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Herbs have been used as the basis of medicines for centuries. Although there is often only anecdotal evidence linking specific phytochemicals to health benefits there is currently a great deal of interest in the development of foods containing plant 'bioactive' metabolites (functional foods). To improve the possibility of validating health claims associated with any novel food requires a standardised methodology to be place to assess compositional qualities of any food raw materials and to confirm consumption, compound bioavailability and to assess any possibility of differential metabolism in food intervention trials. Salvia sclareoides brot. is a wild species native to the Iberic Peninsula and is currently, being investigated for use in functional foods by ERVITAL, a company specialising in the commercialisation of medicinal plants/herbs. Previous research efforts have studied its composition, targeting compounds such as rosmarinic acid that is likely to provide potential health benefits; however, its metabolome is completely unexplored. Metabolomics methodologies were applied initially to investigate metabolome diversity and stability of of different organs of Salvia sclareoides brot in ERVITAL field trial in Portugal. Initial experiments indicated the metabolomes of harvested rosette leaves and most parts of flowering shoots to be very similar. The field location was also found to have little impact on the metabolome. Metabolome analysis of plant material collected from the field in two different years indicated considerable variability, potentially associated with changeable weather conditions. The impact of environmental stress on the Salvia sclareoides metabolome was proposed to be studied under greenhouse conditions in Aberystwyth using seeds harvested by ERVITAL. The seeds exhibited poor germination rates and so seedlings were vegetatively propagated and allowed to flower and set seed. Due to the low number of replicates more seed was requested and set to grow. The new growing seedlings exhibited substantial morphological differences to the wild transplanted material in Portugal and further examination revealed them to actually be a different species of Salvia (Salvia verbenaca) also growing at the same site. These presented a significantly better germination rate and allowed for the study to continue. Commonly encountered abiotic stresses, such as temperature and drought had no impact on the levels of rosmarinic acid, whilst global metabolome analysis highlighted significant changes. Functional enrichment modelling conducted using the close relative Sesame indicum KEGG ID highlighted 18 potential pathways that were altered with the hot and drought treatments. It was possible to observe that sugar concentration in the drought treatments remained similar to the control while regularly water plants in hot treatment depleted its starch reserves. A food intervention study was designed to evaluate methodology that might be used to validate any health claims associated with the consumption of sage products, using commercially available 'sage' teas approved for consumption in the UK. 3-Methylrosmarinate was found to be a key urinary biomarker for consumption of "sage" related products. Urine samples from a large fruit and vegetable intervention study (FAVRIT) was used to help develop a semi-quantitative method for non-targeted metabolite profiling by LC-MS in order to screen human populations for major metabotype clusters. The method utilized natural chemical structural analogues as internal standards and applied a normalization step in the pre-processing of the urine samples to allow alignment of data sets. It is concluded that metabolite fingerprinting using LC-MS has value for optimising growth conditions to achieve consistent levels of targeted 'bioactive' secondary metabolites from wild plant species. In the case of 'sage' species 3-methylrosmarinic acid can be used to monitor compliance in food intervention trials aimed at validating health claims. LC-MS methodology has been developed that should allow rapid screening of individuals in clinical trials for evidence of any differential metabolism of 'bioactive' that could impact on bioavailability.

Replacing protein from animal sources with protein from plant sources is driven by cost, health and environmental factors. Vicia faba is a potential source of alternative protein as it contains good amount of protein, carbohydrate, fibre and micronutrients. However, the presence of the anti-nutritional compounds vicine and convicine have limited its utilisation in food. The aim of the project was to prepare protein isolates from Vicia faba and apply them to the preparation of beef patties. Four food grade extraction conditions at different pH (7.6 or 10) and temperature (6°C or 20°C) were used to extract Vicia faba isolate with a total yield ranging from 26.6 to 30.2 %, and a protein content ranging from 32.5 to 42.7%. Proteins in Vicia faba isolates were characterised by SDS-PAGE and confirmed by LC-MS analysis to be mainly legumin, vicilin and favin. The highest protein content (42%) and lowest vicine and convicine (< 0.5%) content were found in isolate extracted at pH 7.6 at room temperature. The isolate also contained starch (5%) and fibre (19%). The proximate composition and functional properties were affected by pH and temperature. All Vicia faba isolates were shown to have good water holding (1.4 to 1.6 g/g) and fat holding capacity (1.1 to 1.3 g/g). Emulsifying and foaming properties were also observed. Heat-induced gelled was observed in all Vicia faba isolates at 12% and 20% w/v. Their functional properties were compared with commercial protein isolates (soy, pea, hemp and faba) and significant differences were found between samples. The best isolate was chosen for the application in beef patties based on the protein composition, quality with low vicine and convicine content. The addition of 20% of Vicia faba isolate to beef mince improved product yield significantly compared to 100% beef patties. The utilisation of faba bean to partially replace meat could contribute towards reducing the cost of nutritious food, and reduce burden on health and the environment.

The thesis took an interdisciplinary, problem-oriented approach to address the research problem: ’Is farmed fish capable of replacing wild-caught fish in the Malaysian diet?’ The main objectives of the project were to assess current fish consumption habits, evaluate the impacts of these on sustainability of fish stocks and determine whether aquacultured products could be a suitable substitution. A combination of data collection methods was used, namely dietary assessments, systematic literature review, market research interviews and surveys and analysis of electronic and paper-based official records. The review of the Malaysian food balance sheets showed a significant transition in diet over the last three decades, specifically with respect to an increase in animal protein by approximately 60% over this time, with fish as the major source of protein. To further explore the contribution of fish to the diet of Malaysians, and any ethnic and geographical differences in consumption, a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) was developed to assess habitual dietary intakes within selected coastal, rural and urban populations across different cultural groups in Klang Valley. The FFQ provided a clearer picture of the quantities of fish consumed by Malaysians and enabled the characterisation of Malaysian fish consumers based on the types of fish species consumed for sustainability assessment purpose. The nutritional contribution of wild versus farmed fish was compared and contrasted. Results from this study, combined with detailed studies of perception of wild versus farmed fish by consumers, aquaculturists and wholesalers, provided a greater understanding of the factors that influence consumers’ fish buying and consumption habits. The key findings are discussed with respect to the sustainability of the current situation, potential for expanding the aquaculture sector to replace wild fish in the Malaysian diet and recommendations for future research and issues for policy makers involved in the expansion of the industry.

There has been growing interest in research focused on understanding the breakdown properties of foods in the gastro-intestinal (GI) tract, with a view to better design food systems that can control digestion with additional beneficial physiological effects (e.g satiety) to help tackle the obesity epidemic. The objective of the work presented in this thesis was to design a novel food emulsion microstructure, based on a dairy food matrix, to control digestion (measured in vitro). To achieve this, initially, skimmed milk powder (SMP), and either low or high molecular weight guar gum (GG) were used to establish SMP-GG phase diagrams at 5oC and pH 6.5 to better understand the phase behaviours of these systems. As expected, the compatibility of the SMP-GG system was found to increase with decrease in molecular weight of the GG. Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) clearly showed that the microstructure was dependent upon starting composition which in turn determined the relative phase volume of the two phases. This phase separated microstructure of SMP-GG can be considered as a water-in- water (W/W) emulsion. Through the incorporation of oil into these systems with designed microstructures based on the phase diagram, it was possible to form model systems of SMP-GG-OIL, showing the lipid phase within the protein phase within the polysaccharide phase. This can be described as ‘Matryoshka Composites’ and therefore being viewed as ‘O/W/W’ emulsion when the starting aqueous phase is either polysaccharide continuous or bi-continuous. Although the addition of a low volume fraction of oil has indicated an influence on the thermodynamic equilibrium of the SMP-GG system, through chemical analysis and rheological measurement; the in vitro digestibility of such phase separated model systems of SMP-GG-OIL with different microstructures was investigated using a pH Stat method. The microstructures were shown to be able to control lipid digestion. For a selected tie-line, the lipolysis of protein continuous > bi-continuous > polysaccharide continuous system, at a certain level of oil addition. The mechanism involved in the lipolysis of the designed formulations/microstructures was dependent upon the protein, rather than GG, and was driven by the protein concentration. As a comparison, in the case of adding different amounts of oil, the lipolysis was found to decrease with increasing oil phase volume. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed structural changes that occurred to the emulsified lipid droplets as they passed through a model gastro-intestinal (GI). The effect of the addition of non-ionic surfactants (Tween 20) on lipolysis of 20% sunflower oil included in the SMP-GG system has also been studied via the pH Stat method, as commercial products often contain other surface active materials. The presence of Tween 20 increased lipolysis, although it resulted in the increased droplet size arising from emulsion destabilization due to the competitive adsorption of protein and Tween 20 at the O/W interface leading to depletion flocculation. Moreover, the ‘unexpected synergism’ between Tween 20 and protein in facilitating lipolysis was enhanced with increasing Tween 20 concentration, indicating partial displacement of proteins by Tween 20 at the interface. The droplet surface laden with both protein and Tween 20 appeared like the surface of a ‘Golf Ball’ surface, so a 3D ‘Golf Ball’-like interfacial displacement model has been proposed. In contrast, if complete displacement occurred, lipolysis in the presence of Tween 20 was not further increased nor was it decreased. In addition, the oil type and physical state of lipid demonstrated an influence on lipolysis, but this was mainly dependent upon the lipid compositions and their melting points. These findings suggest the potential applications for food product design in regulating satiety effects by triggering the Ileal brake mechanism, and may provide opportunities to control delivery of specific nutrients during digestion.

Dates are the fruit of the palm, which the Greeks call “Phoenix”, a word taken from the Phoenician language. Saudi Arabia is currently one of the largest dates producing countries in the world. There are several varieties of dates grown in Saudi Arabia. Date fruits contain compounds that are potentially bioactive, with many health benefits; for example, vitamin E, carotene (precursor for vitamin A) and phenolic compounds. Dates represent an excellent source of antioxidants due to their high concentrations of phenolic compounds as well as the presence of selenoproteins. Moreover, dates are also potentially a very good source of several minerals in fact; there are at least 15 minerals found in dates. The work presented in this thesis will determine the nutritional composition of nineteen varieties of dates sourced from four, environmentally diverse, regions in Saudi Arabia. These varieties were selected because of their popularity, economical price, as well as availability during the year. The results indicated that the range of moisture contents (10% - 30%) found within the four regions were quite similar. For levels of fat, protein and ash all varied significantly between varieties but were all very low. Carbohydrate content was variable between samples (70 - 80%). The results indicated that glucose and fructose concentrations in theses Saudi dates were generally similar and the present of sucrose being normally associated with a corresponding reduction in the level of glucose and fructose. Potassium was the major mineral found in all the varieties with concentrations as high as 1173.29 mg/100g. The mean values for phosphorus in the dates from the different regions were close to each other. The amount of selenium was generally very low in all varieties and some did not contain any selenium at all. It would appear that it is variety and not region of production that has the major impact on nutritional composition. Moreover, this research will also determine the antioxidant capacity and phenolic content of a sub-set of these varieties at four different stages of ripening. Results showed that the levels of phenolics, anthocyanin and antioxidant capacity all decreased throughout development in all the seven selected varieties. There were strong correlations between this antioxidant capacity and the total phenolic and anthocyanin levels suggesting that these are major contributors to this nutritional property of dates. A preliminary screen tentatively identified some phenolic compounds and indicates that there may be some compositional variation between date varieties.

Food security can be improved by reducing post-harvest losses in sustainable food product chains. About 50% of fish is lost during filleting, including significant levels of high quality protein (10–23% (w/w)), which may be a source for biofunctional peptides. The fish processing waste protein hydrolysate can be a potential solution for minimizing the environmental issues related to marine processing products, and act as an alternative to producing value added fish processing by products. The main aim of this study was to investigate the physicochemical properties of fish processing waste streams from Atlantic Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and mixed fish by membrane separation. Protein hydrolysates of Atlantic Mackerel (Scomber scombrus) and mixed fish from fish waste streams were prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis using pepsin and pancreatin and measured for their antioxidant and functional properties. The chemical composition (moisture, protein, total lipids and ash) of the Atlantic mackerel and Nile Perch (Lates niloticus) fish fillets (FF) compared to fish waste (FW) was also investigated. Protein fractions from the fish waste samples were separated by using the TFF cogent μscale ultrafiltration system from Millipore, and parameters including transmembrane pressure (TMP) on flux excursion, protein performance scalability, mass transfer analysis, as well as hold up volume were studied. The mechanism of antioxidant activity was studied by DPPH, FRAP, FTC and TBARS assays. It was demonstrated that fish waste water protein hydrolysate especially for Atlantic Mackerel showed good antioxidant activities by the Ferric Thiocyanate (FTC) and Thiobarbituric acid Reactive substances (TBARS) methods and compared well with other antioxidants (BHA, ascorbic acid and trolox). There was significant difference (p < 0.05) between samples and negative control (no antioxidant). DPPH scavenging activity increased with the extract concentration in the range of 1.5-26 %. In FRAP assay, both sample showed that there was an increase in absorbance with an increase in concentration. Structural and thermodynamic changes in fish waste samples were also determined by FT-Raman spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and small deformation rheology respectively. The DSC thermograms from the samples indicated that fish waste samples may be comparable. Moreover in fish waste sample hydrolysates, the same trends were obtained in 10 kDa AM and MF fractions. Fish waste samples especially hydrolysed fish waste samples, showed different protein denaturation transition peaks, indicating that enzymatic hydrolysis can affect the thermodynamic and functional properties of protein samples. Similarly, the rheological properties were different for different fish samples (AM and MF) with AM showing higher G’ or elastic modulus values (p < 0.05). The proteins in mackerel and mixed fish waste stream were characterised by FT-Raman spectroscopy and showed significant differences in their respective spectra and most of the assigned peaks (p < 0.05).

Coffee is an important commodity and a major export for developing countries. There are two commercially grown species: Robusta and Arabica. The latter is more desirable, but more difficult to cultivate. It is susceptible to pests and diseases and less tolerant to environmental changes. This vulnerability is partly due to Arabica accumulating less chlorogenic acid (CGA) than Robusta. There are high levels of CGAs in the coffee beverage which contribute to the flavour and confer health benefits. In this study, I characterised enzymes involved in the biosynthesis of CGAs in coffee and investigated the function of transcription factors in controlling the phenylpropanoid pathway that lead to CGA production. The enzyme hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA quinate hydroxycinnamoyltransferase (HQT) is entirely responsible for the synthesis of the major CGA, 5-caffeoylquinic acid (5-CQA). I also discovered two routes for the synthesis of dicaffeoylquinic acids (diCQAs) from 5-CQA utilising two different enzymes in different subcellular compartments. HQT could synthesise diCQAs in the presence of high concentrations of 5-CQA when localised to the vacuole. Hydroxycinnamoyl-CoA quinate/shikimate hydroxycinnamoyltransferase (HCT) could synthesise diCQAs through the same route but can also synthesise diCQAs at neutral pH using 5-CQA and caffeoyl CoA. Tissue distribution patterns of metabolites in developing coffee fruit confirmed the presence of these biosynthetic routes. I cloned and characterised several R2R3MYB genes encoding potential regulators of CGA biosynthesis. Their analysis also led to a possible explanation for the usually high levels of CGA in coffee. Distinct MYB12-like transcription factors activated the transcription of a non-functional chalcone synthase (CHS) gene which is important for the synthesis of flavonols. This results in high levels of CGAs at the expenses of flavonol accumulation. Understanding CGA biosynthesis in coffee will be useful for sustainable cultivation of this important crop.

Since its invention nearly 150 years ago, margarine has proven itself adaptable to multiple ingredients and techniques whilst continuing to mimic the fatty tastes familiar to eaters in Northern Europe. In this thesis I argue that it this malleability that makes margarine a useful subject with which to explore constructions of eating-well. This thesis examines the ways in which margarine is done, why it is done in the ways that it is, and explores how such doings frame possibilities for eating-together-well. Eating-well has become something of a social obsession in the UK in recent years. Individual eating practices have become framed as a responsibility of care for personal and societal health, for agricultural workers, animal welfare and for the future of the planet. Nonetheless, it is commonly believed that although deeply personal, food habits are culturally and socially engrained, and as such are hard to change. This empirically led thesis, examines the knowledges and practices of producers and consumers, and establishes habit formation as a typical response by both producers and consumers to becoming overwhelmed with incompatible knowledges and information, compelling them to choose, prioritise and juggle ‘moral’ values. Yet, I demonstrate that such habits only remain stable until disrupted by an event which overflows and troubles this settlement. Building on this, this thesis then examines the possibilities offered by the creation of micro-events for encountering, knowing, and relating with, margarine matters anew. In this way, this thesis investigates the values, norms and power relations entangled with the presentation and enactment of margarine and its constituent parts as ‘good’ or ‘bad’ foods, examining both what these framings do, and how they are maintained. In approaching margarine matters in this way, this thesis offers three key contributions to the area of food geographies. Firstly, I demonstrate how commodity frameworks shift political problems in to a technical and administrative realm and close down spaces of critical thought and political intervention. Secondly, I establish that ‘strange encounters’ are events which can add to understandings of the more-than human world-making of food knowledges, practices, and habits. Thirdly, I determine that the novel methodological approach of ‘playing with our food’ is a productive technique with which to prefigure and rehearse more nuanced ethical understandings of eating-well as a relational doing that is excessive to consuming-well.

Attempting to avoid the progressive or declensionist arc of most narratives where either the progress of nutrition science is feted or the decline of food quality is lamented, this dissertation will instead rely on ideas of lateral movement between the outside and inside to explore changes to three spatialisations of food from the mid-nineteenth century until the present that highlight the multi-spatiality of food. Using textual and visual data about food labels from archives and public historical sources as an entry point, the study will argue that one of the ways that food has changed over this period has been through a process of interiorisation. First, traditional concerns characterised as external to food, such as adulteration, have been increasingly overlaid with concerns with the interior of food in the form of nutrition science. Second, this problematisation has been accompanied by new forms of connection to the interior of the person, demonstrated by early concern over the nutritional needs of invalids and infants. Third, the change in shopping space from full-service to self-service formats has reconfigured food shopping to a more internalised experience. Finally, the dissertation explores how this interiorisation of food has been re-exported to wider society as a global assemblage of technology, politics and ethics through the case of coeliac societies and gluten legislation. In order to emphasise the contingency of the current spatialisations, particular attention will be given to the practical work of creating the spatialisations, including disputes over boundaries and questions of expertise. The study aims to contribute to work within geography and science studies that emphasises the co-creation of science and society, questions given socio-material orderings and categories and foregrounds the importance of space and place for understanding food and society.

Legumes underpin the global food network, providing the majority of the world’s dietary protein. However, global productivity of grain legumes is limited by environmental stresses, particularly chilling and freezing. For example, chilling temperatures (0-15 ºC) limit the production of soybean (Glycine max; a tropical legume), while extreme freezing temperatures (< 0 ºC) limit use of temperate legumes such as faba bean (Vicia faba L). The following studies were performed to gain new insights into chilling and freezing tolerance in these two important legumes. Transgenic soybean lines, overexpressing the rice cysteine protease inhibitor, oryzacystatin I (OCI), showed decreased chillinginduced inhibition of photosynthesis compared to wild type (Wt). These lines also showed an increased abundance of transcripts encoding the strigolactone (SL) biosynthesis enzymes: carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases 7 and 8 (CCD7, CCD8). Pea (rms3, rms4, rms5) and Arabidopsis thaliana (max2-1, max3-9, max4-1) mutants, deficient in SL synthesis and signalling, showed enhanced sensitivity to dark-chilling. Differences in chilling and freezing sensitivity were also identified in 5 faba bean cultivars. Transcriptome profiling comparisons were performed on the most chilling sensitive (Wizard) and most chilling tolerant (Hiverna) cultivars to identify specific differences in gene expression, underpinning stress tolerance. Moreover, genome sequencing of the Wizard cultivar enabled the assembly and annotation of the mitochondrial and chloroplast genomes. Single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNP) were found in several organelle genes, when comparing read sequences to published references. Furthermore, based on published SNP orientated linkage maps, contiguous read sequences could be mapped to chromosomal loci, leading to the identification of 8 putative nuclear gene sequences and an increase in sequence length data at 147 loci. Together with these new genomic resources, the discovery that cysteine proteases, phytocystatins and SL are important in legume low temperature tolerance will enable the development of stress tolerance markers, for use in faba bean selective breeding programs.

Encouraging people to make healthier food choices will make an important contribution to preventing non-communicable diseases. Most groceries purchased by UK households are from supermarkets, potentially making this an important setting where consumers might consider the nutritional quality of foods. While it is possible to purchase healthy food in supermarkets, the retail environment actively promotes the selection of less healthy items. Gaps remain in our understanding about which store based interventions - including providing on-pack nutrition information - can assist shoppers to make healthy food selections. Considerable evidence exists around consumer engagement with nutrition labelling, but there is a paucity of research conducted in real-life contexts. This thesis describes a qualitative study which explored factors which influence decision making at point-of-choice and sought to understand whether and how shoppers use the front of pack nutrition information panel during routine supermarket shopping. The study also investigated whether wearable cameras were useful research tools to understand how shoppers use the front of pack nutrition information panel, compared to a 'Think aloud' method. In this research, participants paid little attention to the front of pack nutrition information as they shopped. Food shopping was characterised as a complex, involved activity with priority given to a range of different issues over health and/or nutrition concerns. Although the front of pack nutrition information panel could offer support to shoppers, this study suggests that its presence is currently overwhelmed by commercially driven factors. Shoppers appear to need specific health or nutrition-related purchasing goals, be sufficiently informed and motivated to spend time attending to the front of pack nutrition information panel. Future interventions should raise awareness of the presence of nutrition information on pack and be clear about how this information can be used in different circumstances to guide consumers towards healthier choices. The study suggests that while data collected via 'Think aloud' or from viewing wearable camera images provides general information about food shopping decisions, eye-tracker technology can provide objective evidence of nutrition information use. Data capture was greatly strengthened by the use of a post-shop interview, where interviews generated specific and important contextual information relating to the use of the front of pack nutrition information panel.

Experiments assessing the efficiency of natural antioxidants rosemary (ROS), small red bean (SRB), sunflower seeds (SFS) and ginger (GGR) extracts compared to the synthetic antioxidant (BHT) on characteristics of chicken meat were studied. The initial experiment evaluated the effect of the addition of antioxidants at 10 and 20 mg to lipids extracted from different tissues (breast, thigh, adipose and skin tissue) during the Schaal oven te st 62.8 o C. Antioxidants at 10 and 20 mg significantly reduced TBARS, CD and CT values in all extracted lipids compared to the non - treated samples . However, no significant differences were found between both levels. Among the antioxidants, ROS significantl y reduced TBARS values in fat from all the chicken portions over 7 days. In the subsequent experiments, the impact of antioxidants on physical and chemical characteristics of raw and freshly cooked meat was investigated. In addition, the impact of the app lication of natural antioxidants on warmed - over characteristics in cooked chicken meat was evaluated. Raw meat samples treated with SFS had the lowest TBARS values, while in meat freshly cooked, ROS treatment had the lowest TBARS values. The a ddition of an tioxidants reduced the degradation of phospholipids and formation of CDs and CTs in both raw and freshly cooked meat s compared to the non - treated samples . Antioxidant treatments had a significantly lower drip loss and pH values , but did not affect cooking loss and shear force. Natural antioxidants significantly increased the colour stability and yielded more fatty acids in chicken meat. Natural antioxidants significantly reduced (p ≤ 0.05) the formation of TBARS, CD and CT in both LTLO and HTHO samples, whi le their effect was much greater in LTLO samples compared to HTHO meat samples. Reheating process had a significant an effect on TBARS, CD and CT accumulation of most treatments either cooked by LTLO or HTHO methods ( p ≤ 0.05). In conclusion, the results suggest that natural antioxidants may have the ability to inhibit the lipid oxidation and enhance meat quality. The impact of natural antioxidants was similar to that of BHT.

The contribution of ruminant agriculture towards climate change is significant and responsible for approximately 14.5% of anthropogenic global greenhouse gas emissions. The reduction of sectorial emissions is dependent on farmer decision-making at a multitude of scales, which comprise of the field scale, the farm, farmer typologies (farm scale with focus on farmers), and the community-scale. This conceptual framework provides the basis for the research carried out in this PhD. The first research chapter builds upon previous work carried out by Bangor University where farmers deemed the most practical mitigation measure they could adopt on their farming enterprises was the planting of leguminous crops. The research in this thesis demonstrated that grass-clover systems offered the same yield as grass swards receiving conventional amounts of nitrogen fertiliser. However, nitrous oxide emissions from the grass-clover sward were significantly lower. My second research chapter moves onto the farm scale and investigates the carbon footprint (CF) from 15 farming enterprises over two timescales. Considerable reductions in the CF of beef and lamb were demonstrated if efficiencies were increased to match those of the least-emitting producers. On-farm decisions are motivated by personal interests and goals. Hence, the third research chapter identifies distinct types of farmers based on perceptions of climate change. Four farmer types were identified which can aid the dissemination of climate change information and consequently increase the adoption of climate change measures. The final chapter evaluates social capital and collaboration amongst farmers at the community scale; such interactions can serve to facilitate mitigation and adaptation. Although overall collaboration was low, there was considerable latent social capital which can be used to further encourage collective action. The work carried out in this thesis can help reduce the livestock sector’s greenhouse gas emissions across numerous scales; thereby helping the industry meet its emission targets.

Al alloys have been extensively used for producing structural and functional products. It is well known that a grain-refined as cast microstructure generally facilitates high quality finished products in the downstream processing stages. Chemical inoculation by Al-Ti-B grain refiners was widely used in the industry to refine Al alloys. However, the corresponding grain refining mechanism is still under dispute. In this study, the influence of solute elements on the grain refining of Al alloys in the presence of potent TiB2 inoculants was investigated in order to understand the grain refining mechanism of Al alloys by Al-Ti-B grain refiners. Firstly, an effective Al-Ti-B grain refiner, which contains potent TiB2 particles and negligible impurities (particularly Ti), was obtained by a settling experiment. The effectiveness of the grain refiner was verified by its inoculation in commercial purity Al (CP-Al) due to the significantly refined microstructure. Based on its compositional analysis, the grain refiner was found to contain little free Ti (only 600ppm) and other impurities (100ppm Fe, < 100ppm Si), and this refiner was referred to as Al-1.54TiB2. Secondly, with fixed addition of the Al-1.54TiB2 grain refiner, the effect of individual solute elements including Ti, Si, Fe, Sn, Zn, Cu, Mg, Mn, Cr and Zr, and the combined effects of Fe-Si, Fe-Cu and Fe-Ti on the grain structures of high purity Al (HP-Al) were investigated. It was found that, there is no direct correlation between the growth restriction parameter Q and the grain size when a fixed addition of Al-1.54TiB2 is present. The effects of solute elements on the grain structures of a final casting should consider both solidification kinetics and thermodynamic conditions. A theoretical columnar-equiaxed transition (CET) prediction model based on the analysis of a newly-established growth restriction coefficient β, which has considerations on both the thermodynamic and kinetic conditions, is presented for grain structure prediction. Finally, a poisoning (i.e., grain size coarsening) mechanism by Zr or Si addition in Al alloys containing TiB2 particles was studied. It was found that, for Al-Zr samples, a Zr-rich atomic mono-layer exists at the TiB2/Al interface to replace the originally present Al3Ti atomic monolayer. This was suggested to be the reason for Zr poisoning. For Al-Si samples, the Al3Ti atomic monolayer, which originally existed at the TiB2/Al interface, was found to have apparently disappeared, and this was likely to be the reason for Si poisoning.

Akamu is a lactic acid bacteria fermented cereal-based food that complements infant diets in most African countries. Uncontrolled fermentation increases the variability in quality and safety of akamu. This study was aimed at the controlled fermentation of akamu with selected lactic acid bacteria (LAB), investigation of the probiotic potential of the LAB and the effect of variation in production method on the product quality and sensory properties. PCR-DGGE analysis of traditional akamu samples revealed LAB community dominated by Lactobacillus fermentum, L. plantarum, L. delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus and L. helveticus. Isolated yeasts were Candida tropicalis, C. albicans, Clavispora lusitaniae and Saccharomyces paradoxus. The isolated Lactobacillus plantarum strains (NGL5 and NGL7) fermented irradiated ground maize slurries and produced significant levels of lactic acid (>73 mmol L-1) and low pH ≤3.63 displaying inhibitory activity against Salmonella enterica serovar Enteritidis NCTC 5188, Escherichia coli 1077 (NCTC 11560), Bacillus cereus NCIMB 11925, Staphylococcus aureus NCTC 3750 and Listeria monocytogenes NCTC 7973 in MRS agar and E. coli 1077 in maize slurry fermentation. Viability of both strains of L. plantarum at pH 2 after 3 h was reduced from ≥8.26±0.05 to ≤4.94±0.49 Log10 CFU mL-1 while incubation in 0.3% bile allowed growth to 5.73±0.13 and 7.93±0.12 Log10 CFU mL-1 after 6 h for NGL5 and NGL7 respectively. Auto-aggregation of the L. plantarum strains at 37oC (≥25 after 5 h) correlated with adhesion to hydrocarbons (

The purpose of this contextualising research is to examine the geme of food memoirs and to trace my literary journey as a food memoirist. This study focuses on what has influenced the development of The Baker's Daughter, as well as the impact of my publisher's involvement at a later stage of the writing. It offers a context for my work and its development, a reflection on my own process, and contributes to debates about the nature of food memoir; I explore the practical issues that arose when writing my memoir that I hope other authors will find useful. In Chapter One I examine the cultural significance of food books, including food memoirs and cookbooks. I define memoir and food memoir, including the various sub gemes. This is in order to establish where The Baker's Daughter and my chosen texts fit within the food memoir geme. Chapter Two is an exploration of childhood in my selected family food memoirs. I explore the key themes and narrative techniques and how they influenced my own decisions about my craft. In Chapter Three I focus on the criteria for the inclusion and positioning of recipes in The Baker's Daughter and my chosen texts. I pay special attention to how my selected writers weave recipes within the prose, at the end of their chapters and in separate sections. Chapter Four explores the involvement of a publisher for The Baker's Daughter. I look at the rationale for adapting my PhD material into both a cookbook and standalone ebook memoir and I analyse the differences between the genres. I discuss the inclusion of baker's tips within The Baker's Daughter. I also explore the tensions between the publisher's interest in my work as a nostalgia memoir and their emphasis on authenticity.

Rates of obesity are predicted to increase, which is worrying given the association with adverse health outcomes. Cost of food or diet is one proposed contributor to an ‘obesogenic environment’. The “food price-obesity hypothesis” supposes that, with limited purchasing power, consumers may purchase energy-dense foods to obtain the maximum calories, resulting in excess energy intake. This thesis attempts to gauge whether obesity may be attributed to food prices. Firstly, the published literature was synthesised. Secondly, the study examined how income and cost of diet are implicated in excess energy intake, as implied by the body mass index (BMI) and dietary energy density (DED), of adults in the National Diet and Nutrition Survey (NDNS). The literature review revealed a heterogeneous body of studies that was generally supportive of the food price-obesity theory, but not conclusive. Studies of diet costs and DED overwhelmingly report a negative association. A limited number of studies investigating diet costs and BMI reported contradictory findings. The evidence linking income and DED was not strong. In the NDNS sample, income was found to be negatively associated with DED, BMI, and overweight/obesity. In addition, a negative association was observed between diet costs and DED. There was no association between whole diet costs and BMI. In contrast, using proportional food group costs revealed some significant associations. This suggests that measuring how people apportion their food budget, rather than how much the whole diet is worth, may be insightful. The thesis also addresses some methodological issues. Firstly, analyses demonstrate how equivalizing household income to take into account household composition can impact on findings. Secondly, a comparison of diet costing methods is presented. Despite methodological challenges, the findings presented in the thesis suggest there is merit in pursuing research into diet costs, with many unexplored opportunities in this emerging field.

Background: Dietary fibre has been associated with risk of cardiovascular disease (CVD) in some cohort studies around the world. Key health messages may be created by examining the types or sources of fibre in the diet and associated risk of different CVD events but few studies have explored this. Methods: I conducted a systematic literature review of published studies investigating dietary fibre intake and CVD. Associations were explored using dose-response meta-analysis in addition to potential non-linear associations. CVD event data for the UK Women’s Cohort Study were obtained from death records, hospital episode statistics (HES) and the Myocardial Ischaemia National Audit Project (MINAP). Capture-recapture methods were then applied to estimate the potential for missing cases. Survival analyses for coronary heart disease (CHD), stroke and total CVD risk in association with total fibre intake and fibre from key food sources were conducted using a cohort approach for food frequency data and case-cohort methods were used for analyses with food diary data. Results: Meta-analyses broadly supported inverse associations between CVD and fibre intake. Combined data from 9 studies indicate lower CVD risk per 7g/day greater intake in total fibre, relative risk 0.91 (95% confidence intervals (CI) 0.88, 0.94). After 14 years, 821 CHD and 388 stroke cases were observed. Total fibre, soluble, insoluble and fibre from cereals assessed using FFQs were associated with lower risk of stroke. With each 6g/day higher total fibre intake, hazard ratio (HR) 0.89 (95% CI: 0.81, 0.99). Higher fibre density was associated with lower risk of myocardial infarction, for every 2g/1000kcal/day higher intake, HR 0.89 (95% CI: 0.81, 0.98). Higher cereal fibre intake, calculated using food diaries, was associated with lower risk of acute coronary events HR 0.76 (95% CI: 0.58, 1.00). Conclusion: Fibre intake is inversely associated with CVD risk in a dose response relationship after accounting for other potentially confounding influences. Associations were stronger for stroke risk, when the source of fibre was cereals and in those without hypertension.

This thesis examines the experiential values of food festivals in Wales and assesses how successful they are in promoting local food. The aim of the research was to identify the multiple dimensions that constitute food festival experience and to develop a model to measure how these factors affected the behavioural intentions of visitors, in terms of their loyalty towards the event and the local food available at the event. In addition, the same model was used to examine how customers remembered their experience over time and whether the actual behaviour they adopted reflected their original intentions.

Heston Blumenthal's work as a chef has involved the use of scientific and historical knowledges, technologies and discourses. This research establishes Blumenthal's status as a performance artist and the performativity of his food, the former through the performances around and through his food, the latter through the performativity of the food '/ object and the deconstruction of the ideologies and practices of consumption. Through examining his work in his restaurants and television series, I argue that Blumenthal engages in performance practice through his work with food, utilising approaches from performance to create gastronomic events. I examine Blumenthal's cuisine through the frameworks of performativity and phenomenology, by means of writing and practice-as-research. The research starts with introductions to Blumenthal, performativity and phenomenology, before outlining a historical context. This history contextualises Blumenthal in terms of twentieth and twentyfirst century performance practice, as well as introducing some of the philosophical and theoretical approaches to food appropriate to his gastronomy. The research is then split into three conceptual temporalities, which operate as a tool for examining the experience of Blumenthal's food in detail, from a phenomenological perspective. The research addresses the immediate, primal perception of food, its textualisation and the retrospective reflection employed to make sense of the food events. My own performance practice works through and reflects on some of the issues raised by the writing. The practice is documented in the appendices and reflected on within the appropriate chapter. As a complementary mode of knowledge, the practice explores particular ideas raised by the three temporalities: the individualisation of the body in immediate perception; the preparation for a meal as a mode of textualisation, written onto and informing the perception of the food; and the narrativisation of the food event, drawing out how the event is understood and its components ordered into a logic or aesthetic. The research is an exploration of Blumenthal's cuisine in particular, as well as raising issues of the use of food and sensuality in performance.

Dietary carbohydrates play a crucial role in human nutrition. They are considered one of the major sources of energy and provide between 55-75 % energy of the human diet (FAO/WHO, 1998). In 1980, the glycaemic index (GI) concept was developed as a tool to compare foods for their ability to provide glucose to the blood circulation after ingestion and absorption in individuals. Epidemiological studies have shown a relationship between GI and non-communicable diseases such as type 2 diabetes using published GI values (Barclay et al., 2008b). However, measuring GI in vivo for every food used in the epidemiological field, for example, is time-consuming, expensive and requires the participation of human volunteers (Jenkins, 2007). The aim of the study is to develop methodology to estimate GI from the macronutrient composition of mixed foods, and the hypothesis is that GI can be predicted from composition data without the need for human volunteers. Available carbohydrate (av.CHO) analysis of 16 foods from the cereal and legume groups were undertaken and values were used to generate the prediction models. The relationship between GI and macronutrient composition was investigated in the 16 foods using multiple regression analysis methods. The results indicate that starch and fat are the only macronutrients that correlate significantly with published GI values. Three foods were used to validate the prediction models using in vitro and in vivo measurements and these correlated significantly with the statistically predicted GI values. In conclusion, statistically predicted GI might be a useful approach to eliminate the need for human subject or blood analysis to measure GI in multi-component foods.

Background The effective treatment of overweight and obesity is challenging. A smartphone application which allows self monitoring of diet and activity could give an opportunity to deliver a weight management intervention. Methods Multiple methods have been employed. A scoping review was conducted to explore the evidence for portable handheld electronic devices and weight loss and a smartphone application, ‘My Meal Mate’ (MMM) has been developed. MMM has a theoretical basis and has been informed by focus group research. A validation study compared the diet measures captured on MMM to a reference measure and MMM was piloted in a 6 month, 3-armed randomised trial with a sample of 128 overweight/obese adults. Results The literature review found no studies to date of a stand-alone smartphone app for weight loss. In the validation study, energy (kcal) recorded on MMM correlated well with 24 hour diet recalls. Day 1: r=0.77 (95% CI: 0.62-0.86) and had a small mean difference (Day 1: -16 (95% CI: -132 to 100) kcals/d (MMM-recall). Bland Altman analysis showed wide limits of agreement between the methods (+/-2SD -824 to 791kcals/d on day 1). From the pilot trial, frequency of use was statistically significantly higher in the MMM group with a median 82 (IQR: 28, 172) days of diet recorded compared to 15 (IQR: 7, 45) days in the website group and 18 (IQR: 0, 37) days in the diary group (p=

Class II hydrophobin (HFBII) is a highly surface active molecule and in the context of aeration can be considered to be an structuring protein conferring exceptional stability to foams for periods far in excess of that obtained with any other commonly used protein. This is of interest to the food industry, since producing shelf stable foams in food formulation is very difficult. Although HFBII has proved to be very promising in terms of foam stability when used alone, it is still unknown whether HFBII will be able to maintain its functionality when other surface active agents are present, such as in real food systems. In this project, rheological properties were investigated in for mixitures of HFBII and β-casein at various ratios and how this can relate to bubble and foam stability. The addition of β-casein up to a certain ratio increased the surface shear viscosity significantly whilst the dilatational elasticity was less affected. This was accompanied by an increase in stability for air bubbles and foams as they showed more resistant towards coalescence and disproportionation and allowed the formation of extremely stable smaller sized air bubbles. Confocal laser microscopy images of these bubbles stabilised, suggested that the enhanced stability is due to highly unusual and complicated interfacial packing phenomena plus local bubble curvature effects that requires further investigation. Overall, there is a suggestion of some kind of synergy between the two proteins. However, the exact nature of this interaction is unknown. ζ- potential measurements, the effect of heat and Brewster angle microscopy indicated that the type of interaction is not electrostatic or hydrophobic but more likely to be of a weak nature and is possibly due to the way the proteins pack together at the interface since on expansion of the interfacial films completely disintegrated.

Interest in estimating polyphenol intake and identification of the major dietary sources of polyphenols have risen in tandem with the reporting of certain health benefits of polyphenols, but only a few studies have reported polyphenol intake in the UK population. This thesis, therefore, aims to address this research gap amongst a sample of 246 UK women aged 18-50 years. A food diary was used to estimate food intake, and only ingredients with a polyphenol content of ≥ 1 mg per portion of food were included for estimation of polyphenol intake. Missing data for polyphenol content in some foods was determined by using the Folin-Ciocalteu assay and performing HPLC analysis. The polyphenol intake of the studied population was 1089 ± 814 mg/day. Tea and coffee were the major polyphenol sources while fruit, vegetables and confectionaries were other important sources of polyphenols. Age was the main predictor of flavonoid, phenolic acid and total polyphenol intake, with the increasing age associated with higher consumption. Cognitive performance was assessed using selected cognitive tests in a sub sample of the participants (Diet and Health study). Participants at the lowest quartile of polyphenol intake and who were non-consumers of coffee or tea were younger and have showed better performance on spatial memory assessed from Visual Spatial Learning Test (VSLT) (p

The incidence of diabetes is increasing alarmingly indicating a need for preventive strategies. Prospective evidence is inconclusive regarding the protective effect of high fibre intake on the risk of Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Differences in fibre measuring methodologies may have contributed some of these inconsistencies. For the first time, this thesis employed both laboratory and epidemiological approaches to explore different aspects of dietary fibre. Firstly, 14 commonly consumed legumes were analysed for fibre content using the Association of Official Analytical Chemists (AOAC) method, and the values were significantly higher than published non-starch polysaccharide (NSP) values, with a mean AOAC-fibre: NSP ratio of 1:1.43. The UK Women’s Cohort Study (UKWCS) data was used to compare AOAC-fibre intakes with NSP intakes. Good agreement (Kappa = 0.9) was observed between intakes of AOAC-fibre and NSP with a resulting AOAC-fibre: NSP ratio being generated of 1:1.43. Following this, the links between risk of incident T2DM and intakes of AOAC-fibre and NSP were investigated. There was no evidence of dose-response relationships between T2DM risk and total fibre intake (AOAC-fibre and NSP) or from key fibre sources, except an age-adjusted lower risk of T2DM with every 5g/day increment in cereal fibre (OR=0.86; 95%CI: 0.75, 0.99). As an important fibre provider; the relationship between the risk of T2DM and legume consumption was also explored. Women in the highest dried legumes intake category experienced significantly lower odds of incident T2DM (OR=0.85; 95%:0.52, 0.89, p =0.03) compared to women in the lowest category. Agreement of fibre intake obtained using different dietary assessments approaches suggested fair agreement of diary derived NSP vs. FFQ derived NSP and poor agreement for vegetable fibre. Overall, results do not support an increase in fibre intake to prevent diabetes in the studied population, although there may be a benefit of increased dried legume intake.

A systematic study on extraction of Hibiscus sabdariffa was carried out for the first time using different solvents (water, methanol, ethyl acetate and hexane) in the presence and absence of formic acid, using different extraction times and temperatures. The extracts were analysed for total phenol content, antioxidant capacity using DPPH, FRAP and TEAC assays, and total monomeric anthocyanin content. In addition, specific anthocyanins were determined using HPLC and LC-MS. The results showed the highest antioxidant capacities were obtained by extracting using water, with or without formic acid, for 10 min at 100 °C. These extracts provided the highest concentrations of cyanidin 3-sambubioside and delphinidin 3-sambubioside. Commercially available herbal teas containing H. sabdariffa were analysed. The study found that contents of total phenols, anthocyanins and antioxidant capacity were higher when using the optimal extraction procedure, suggesting that putative health benefits could be increased by altering processing methods. The partition coefficients (log p) of anthocyanins found in H. sabdariffa, were measured showed that aglycone and glucoside forms of hibiscus anthocyanins behave differently when in the presence of cell wall material. Such behaviour could, in vivo, affect the absorption and bioactivity of these anthocyanins, and therefore, their efficacy. A human crossover study investigated the effect of daily consumption for 8 weeks of a H. sabdariffa juice for 8 weeks on the blood pressure of healthy subjects (n= 29). Cranberry juice was used as the control. A significant reduction was found in systolic blood pressure (but not diastolic) compared to the baseline. No significant effect on blood pressure was seen with cranberry juice. The study suggests that regular consumption of extracts of H. sabdariffa may reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease, on the other hand people with low blood pressure should consumed it very carefully due to hypotensive effect of the extract.

Background: Chronic diseases such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and cancer are a large burden on society, for which diet is the leading modifiable risk factor. ‘Diet’ can encompass a variety of aspects of food consumption. Dietary patterns arguably best reflect food as consumed. The determinants of diet are varied and include cost and availability of foods. The aim of this research is to investigate if dietary patterns and diet cost vary spatially and whether this influences health outcomes, specifically obesity and breast cancer. Methods: Using data from the UKWomen’s Cohort Study, data driven dietary patterns were previously determined. Cost of diet was assigned using a food cost database. Spatial measures for Government Office Region, North South, Urban/ Rural and the Output Area Classification were assigned matched to postcode of the women. Weight status is calculated from self reported height and weight. Time to event analysis investigated association between dietary pattern, diet cost and breast cancer incidence at each spatial scale. Results: There is some spatial variation in dietary patterns both between and within regions. A healthy in more expensive per day than a less healthy one: £6.63 compared to £3.29. The overweight/ obese pay more for their food. Urban and Northern areas have significantly higher BMI than Rural and Southern areas respectively. Those in areas Constrained by Circumstance have highest prevalence of overweight and obesity. There is some spatial variation in breast cancer incidence and variation by dietary pattern. In postmenopausal women, positive association exists between weight status and risk of breast cancer incidence. Methods used for estimating small area dietary patterns and health outcomes may be applicable for use in other developed populations. Conclusion: Understanding determinants of dietary patterns remains important for public health and making healthy diets accessible to all is important. However, while expensive dietary patterns reflect a healthier diet, they do not appear to be the mechanism for which obesity prevalence and breast cancer incidence occur. Geodemographic classifications, combined with other spatial measures could aid more effective targeting of public health nutrition policy.

Dietary flavonoids have been extensively researched in relation to health benefits in humans. The regular consumption of green tea catechins (GTC) has been associated with a reduction in the risk of developing diabetes, cardiovascular disease and cancer. Flavonoids are known to protect plants from the damage caused by exposure to UV radiation, and this effect has also been observed when flavonoids are applied topically to human skin cells. The effect of oral consumption of flavonoids on skin protection from UV exposure is not clear. The work presented within this thesis aimed to investigate the effect of GTC on the response of skin cells to UV induced-stress. Keratinocyte cells from an immortalised human skin cell line (HaCaT) were assessed after exposure to various stress conditions in vitro (FBS starvation, hydrogen peroxide and UV), in combination with a pre-treatment of green tea extract or a purified mixture of GTC. GTC reduced cell death induced by stress (decrease in LDH release), and maintained viability (increase in MTT uptake) in HaCaT cells, relative to control treatments. The uptake of vitamin C, a photo-protective agent depleted after UV exposure, was enhanced by treatment with GTC during stress conditions, as monitored by uptake of 14C-dehydroascorbic acid and evaluation of vitamin C transporters with qRT-PCR. In relation to in vivo conditions, GTC may provide protection and also enhance vitamin C uptake into skin cells undergoing stress. Bioavailability of GTC and metabolites in human skin cells after daily consumption of green tea and vitamin C supplements for 3 months was also investigated. Catechin metabolites in a range of tissues (plasma, interstitial blister fluid, skin biopsies and urine) were identified with LC-MS-MS in unconjugated and conjugated (sulphate, methyl and glucuronide) forms. For the first time, conjugated catechin metabolites were identified in skin tissue samples and extracellular fluid surrounding skin cells; including M6/M6'-O-sulphate, O-methyl-EC-O-sulphate,EC-O-sulphate and EGC-O-glucuronide, with metabolites identified in urine and plasma post-consumption similar to data reported in the literature. The work presented in this thesis provides new knowledge on bioavailability of GTC and metabolites in human skin, which together with vitamin C, may exert UV protection and other health benefits. Further research is required in vitro using pure conjugated standards (methyl, glucuronide and sulphate moieties), and data corresponding to the inflammatory biomarkers post-UV exposure (analysis at the University of Manchester and University of Bradford) is also required before a conclusive relationship can be drawn between oral consumption of flavonoids and UV protection.

Consumption of foods rich in resistant starch and slowly digestible starches has been associated with lower postprandial glycaemic responses. The need to identify and quantify resistant starch in potential resistant starch sources and optimise processing conditions to maximise their benefit is vital in the quest for more healthy diets required for the control and management of diabetes and related conditions. Significant quantities of three types of resistant starch were identified in plantains: these are physically entrapped starch (RS1), native resistant starch (RS2) and retrograded starch (RS3). However, the relative quantities of each type vary with the conditions/state of processing/storage conditions applied to the food before consumption. The high correlation (r2 = 0.8) obtained between increased total resistant starch content of plantain products and reduced glycaemic index suggests that factors which promote the formation of enzyme resistant starch in plantain can also influence the glycaemic response to the available carbohydrates. Apart from native resistant starch which has been commonly reported for the Musa ssp, our data suggest that some alcohol extractable components of plantain may act as enzyme inhibitors. The presence of these components resulted in an increase in the value of RS2 in flours when compared to the starch isolates. It may be necessary therefore to distinguish between resistant starch type 2 (RS2), which is due to the inherent nature of starch and resistant starch produced from the interference from other food components such as enzyme inhibitors. This type of resistant starch may not be present in all foods and its properties need to be further investigated.

This thesis addresses the challenge of computing food preparation context in the kitchen. The automatic recognition of fine-grained human activities and food ingredients is realized through pervasive sensing which we achieve by instrumenting kitchen objects such as knives, spoons, and chopping boards with sensors. Context recognition in the kitchen lies at the heart of a broad range of real-world applications. In particular, activity and food ingredient recognition in the kitchen is an essential component for situated services such as automatic prompting services for cognitively impaired kitchen users and digital situated support for healthier eating interventions. Previous works, however, have addressed the activity recognition problem by exploring high-level-human activities using wearable sensing (i.e. worn sensors on human body) or using technologies that raise privacy concerns (i.e. computer vision). Although such approaches have yielded significant results for a number of activity recognition problems, they are not applicable to our domain of investigation, for which we argue that the technology itself must be genuinely “invisible”, thereby allowing users to perform their activities in a completely natural manner. In this thesis we describe the development of pervasive sensing technologies and algorithms for finegrained human activity and food ingredient recognition in the kitchen. After reviewing previous work on food and activity recognition we present three systems that constitute increasingly sophisticated approaches to the challenge of kitchen context recognition. Two of these systems, Slice&Dice and Classbased Threshold Dynamic Time Warping (CBT-DTW), recognize fine-grained food preparation activities. Slice&Dice is a proof-of-concept application, whereas CBT-DTW is a real-time application that also addresses the problem of recognising unknown activities. The final system, KitchenSense is a real-time context recognition framework that deals with the recognition of a more complex set of activities, and includes the recognition of food ingredients and events in the kitchen. For each system, we describe the prototyping of pervasive sensing technologies, algorithms, as well as real-world experiments and empirical evaluations that validate the proposed solutions.

Additive Manufacturing (AM) refers to the use of a group of technologies capable of combining material layer-by-layer to manufacture geometrically complex products in a single digitally controlled process step, entirely without moulds, dies or other tooling. AM is a parallel manufacturing approach, allowing the contemporaneous production of multiple, potentially unrelated, components or products. This thesis contributes to the understanding of the economic aspects of additive technology usage through an analysis of the effect of AM s parallel nature on economic and environmental performance measurement. Further, this work assesses AM s ability to efficiently create complex components or products. To do so, this thesis applies a methodology for the quantitative analysis of the shape complexity of AM output. Moreover, this thesis develops and applies a methodology for the combined estimation of build time, process energy flows and financial costs. A key challenge met by this estimation technique is that results are derived on the basis of technically efficient AM operation. Results indicate that, at least for the technology variant Electron Beam Melting, shape complexity may be realised at zero marginal energy consumption and cost. Further, the combined estimator of build time, energy consumption and cost suggests t AM process efficiency is independent of production volume. Rather, this thesis argues that the key to efficient AM operation lies in the user s ability to exhaust the available build space.

Under the new Regulation (1924IEC2006), consumer understanding is now one the criteria for the approval Of NH claims. This thesis focuses on consumer interpretation of NH claims as a key factor influencing expectations of product healthfulness and potential health benefits. Based on spreading activation theory and the Elaboration Likelihood Model, the thesis investigates the impact of package characteristics and personal determinants on consumer perceptions of product attributes and potential health benefits. Using a combined approach of qualitative and quantitative research methods, the research found that people's expectations of a product's healthfulness are primarily influenced by personal characteristics, and to a lesser extent, by NH claims and other front package characteristics. With regards to front package characteristics, results suggest that colour-coding nutritional information may create a negativity bias while endorsement/logo schemes may create a positivity bias in some cases. However, data show that variations in the wording of a claim only have a small impact on consumer evaluations. With regards to personal determinants, result show that people's motivation (expressed in terms of personal relevance) and their perceived understanding of the information on food products play an important part in the way consumers evaluate a product's healthfulness. Level of liking of the pictures on the package and perceived expertise of the organisation supporting NH claims were also found to have a significant influence on consumer evaluations. Furthermore, the belief that a product's health benefits increase with increasing consumption (dose insensitivity) appears to be relatively common amongst consumers. Implications for these findings are dis cussed in context, along with considerations for future research.

Video Image Analysis (VIA) is a digital camera based technology that extracts relevant information from images using purpose tailored image processing software. In the present work, the VSS2000 image analysis system from E+V Technology GmbH has been used in a large lamb abattoir to determine the value of carcasses in an objective, consistent and automated way. In this thesis results are reported of several experiments conducted within the framework of two UK-funded projects. The aims of the research were (i) the calibration and validation of the VIAtechnique for the evaluation of lamb carcasses under UK abattoir conditions, with the view to scientifically examine the accuracy and precision of information from the VIA systems as the basis for a value-based marketing system, (ii) to investigate the use of VIA measurements (weights of primal meat yields and carcass dimensional measurements) in sheep breeding programmes to improve carcass and meat quality and (iii) to evaluate the potential of this technology to reward increased carcass quality associated with the use of breeding strategies based on the inclusion of a quantitative trait locus (QTL) for improved muscularity. Accuracy, precision and consistency of The Meat and Livestock Commission (MLC) carcass classification scheme, currently used in UK abattoirs to evaluate carcass quality, was compared against the VIA system in the prediction of various primal joint weights. The results highlighted the advantage of the VIA system being on average 2% more accurate (measured as coefficient of determination: R2) and 12% more precise (measured as root meat squared error: RMSE) in predicting weight of primal meat yields (leg, chump, loin, breast and shoulder) of the lamb carcasses than the MLC carcass classification scheme. The genetic analysis of VIA-based predicted primal joint weights showed substantial additive genetic variance, suggesting that their use in sheep breeding programmes could improve carcass quality either by an improvement of conformation or by an increased weight of the most valuable primal cuts, without an increase in fatness. Favourable associations between VIA primal weights and performance traits indicate that selection based on VIA traits is possible without a negative effect on average daily gain, live weight and cold carcass weight. Although computer tomography (CT) and dissection found in related studies significant effects of a Texel muscling-QTL (TM-QTL) for increased muscularity in the loin region, in the present study they could not be identified by both, the current industry carcass evaluation system for conformation and fatness and the VIA system. A calibration of the VIA system against CT measurements resulted in improved VIA prediction equations for primal meat yields and also showed a moderate potential to estimate loin muscle traits measured by CT and to detect partially the effect of the TM-QTL on these traits. The results of the research demonstrated that VIA is a consistent method to measure carcass composition and that it improved the prediction (accuracy and precision) of primal meat yields compared to the present MLC scoring system. The estimated genetic parameters for VIA primal meat yields suggested that selection for increased lean meat yield from lamb carcass measured using VIA can contribute to genetic improvement of carcass quality without increasing carcass fatness. The results suggest that VIA technology installed in abattoirs could provide the means for the development of a value-based marketing system by paying for weights of the most valuable primal cuts measured using VIA.

Mounting concerns require a solution to a worsening problem of chewing gum litter. Existing methods of removal are costly and ineffective. One solution requires the modification of chewing gum by the incorporation of amphiphilic graft copolymers. The synthesis of amphiphilic graft copolymers, their incorporation into chewing gum compositions, analysis of such compositions and results from trials testing ch€wing gum removability are described. Modified samples, incorporating an amphiphilic graft copolymer (REV -7) were found to be much easier to remove than -control samples.

The main objective of this study was to develop the understanding of the optimum mixing conditions in chocolate. An important aspect of chocolate production is the assessment of the agglomerates in the mixture, formed by the ingredients of chocolate during the grinding stage and broken down to an extent, during conching. In order to assess agglomerate breakdown during mixing, a simplified chocolate was subjected to a variety of procedures. Mixing experiments took place in an apparatus known as the Reciprocating Multihole Extruder (RME). The RME consists of a cylindrical chamber, within which a die plate can oscillate and rotate through the material. Industrial chocolate was subjected to extrusion at different temperatures, in order to establish the effect of the mixing process and the range of temperatures within which the extruder could operate. The behaviour of the material at the lower temperature spectrum was found to relate to the process known as cold extrusion. Laboratory made model chocolate was subjected to reciprocating and capillary extrusion at different temperatures and analysed Theologically. The purpose was to assess the effect of extrusion on the rheological profile of the chocolate. It was established that the average viscosity was lower in chocolate that had been extruded at 25 °C, indicating that agglomerate breakdown took place more effectively where the material was extruded at a solid state. The results were compared to those of model chocolate subjected to mixing in an apparatus known as the Speed Mixer. The Speed Mixer was found to be a more effective method for agglomerate breakdown than extrusion. The size of the particles and agglomerates in chocolate during the various phases of conching was assessed with the help of particle size analysis. It was established that the early stages of the process are the most effective, as far as the breakdown of the agglomerates to their component particles is concerned. The experiments highlighted the difficulty in obtaining valid conclusions about agglomerate breakdown in a complex material such as chocolate. Agglomerate behaviour was usually extrapolated from related results, such as viscosity. In an attempt to draw more definite conclusions, a study of agglomerate behaviour under well defined stress conditions was evaluated, using characterised agglomerates in simple fluids. The system used sugar- based agglomerates in a sugar matrix, suspended in cocoa butter. The project had two main objectives. One was to assess the shape, size and strength of the agglomerates. The other was to study their level of breakdown when subjected to a mixing process similar to chocolate. The strength of the agglomerates was measured in two ways: Diametrical compaction and die pressing. The results of the two methods were not analogous, a possibility that has been established by past studies. The agglomerate and cocoa butter suspension was mixed in the RME, as well as with conventional extrusion of individual agglomerates and speed mixing and the extent of breakdown was investigated. The agglomerates were subjected to image analysis and four parameters of size (area, aspect ratio, roundness and equivalent diameter) were measured and analysed statistically before and after mixing. Area was found to be positively correlated to equivalent diameter, while roundness was positively correlated to aspect ratio. Despite its important role in chocolate mixing, temperature did not have a significant effect on agglomerate breakdown.

Important goals in food science are to define and monitor food character in products. Convenient and objective instrumental analyses provide data but only sensory studies define perceptions of product quality, determining acceptance and consumption. Therefore, both strategies are important for predicting sensory information from instrumental data, optimizing product quality analyses. The aim was to explore behaviour and character on consumption in a range of drink and food products.

This thesis addressed the issue of breakfast, snacking and their effects on mental health and well-being, accidents at injuries at work, memory, attention and performance on the hazard perception test. The first point of interest was to examine and extend current knowledge about breakfast consumption and its associations with mental health and well-being. Alongside this it was of interest whether these associations were also found following consumption of a snack. This thesis considered both the type of snack consumed and frequency of consumption. Overall frequency of breakfast consumption was found to show strong and positive associations with all of the health, well-being and occupational outcomes, supporting the view that breakfast is a positive health behaviour which should be encouraged. The pattern was more complex with regard to snack consumption. Consumption of unhealthy snacks, such as chocolate and crisps, was strongly and negatively associated with all of the health, well-being, occupational and cognitive outcomes. Further examination revealed that breakfast and unhealthy snacking are not different sides of the same coin but are two independent behaviours. Increasing breakfast consumption and decreasing unhealthy snack consumption should be the focus of dietary interventions. Conversely healthy snack consumption, such as fruit and nuts, showed a similar pattern of results as breakfast, albeit weaker. In effect they are both measuring the same underlying healthiness factor. All of these results remained after controlling for other lifestyle factors and were replicated in a number of samples including students, members of the general public, nurses and primary school children.

This feminist study adopts fractured foundationalism to explore the micro-politics of gendered relationships examining the day-to-day lives of ordinary men and women undertaking grocery shopping. The literature review focuses on the key theories underpinning leisure and shopping, their similarities and interrelationships. Beginning with the leisure literature and its attempts to define the leisure experiences of individuals and the role of leisure in society, it proceeds to discuss the work of key 'malestream' writers who challenge conservative notions of leisure. The importance of the contribution of feminism as an alternative critique of leisure is acknowledged. After exploring supermarket imagery and outlining contemporary trends in UK grocery retailing, the study considers the domestic realm and tensions between the rationality and hedonism of shopping emphasising the gendered frameworks which structure grocery shopping activities. The methodology moves from a functional approach through content analysis and focus groups to the use of diaries, calendars and interviews located within a feminist framework. Content analysis of advertisements of UK grocery retailers and consumer interpretations of promotional messages provide insight into retailers' images of customers and consumer reactions to these. Discussions of grocery shopping through focus groups demonstrated a leisure dimension to grocery shopping. The diaries, calendars and interviews illuminate attitudes and behaviour to grocery shopping, describing who does the shopping, visit frequency, preferred shopping days and the influence of store location. Participants perceive grocery shopping as both work and leisure but located grocery shopping within the wider discourse of leisure. It emerges that the cultural frameworks, which give context to grocery shopping, are significantly shaped in childhood experiences, which reinforce gender issues. The women in this study defined themselves through idealised role images - a perception not echoed by the male participants. The thesis supports the inclusion of grocery shopping in the discourse on gender, power and leisure, illustrating the contribution of feminist methodology to understanding cultural meanings of grocery shopping in the fabric of the everyday lives of ordinary men and women.

Seasonal changes in the Persian orange (Citrus sinensis var. Sia-Varaz) and the effect of canning and storage on the juice were studied. The major factors under consideration were the physical characteristics: weight, size, volume of juice, colour of peel; and chemical characteristics: free sugars, vitamin C, free amino acids and lipid content. In order to determine the optimum state of maturity of the orange, samples were harvested at regular monthly intervals and analysed. 1. Throughout fruit development there was a continuous increase of juice, fruit size, and total soluble solids while total acidity decreased. These parameters were sufficiently different to enable the separation of the development cycle into three distinct phases: Cell division, Cell enlargement and Maturation of the fruit. Colour break from yellow to orange occurred between December and January but the oranges were assessed to be mature for harvesting by February and March. 2. Five sugars were identified: xylose, galactose, fructose, glucose and sucrose. Xylose soon disappeared while galactose was only found in minor quantities. Sucrose and reducing sugar content increased with fruit development. In the mature orange the ratio of suerose : glueose : fructose was very close to 2:1:1.3. While vitamin C content per 100 g pulp showed no significant change over the period of study the amount per orange pulp increased approximately four-fold. 4. Seventeen amino acids were identified. Increase in proline and arginine during December and January may be used as an indication of the onset of maturation. 5. Changes in lipid constituents were noted but, in general, no definite pattern could be established. The processing procedure involved heating the juice at 98°C for 30 seconds and then sealing in lacquered A1 cans. Analyses were carried out at two-monthly intervals. 6. Although total free sugars, vitamin C and colour of the juice were not affected by processing, significant increases in total free amino acids and lipids were noted.7. Storage of canned juice at 7°C for twelve months showed no significant effect on total free sugars, vitamin C, free amino acids and flavour. However, total lipid was significantly decreased after eight months. Storage of canned juice at 30°C brought about significant losses of total free sugars after twelve months, of vitamin C after two weeks, and of free amino acids after two months, and of total lipids after two months. The flavour of the juice, judged by a taste panel, had deteriorated significantly after one month's storage.

The fir s t part of the research dealt with the contamination of fr e s h ly prepared brines out of protected and open containers and brines used forcuring of imported and home-produced pork. according to the results obtained, only freshly prepared brine out of a protected container has been found to be sterile, the remaining were contaminated. The degree of contamination depends upon cleanliness during the whole pickling process and degree of infection of the meat submerged for preservation. bacon brine is not a disinfectant it acts only by offering unfavourable conditions to bacterial growth. The second part dealt with the action of bacon brine, bacon urine plus 0.5 per cent, of borax, and bacon brine in which saltpetre has been replaced by 0.6 per cent, of sodium n itrite, on Staphylococcus aureus, B. typhimurium, B. enteriditis Gaertner, Salmonella Reading, Proteus vulgaris, and Chromobacterium prodmiosum Experiments were made both with infected brine solutions and inoculated pieces of meat. methods and curing times were chosen according to the rules obeyed in the meat production trade. Bacon brine mixture in doses not dangerous to human health, stops the growth of meat poisoning bacteria too late to be considered of value for rendering infected meat fit for human consumption. Sodium nitrite mixed with common salt in a proportion not exceeding 0.6 per cent, can be recommended for shortening the curing process of sound meat.