provide a space for the voices of African American brothers and sisters who have female favored academic achievement outcomes. Analysis of the interview data revealed that the siblings reported gendered differences in their academic experiences. The first theme that evolved in this study was that African American males are stereotyped and misunderstood in school. Two subthemes emerged and addressed the influence of both teacher-student interactions and socioeconomic status on academic experiences and outcomes. My brother is my keeper is a second theme that surfaced for just the sisters. This theme emphasized the perception that sisters had about their brothers and the brothers’ perception of their role in the lives of their sisters. Results were discussed using a critical race theoretical (CRT) framework.

Overset, or Chimera, meshes are used to discretize the governing equations within a computational domain using multiple meshes that overlap in an arbitrary manner. The overset meshing technique is most applicable to problems dealing with multiple or moving bodies. Deep water simulations were carried out using both single and overset grid techniques for the evaluation of the overset grid application. These simulations were carried out using the commercial CFD code STAR-CCM+ by CD-adapco. The geometry simulated is that of a SES model (T-Craft) tested at the Naval Surface Warfare Center Carderock Division. The craft is simulated with two degrees of freedom, allowing movement in heave and pitch in response to displacement of the free surface. Agreement between the single and overset grid techniques was deemed reasonable to extend to future shallow water cases. However, due to longer run times of the overset mesh, the traditional or single mesh technique should be employed whenever applicable. In order to extend existing full craft CFD simulations of a surface effect ship (SES) into shallow water and maneuvering cases, an overset mesh is needed. Simulations of the SES were performed and monitored at various depth Froude numbers resulting in subcritical, critical, and supercritical flow regimes. Resistance, pitch response, and free surface response of the SES were compared between the shallow water simulations. The SES produced wider wakes, perpendicular to the craft, at simulations closer to the critical flow regime. Critical flow occurs at a depth Froude number between 0.9 and 0.95. Progression of shallow water effects through the three flow regimes agrees well with shallow water theory.

West Virginia provides universal access to publicly funded preschool for all 4-year olds in the state. This approach contrasts with the approach many states and the federal government take to offering preschool, which is to provide targeted programs, focused on traditionally at-risk populations. Support for moving toward universal access has grown to include the White House, where it has been touted as a priority in recent State of the Union Addresses. This research explores West Virginia's existing program to understand the experience of the students enrolled in the 2012-2013 school year using extant data. West Virginia's Universal Preschool program uses Early Learning Scale (ELS) to assess student growth during the preschool year, the results of which are collected in a statewide database. The West Virginia State Department of Education also collects data on student and classroom demographics. This study uses hierarchical linear modeling to analyze the relationship of student characteristics and baseline and growth scores on ELS. Additional descriptive analysis of site characteristics is also provided to provide a profile of the classrooms of the 2012-2013 preschool class. This study documents a gap in ELS scores at baseline between low SES and non-low SES students and between boys and girls. No gap was apparent between white and non-white students in the analysis. Students in West Virginia's Universal Preschool program show growth through the preschool year on ELS; however, growth rates of low-SES and male children are not great enough to close the gaps that exist when the students are initially assessed. This dissertation recommends that more research needs to be done to understand how classroom, student, and socio-geographic characteristics interact to influence student baseline and growth scores on ELS in West Virginia.

The underrepresentation of Black males in college and university campuses has continued to raise alarming questions for parents, teachers, and policy makers. In this study I utilized Intersectionality theory to examine Black males’ experiences in high schools in order to gain an understanding of the factors that impact their educational attainment and subsequent development of college aspiration. Based on 30 qualitative interviews with 10th, 11th, and 12th graders and 30 interviews with their parents, this study examined familial and social contexts in relations to Black male students’ educational attainment. Four key findings revealed that, 1) young Black men had to deal with gender-specific racial discrimination on a daily basis by counteracting the prevalent negative images against Black males in mainstream American society, 2) peer pressure exerted positive influence in middle to high SES neighborhoods and schools; but showed negative impact on their educational attainment and college aspiration in low SES neighborhoods and substandard schools, 3) female headed households in particular did not necessarily have negative effects on Black male students’ educational attainment, and 4) private schools appeared to have better climates than public schools in inspiring Black males to higher levels of academic achievement and college aspiration. Policy recommendations were proposed to stimulate Black male students’ greater interest in college attendance and educational achievement.

Current estimates indicate that nearly 67 percent of all U.S. adults are overweight or obese. To assist public health efforts aimed at reducing obesity, this study examines the independent relationships between adult obesity and three primary indicators of SES (education, occupation, income). This study also investigates potential mediators in the relationship between SES and obesity, and whether the SES – obesity relationship varies by physical disability status. Logistic regressions are employed; results indicate that contrary to those with a physical disability, education and income are each independently associated with overweight/obesity for those without a physical disability, while occupational prestige is not independently associated with overweight/obesity for those without a physical disability. Among those with a physical disability, the relationship between occupational prestige and overweight/obesity is partially explained by race-ethnicity and smoker status. Among those without a physical disability, results underscore the importance of education and income for overweight/obesity risk.

For decades, social scientists have investigated how children make friends across social group divides (Graham, Taylor, & Ho, 2009; Howes, 2009). These studies have mostly defined cross friendships as those friendships that bridge gender, race, and ethnic differences. In the current study, I extend this paradigm and investigate friendships across socioeconomic lines. I document the methodological challenges posed by defining cross-socioeconomic status (SES) friendships while analyzing sociometric ratings nominations. Results indicate that overall children at this age do not form friendships based on their SES background. Implications and future directions for research are discussed.

This study examined whether socioeconomic status (SES), measured by household income and educational attainment, moderates genetic and environmental influences on alcohol use. We found that genetic effects were greater in low-SES conditions, while shared environmental effects (i.e., environmental effects that enhanced the similarity of twins from the same families) gained importance in high-SES conditions. This basic pattern of results was found for both income and education and replicated at a second wave of assessment spaced nine years after the first. Our findings indicate that the etiology of alcohol use varies as a function of the broader social context. Thus, efforts to find the causes underlying alcohol consumption are likely to be more successful if such contextual information is taken into account.

Individuals are bombarded with stereotypes every day in the United States. It is impossible to eliminate the effect of these stereotypes in any situation; however, the criminal justice system strives to find ways to minimize the impact of these stereotypes in the courtroom. In this study, the effects of socioeconomic status and attractiveness of a female defendant on sentencing severity, perceived recidivism, and deservedness of punishment in a murder trial were examined. The study was also designed to investigate how jurors may engage in cognitive processes such as motivated reasoning when biases are pointed out to them. Attractiveness and socioeconomic status did not affect sentencing severity, perceived recidivism, or deservedness of punishment. However, several general trends were evident indicating that females and Caucasians may be harsher in their sentencing overall, though results were not significant. Jurors did engage in motivated reasoning when they were confronted with their biases. In fact, to moderate cognitive dissonance that arises from that awareness, participants altered their ratings of socioeconomic status for the defendant. A more evenly distributed gender pool may enhance the study and findings.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB) was established in 2002 with the primary goal of closing the achievement gap between low socioeconomic students and their more advantaged peers. Charter schools are a part of NCLB's school choice policy and are intended to be a form of intervention to close the achievement gap. Much research has been conducted to measure charter school student achievement compared to regular public schools. But little has been done in distinguishing the differences between charter schools and their impact on student achievement. This quantitative study identifies the different types of public charter schools in Florida using Carpenter's (2006) typology study. Using multiple regression models, this study examines the relationships of their Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test (FCAT) school performance grades, percentage of students meeting high standards in math and reading, and three minority/SES measures. The findings show that there is a relationship between the above mentioned variables. They further show that overall traditional charter schools have a slight edge over progressive charter schools in academic achievement and that overall minority/socioeconomic status (SES) measures are a significant predictor of academic achievement for traditional and progressive charter schools in Florida.

The main goal of this study was to determine the degree and pattern of relationship between home and school factors and school readiness outcomes for higher and lower income families. Participants in the study were 171 preschoolers, their parents and their preschool teachers. The analyses considered the relationships between school readiness in preschoolers and the following four factors found to be important for preschoolers: 1) quality of home environment, 2) quality of the classroom environment 3) the attachment relationship with parents, and 4) the attachment relationship with teachers. Differences did exist in what contributed to school readiness for higher and lower income preschoolers. For higher income children living in a two-parent household the teacher-child relationship significantly predicted school readiness outcomes. For lower income children the sole predictor of school readiness was what happened in the home: both the security of the parent-child relationship and the quality of the learning activities within the home. Unlike with the higher income sample, no relationship was seen between teacher attachment and school readiness or parent attachment. Possible reasons for and implications of these differences are discussed.

Post-secondary academic achievement in the United States has shifted dramatically over the past 30 years in terms of gender; men are underrepresented within the ivory tower (Postsecondary participation rates by sex and race/ethnicity: 1974 - 2003 , 2005). When the intersection of race and gender is examined, enrollment gaps widen even further. Sixty-five percent of Black college enrollment is comprised of female students while Black men make up only 35%. In comparison, Asian college women outnumber Asian college men 54% to 46%, White women outnumber White men 56% to 44%, and Hispanic/Latina women outnumber Hispanic/Latino men 59% to 41% (Chronicle of Higher Education Almanac, 2009). College enrollment patterns are inextricably linked to academic success (i.e., GPA, degree attainment). Currently, more opportunities are available for African Americans and Hispanics to attend college than ever before; however, GPA and the rate of attainment of a Bachelor of Arts degree are significantly lower for African American and Hispanic men when compared to other ethnic/gender combinations (Carter, 2001; Perna, 2000; Porter, 2006; Strayhorn, 2006). The purpose of this study was to determine what factors predict post-secondary education academic success of male students. Academic success was defined as college GPA and degree attainment. I employed a modified version of the Bandura, et al. (1996) theoretical model that identified four factors that influence self efficacy, hence academic success: SES, familial, peer, and self. In my study, I used SES as a control variable and also controlled for high school preparation, two factors that prior research has revealed influence college GPA and degree attainment (Clark, Lee, Goodman, & Yacco, 2008; Perna, 2000). The findings suggest that race and select parental and peer factors can have both negative and positive effects on the academic achievement and persistence of male students in college. One parental and one peer factor were significantly positively associated with success. The remaining factors were significantly, but negatively associated with academic success.