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Neuropsychological assessments rely on standardization, reliability, validity, and normative data to increase the accuracy of clinicians’ interpretations (Lezak et al., 2012). One particular assessment that focuses on examining comprehensive executive functioning is the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS; Delis et al., 2001). Videoconference is gaining in use to provide services within multiple healthcare domains to increase access to care and convenience, potentially reduce costs, and sustain patient satisfaction (Brearly et al., 2017). The literature has shown support for the growing field of telehealth neuropsychology (Brearly et al., 2017); however, many neuropsychological assessments, such as the D-KEFS, have not been normed for telehealth administration. This study examined D-KEFS verbal tests administered via videoconference and in person to determine whether there are significant differences when administered via videoconference. Using random assignment, 37 participants from a private university in Oregon were administered the D-KEFS in person or via videoconference. Years in college was found to be a significant covariate factor for Letter Fluency, Category Fluency, Category Switching, Word Context, and Proverbs Test. Results did not reject the null hypothesis as we did not find significant differences between the control and experiment groups’ scores on each of the subtests after controlling for age. Treatment effects were < ηp2 = 0.10. While this was a small study with limitations, it provides preliminary evidence that videoconference administration of the verbal subtests of the D-KEFS may result in comparable scores. Further exploration of the D-KEFS verbal subtests in the future is recommended to ensure the appropriateness of using current normative data to compare results.

Extant research shows that engagement in physical activity is associated with the preservation of executive functions with advanced age. However, there is considerable variability in the size of this effect. To date there are limited studies that examine possible subgroups of interest and modifiable mechanisms that may explain this variability. Disparate bodies of literature connect physical activity with executive functions through physical fitness, cardiovascular risk, and sleep quality. The purpose of the study presented here was to examine the relative, interactive, and indirect effects of these variables in a single study across the human adult lifespan. The sample included 616 individuals aged 36 – 100 years from the Lifespan Human Connectome Project – Aging study. Self-reported physical activity levels, composite assessments of physical fitness, cardiovascular risk, and subjective sleep quality, and executive function performance from the NIH Toolbox were collected cross-sectionally. Multiple linear regression and analyses of relative importance were run to examine the direct effects of the variables of interest on executive function performance. Moderation and mediation regression models were conducted using the PROCESS macro to examine the interactive and indirect effects of the variables on executive function performance. Results showed a significant direct effect of physical fitness on executive function performance. The was not a significant association between self-reported physical activity and executive functions, regardless of age, physical fitness level, cardiometabolic risk, and sleep quality. However, there was a significant indirect effect of physical activity on executive function performance through higher physical fitness. These results demonstrate the importance of maintenance of physical fitness through physical activity engagement to preserve cognitive ability across the human adult lifespan.

Malingering is problematic because it chips at the foundation of the clinician-patient dyad. In order for the clinician to do their job, they must assume that the patient is in genuine need of treatment and is giving genuine response and effort during assessment. Malingering is also expensive to society, as individuals gain significant monetary resources when they malinger disorders (in the context of lawsuits and disability claims, for example). Thus, it is important to develop tools to detect malingering. The current study explored whether the Delis-Kaplin Executive Functioning System (D-KEFS) Stroop test and Barkley Deficits in Executive Function System (BDEFS) measure are vulnerable to malingering and whether cutoffs on each could be identified to detect malingering. Using a simulator design, 74 students were randomly assigned to either malinger (simulator condition) Traumatic Brain Injury or perform normally (control condition). As hypothesized, malingerers scored worse than controls on both measures. The Inhibition subtest (both raw and scaled scores) of the D-KEFS Stroop discriminated simulators from controls and a cutoff for the raw score was identified that detected 48% of simulators, with 90% specificity. The BDEFS total score also discriminated malingerers from controls, and a cutoff was identified that detected 56% of simulators, with 90% specificity. Supplemental chi square analysis showed poor congruence between the two measures, p=.262. The present study provides support for the potential utility of the D-KEFS Inhibition raw scores and BDEFS total scores as indicators of malingered executive functioning in TBI. Overall, results support the need to include both Performance Validity Tests and Symptom Validity Tests in assessment. n

Obesity is a chronic health condition that is a significant health concern, particularly across adolescence. Dietary self-monitoring is a key component in behavioral weight control treatment that predicts successful weight change in adolescents and adults with overweight and obesity (OW/OB). Adherence to self-monitoring is often poor, with limited research examining potential factors related to poor adherence. Neurocognitive functions, such as executive functioning (EF) and episodic memory, are two potential factors that may contribute to poor dietary self-monitoring adherence. Understanding neurocognitive correlates of dietary self-monitoring adherence is important across the adolescent developmental period given maturation of brain functioning until around age 24 and the fact that high adiposity increases risk for suppressed neurocognitive functioning. The goal of the present study was to examine associations between EF, episodic memory, dietary self-monitoring adherence to completion, and dietary self-monitoring comprehensiveness. Results found that poorer performance on verbal (Hazard Ratio=.85, p

It has been well established that individuals with schizophrenia have significant impairments in various cognitive processes, including the domain of executive function. There has been a recent push to understand the role genetic etiology may play in such deficits, especially through research on single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs). Polymorphisms of the Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor (EGFR) have been studied in a variety of neuropsychiatric disorders with associated cognitive sequelae, including schizophrenia, though the role of such SNPs in specific cognitive domains remains unclear. The current study examined executive functioning in individuals with schizophrenia, their siblings, and healthy controls as well as the impact of possessing an EGFR SNP, rs845551, on their performance. Data from 72 individuals with schizophrenia, 12 of their siblings, and 69 age-matched controls (from the Northwestern University Schizophrenia Data and Software Tool [NUSDAST] database) were analyzed. Consistent with previous research, individuals with schizophrenia performed significantly worse than their siblings as well as healthy controls on measures of executive function, Trail Making Test-Part B (TMT-B; time to completion) and the Wisconsin Cart Sorting Test (WCST; perseverative errors). Notably, among those with schizophrenia, individuals with polymorphism rs845551 performed significantly worse on both TMT-B and the WCST than those who do not have polymorphism rs845551. A 2 (group membership) x 2 (presence of polymorphism) ANOVA demonstrated significant main effects for group membership and presence of polymorphism, with individuals with schizophrenia as well as individuals with rs845551 performing significantly worse on TMT-B and the WCST. There was no significant interaction for these factors. The implications of the current findings, as well as suggestions for future directions, are discussed.

This study examined the relationship between executive function and externalizing behaviors within a student population that was assessed for special education services. Executive function was measured by using the Comprehensive Executive Function Inventory (CEFI). Externalizing behaviors and school problems was measured using the Behavior Assessment System for Children, Third Edition (BASC-3). Four separate structural equation models were produced and analyzed to examine this relationship. The results from this study indicate that there is a significant direct effect from executive function on externalizing behaviors and school problems, such that higher scores in executive function yielded lower externalizing behavior and school problems scores. Differences in average full scale CEFI scores were noted between types of special education placements and between various groupings of students in regards to what category they qualified in. The data indicates programs that facilitated more environmental supports and services had students with lower full scale CEFI scores, while students that qualified under Other Health Impairment and Emotional Disturbance shared comorbid features with other distinct processing deficits.

Previous studies of bilingual adults have suggested that bilinguals’ experience with code-switching contributes to superior executive function (EF) abilities, although this claim is debated to this date. This thesis tested the hypothesis that the relationship between CS and EF may be a non-necessary one, especially in a homogeneous and highly bilingual population in Singapore where CS occurs pervasively. Accordingly, CS and EF measures were obtained from 43 English-Chinese 8-year-old children (27 females, M = 8.33 years). Spontaneous CS was measured with a novel task, and EF was measured in terms of verbal and non-verbal task-switching (e.g., Semantic Fluency, Hearts and Flowers) and verbal inhibitory control (e.g., Stroop task). Contrary to previous work with adults, children’s CS performance did not significantly predict general EF performance. On the other hand, some aspects of bilingual language proficiency did predict EF performance. Chinese school exam scores predicted Semantic Fluency switch cost (higher Chinese scores, higher switch cost), while English school exam scores predicted English Stroop Interference (higher English scores, lower Stroop Interference). In addition, correlational analyses also showed that broad bilingual language proficiency (measured in terms of school exam Oral and Written components) did correlate with EF performance. For Semantic Fluency, higher Oral Chinese scores were correlated with more items produced on the Pure Chinese block as well as lower switch cost. Higher Written and Oral English scores also correlated with more items produced on the Mixed Language blocks as well as lower switch cost. For Stroop, higher Written English and English EI scores correlated with lower English Stroop Interference. Thus, we conclude that the relationship between CS and EF may be non-necessary in this particular population. These results suggest that in a proficient bilingual population that frequently engages in CS, the relationship between CS and EF may be an indirect one, even in a developmental population where EF and bilingual language proficiency are still developing.

Indoor and recreational rock climbing has become an increasingly popular sport among children and adults. Additionally, recent research has demonstrated that active therapy, such as swimming and hippotherapy, is beneficial for children with autism. PURPOSE: To determine the effects of six weeks of rock-climbing on functional strength, spatial reasoning, and executive function for children with autism. METHODS: Seven subjects (8-14 years old, all male) completed six weeks of rock climbing at a pre-established gym. Examinations of Cognitive Trail Making Tests (CTMT) and hand grip strength were completed for all participants prior to the start of classes and after six weeks of training. For hand grip strength, three trials were completed on each hand using a standard hand grip dynamometer. The two highest results were taken and added to represent total grip strength. The CTMT was performed via directions given through the standard protocol. RESULTS: The data did not reveal any significant differences; however, there were positive trends among all variables. CONCLUSION: The research was limited by the number of subjects and variability between subjects. Even so, the positive trends suggest that more research may show significant benefits from rock-climbing. Past research evaluating adventure education, psychological benefits of rock climbing, and neurological and physiological adaptations to exercise still support the possibility of rock climbing as a viable therapy option. With continued research in rock climbing, we hope to be able to implement a different, potentially more beneficial, therapeutic modality that addresses cognitive and physical impairments commonly observed in children with autism.

We tested the hypothesis that young adult bilinguals show a significant advantage relative to young adult monolinguals in two visuospatial executive function (EF) tasks, the Simon task and the Corsi task. The focus was on bilinguals who reported being exposed to all of their languages on a regular basis (i.e., used no language more than 60% of the time). Regular language use has been identified in past theoretical positions as an important mechanism contributing to a bilingual advantage. In many previous studies of bilingualism and EF, which have produced conflicting results, researchers have included verbal components, as opposed to visuospatial tasks of working memory. Consequently, inconsistent results across previous studies could be due, at least in part, to differences in verbal abilities between monolinguals and bilinguals. Tests that use verbal components to examine EF may be probing verbal abilities, rather than EF. Visuospatial tasks, including the Simon (Bialystok, 1999) and Corsi (Berch et al., 1998) tasks, provided an opportunity to measure EF performance without the possible confounding factor of verbal ability. The data indicate patterns of a bilingual advantage in conditions that place heavier demands on EF, although not statistically significant. Results based on comparisons of bilinguals and monolinguals are tentative until a larger sample size of bilinguals is obtained

The nature of the emotion-cognition interaction has recently been conceptualized as a dynamic interdependence with neuroanatomical and functional overlap. To date, however, the research on the impact of emotions on executive functioning has yielded mixed results and the exact relationship is not well understood. The present study sought to extend the emotioncognition literature by examining the influence of emotion on two specific executive functions through a unique paradigm using political campaign advertisements in the form of video clips as the emotion stimulus. No significant physiological or behavioral differences were found between participants as a direct result of the stimuli. These findings represent an initial attempt to quantify the potential emotional/arousal-related impact of campaign advertisement videos on subsequent executive function.

A number of studies have demonstrated a strong association between self-regulation, in particular executive function (EF), academic skills and problem behaviors in children (Fuhs, Farran, & Nesbitt, 2015). There is evidence suggesting that anxiety and anxiety symptoms, common among children and adolescents, are associated with poor academic achievement and even academic failure (Owens, Stevenson, Hadwin, & Norgate, 2012). Although results derived primarily from adult studies indicate that trait anxiety and self-regulation are related, less attention has been given to examining this relation among children. The goals of this study were to examine the associations among EF, trait anxiety and academic achievement and to test the mediating role of EF on the relation between trait anxiety and academic achievement in middle school children. A sample of 174 sixth-, seventh-, and eighth-grade students (M age = 12.78, SD = 1.18) were recruited from local middle schools and summer programs in Tallahassee, Florida and Miami-Dade County, Florida. Students completed an assessment battery consisting of multiple measures of working memory, inhibitory control, shifting, trait anxiety, and reading and math skills. Confirmatory factor analyses and structural equation models were used to determine the best fitting model of EF and to examine the associations between the EF and trait anxiety. Meditational analyses were conducted to examine the indirect effects of EF on the relation between trait anxiety and each academic outcome. The EF factors significantly predicted Trait Anxiety as hypothesized but there was no difference in the strength of the associations. EF mediated the relation between Trait Anxiety and academic outcomes, but the strength of the relation did not vary by EF dimension. The findings suggest that trait anxiety enhances processing efficiency, which may lead to improvements in academic performance in middle school students.

Impairments in cognitive function are common among older adults with heart failure (HF) and associated with reduced quality of life and increased mortality risk. Executive function has been identified as a significant contributor to instrumental activities of daily living (ADL) performance among various medical populations, though this has yet to be fully examined in a HF population. The current study examined whether executive function mediates the relationship between HF severity and performance of instrumental ADLs. The current sample consisted of 120 persons with HF (67.71 ± 9.17 years of age, 33.3% female). Participants completed a brief neuropsychological battery, a series of psychosocial self-report measures, and impedance cardiography was conducted to quantify cardiac index. Executive dysfunction and reduced instrumental ADL performance was common in the current sample. Bivariate correlations revealed that cardiac index was not significantly associated with executive function or total instrumental ADLs (p > .05 for both) and thus mediation analyses were not conducted. Post-hoc analyses revealed a trend between executive function and total instrumental ADLs (¿F(1,118) = 3.02, ¿R2 = .02, p = .085), with better executive function associated with increased ability to perform instrumental ADLs. Partial correlation analyses also revealed reduced executive function was associated with decreased physical quality of life, mental quality of life, and basic ADL performance (p < .05 for all). In sum, the current findings do not support executive function as a mediator between the relationship of cardiac index and instrumental ADLs. However, our findings suggest a possible role for executive function in the performance of instrumental ADLS and prospective studies should further explore this link.

The current project consisted of two investigations to determine if self-control predicts post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms and to what extent this relationship changes over the course of treatment for PTSD. Study 1 explored the predictive value of self-control for PTSD symptoms in a sample of 65 inner-city women. The study also explored the reverse relationship to determine if PTSD symptoms predicted future levels of self-control. Results revealed that baseline levels of self-control predicted subsequent PTSD symptoms, as individuals with greater self-control may better manage their PTSD symptoms. However, PTSD symptoms at baseline did not predict subsequent levels of self-control. Study 2 elaborated on this notion by examining whether executive function, which includes abilities important for self-control, changes over the course of PTSD treatment in women. Results showed that PTSD symptoms and performance on a measure of executive function improved after receiving trauma-focused treatment. Although self-control did not change following treatment, it was related to a measure of executive function. These two studies contribute to the literature as little is known about the association among self-control, executive function, and PTSD.

This study investigated the relationships among Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) symptoms and common comorbid struggles for clients, including Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD) symptoms, and executive functions, especially emotion regulation. ADHD and GAD are prevalent mental health conditions, are commonly comorbid with each other, and are both correlated with relative deficits in executive functions. Executive functions comprise higher-order cognitive processes like planning, inhibition, initiation, and monitoring, as well as emotion regulation. Prior research established connections among ADHD symptoms, GAD symptoms, and emotion regulation but did not examine which specific facets of emotion regulation were most relevant. The current study aimed to replicate previous research by examining the relationships among ADHD, GAD, and emotion regulation and extend it by exploring the specific facets of emotion regulation implicated, particularly for ADHD. Two hundred twenty-two adults (M age = 25.17, SD = 8.81) from a university student population and online forums completed an online survey of current ADHD and GAD symptoms, executive functions, and emotion regulation. Results showed that ADHD and GAD symptoms correlated positively with each other and with deficits in executive functions and emotion regulation. ADHD symptoms correlated positively with all facets of emotion regulation difficulties, but there were significant differences across the facets in the magnitudes of those correlations. The implications of this research may be informative for researchers, psychologists, and other mental health professionals focused on ADHD and GAD by enhancing the relevance of therapeutic strategies for clients with these diagnoses. By shedding light on the intricate relationships between ADHD, GAD, executive functions, and emotion regulation, the study findings may provide insights that could guide effective design and implementation of emotion regulation-based interventions for clients with ADHD.

The present study investigated the validity of the Executive Function Index (EFI) (Spinella, 2005) beyond what had been previously established (Janssen, De Mey, & Egger, 2009; Miley & Spinella, 2006; Miley & Spinella, 2007; Spinella, 2005). More specifically, because of discrepancies in the underlying factor structure reported by previous studies (Janssen et aI., 2009; Spinella, 2005), the construct validity of the EFI was examined by factor analysis. In addition, the relationships between the subscales of the EFI and other empirically validated self-report measures of the aforementioned factors were examined. Finally, the participants were 208 Xavier University undergraduates. Significant correlations were found between the EFI total score, the EFI subscale scores, and the respective empirically validated self-report measures' scores. Factor analysis confirmed the original five factor structure. The internal consistency for the overall scale and the subscales of Organization, Impulse Control, Motivation, and Strategic Planning was unacceptable, while the internal consistency of the Empathy subscale was considered fair. The internal consistency and validity of the EFI in the current study, the original validation study (Spinella, 2005) and Dutch validation study (Janssen, De Mey, & Egger, 2009) were compared and examined. Implications and future research on this scale are discussed.

The present study investigated whether cognitive function was associated with adherence to highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 32 asymptomatic and symptomatic HIV-infected men and women. Participants (53% African American) were recruited from Louis Stokes Cleveland Veterans’ Affairs Medical Center (LSCDVAMC) and were interviewed and tested on site. Cognitive domains assessed were attention, executive function and information processing speed. Other variables included adherence, substance use, depression and medical variables. A multiple hierarchical regression analysis revealed a significant model fit for the association between cognitive variables and adherence at one month. High levels of previously undetected cognitive impairment were found. High levels of adherence were also reported. People with HIV/AIDS may benefit from monitoring of adherence at each visit and utilization of appropriate interventions as needed. Further, this population may benefit from regular screening for cognitive impairment and referral for complete neuropsychological evaluation as appropriate. Further studies need to investigate the relationship between cognitive function and medication adherence in people living with HIV.

It has become increasingly clear many patients do not manifest sufficient effort over the course of a neuropsychological evaluation (Horner, VanKirk, Dismuke, Turner, & Muzzy, 2014). While tests of memory and learning are considered to be the gold-standard in effort measurement, they are vulnerable to coaching (Bianchini, Greve, & Love, 2003). Fortunately, interest in assessing effort through other cognitive domains has grown over the last few years. In the current study, participants were divided into two groups, simulators and controls. All participants completed the Medical Symptom Validity Test (MSVT, Green, 2004), the Trail Making Test (TMT), the Verbal Fluency Test (VFT), and Sorting Test (ST) of the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (Delis, Kaplan & Kramer, 2001). It was hypothesized simulators would demonstrate significantly lower performance on all subtests of the D-KEFS and the MSVT. MANOVA revealed statistically significant differences on MSVT and TMT. Scaled scores from the 5 TMT conditions demonstrated the largest between group differences. VFT and ST variables did not demonstrate sensitivity to low effort. A new aggregate index based on participant performance on TMT conditions, demonstrated excellent ROC results with sensitivity of 71% and specificity of 100% based on the cutoff selected. Further research remains necessary EMBEDDED PERFORMANCE iii to use the Trail Making Test Validity Index (TMTVI) to delineate low effort groups from clinical populations and controls. Keywords: performance validity, effort, malingering, Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System, Trail Making Test, Verbal Fluency, Sorting Test, Medical Symptom Validity Test

Down syndrome (DS) is the most common genetic cause of intellectual disability (ID), affecting 1 out of every 691 infants. Although maladaptive behavior has been studied in individuals with DS, there are few adolescent studies, and none that examine factors predictive of maladaptive behaviors in this specific age group. Children with DS are more likely to display behavior problems when compared to typically developing children. Preliminary findings in adolescents suggest a decline in externalizing maladaptive behaviors and an increase in internalizing symptoms during this time period. Understanding more about the development of internalizing symptoms at this stage of development is particularly important as adults with DS are more prone to depression when compared to others with ID and are also at a significantly higher risk for dementia compared with the general population. Further, it has been hypothesized that a continuum exists in the general population between late-life depression, mild cognitive impairment, and dementia, and preliminary work in DS provides evidence for a similar phenomenon. Thus, an examination of factors associated with maladaptive behavior in DS across the lifespan may also have important implications for the larger aging population. Executive functioning (EF) abilities have been shown to be related to the presence of mood symptoms in both typically developing and clinical adolescent populations, and are critical to ability level even in the absence of mood symptoms. The present study explored the relationship between EF and maladaptive behavior in adolescents with DS. We hypothesized that the behavior profile would include internalizing behaviors that would increase with age and externalizing behaviors that would decline with age. We also hypothesized that performance on measures of EF would account for unique variance in maladaptive behaviors, beyond the effects of age, gender, and overall intelligence. Fifty-two adolescents with Trisomy 21 Down syndrome ages 12 to 18 (46% male) completed tasks that measured working memory, inhibition, problem solving, attention, and verbal fluency. Caregivers provided two standardized ratings of maladaptive behaviors. In the full sample, older age was associated with more internalizing behavior with a medium effect size. In females, older age was significantly related to parent report of more internalizing symptoms on both rating scales. Regression analyses indicated that both performance on a working memory task and a measure of internalizing behavior were significant independent predictors of externalizing behavior. Both externalizing behavior and performance on a semantic fluency task were independent predictors of internalizing behavior. Finally, there was a positive relationship between performance on a task measuring inhibition and measures of both internalizing and externalizing behavior. These data extend research findings in individuals with DS by suggesting a relationship between maladaptive behavior and cognition in adolescence. Our results have direct implications for study design, as little information is available about measures that have adequate psychometric properties in this population. These results are also clinically and theoretically important as they provide data regarding specific measures that may be used to document cognitive and behavioral development.

The current study used four measures of executive functioning to assess the effect of EPon these domains and examine associations of outcomes in the EP group with neonatalrisk factors. Another aim was to conduct exploratory analyses using outcome variablesthat were created to isolate components of EF. Findings revealed that the EP groupperformed more poorly than the term group on all outcome measures, and on a few of thetasks after controlling for crystallized intelligence. Some neonatal complicationspredicted poorer EF after accounting for background and environmental characteristics.The findings suggest pervasive cognitive deficits in children with EP at school entry,raise the possibility of select deficits in certain domains of EF, show that EF are related tothe degree of neonatal risk, and demonstrate deficits in children with EP on measure thatassess specific aspects of EF.

Executive Function (EF) is defined as “self-directed actions so as to choose goals and to select, enact, and sustain actions across time towards those goals” (Barkley, 2012; p. 170). These “self-directed actions” can take the form of behavioral, social, or emotional regulation. Since that time, EF has been associated with the frontal lobe function and has been researched as being affected by multiple physical and mental health disorders (Jurado & Roselli, 2007). EF deficits have been linked to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). ADHD is “a persistent pattern of inattention and/or hyperactivity-impulsivity that is frequently displayed and more severe than is typically observed in individuals at a comparable level of development” (APA, 2013, p. 59). Research indicates that 4.4% of the adult population qualify for a diagnosis of ADHD (Barkley, Fischer, Smallish, & Fletcher, 2002; Bush, Valera, & Seidman, 2006; Glutting, Youngstrom, & Walkins, 2005; Kessler et al., 2005; DuPaul, Weyandt, O’Dell, & Varejao, 2009). College students with ADHD face unique challenges compared to their non-ADHD peers with respect to academics (Antshel et al., 2010; Barkley et al., 2006; Dupaul Weyandt, O’Dell, & Varejao, 2009), driving (Barkley, 2011a; Barkley, Anderson, & Kruesi, 2007; Richards et al., 2006), and work performance (Barkley, 2011a; Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Shifrin, Proctor, & Prevatt, 2010; Wilens, Faraone, & Biederman, 2004). Only 20% of young adults with ADHD will enroll in college with about 5% completing college (Antshel et al., 2010; Barkley et al., 2006; Biederman et al., 2006). Adults with ADHD have been shown to have greater likelihood to be at fault for car accidents and receive speeding tickets, (Barkley, 2011a; Barkley, Anderson, & Kruesi, 2007; Richards et al., 2006). Also, adults with ADHD are more likely to have a lower salary are reprimanded more at work (Barkley & Murphy, 2010; Shifrin, Proctor, & Prevatt, 2010; Wilens, Faraone, & Biederman, 2004). Evaluating ADHD in college students is done through multiple methods ranging from cognitive tests of EF to self-report rating scales on ADHD symptomology (Barkley, 2011a). As said previously, cognitive tests of EF were initially used to study individuals with frontal lobe damage (Barkley, 2011a; 2012; Barkley & Murphy, 2011; Jurado & Roselli, 2007). Meanwhile, rating scales of EF for adults evaluate a myriad of cognitive constructs without being based on any theory that allows clinicians to determine which cognitive functions are executive in nature (Burgess et al., 1998; Climie, Cadogan, & Goukon, 2014; Gioia et al., 2000; Naglieri & Goldstein, 2013). The Barkley Deficits in Executive Functioning Scale (BDEFS; Barkley, 2011b) is a recently created self-report rating scale that assesses five behavioral deficit areas related to EF: Self-Management to Time, Self-Organization/Problem Solving, Self-Restraint, Self-Motivation, and Self-Regulation of Emotion (Barkley, 2011a). Barkley (2011a) created the BDEFS to easily evaluate EF deficits in adults with ADHD as well as create a measure that was theoretically based (Barkley, 2012). The purpose of this study was to add further evidence to the incremental validity of the BDEFS on assessing ADHD symptoms and life impairments related to ADHD in college students over commonly used cognitive tests of EF. This study analyzed 83 college students diagnosed with ADHD at a southeastern public university. The mean age of the students was twenty-four years old with a median age of twenty-one years old. 47% of the students were male with 69% of the students identifying as Caucasian, 18% as Hispanic, 4% as African American, 4% Asian, and 4% as “Other.” As well, 11% of students identified as being a freshman, 24% as a sophomore, 19% as a junior, 25% as a senior, 16% as a graduate students, and 5 % did not choose a specific year in college. Through the use of multiple independent t-tests and One-way analysis of variances, no significant effects with respect to age, gender, ethnicity, or year in college were found on each of the dependent variables. With respect to incremental validity, the BDEFS subdomains consistently added significant variance over the variance accounted for by cognitive tests of EF on each dependent variable (i.e., inattention symptoms, hyperactivity symptoms, impulsivity symptoms, work performance, and driving performance). Conversely, cognitive tests of EF were never able to add significant variance over the variance accounted for by the BDEFS subdomains on each dependent variable. It is clear that further support of the validity of the BDEFS is needed. This study demonstrated additional evidence towards the incremental validity of the BDEFS over cognitive tests of EF on ADHD symptoms and impairments. This study also demonstrated evidence towards the ecological validity of the BDEFS.

The purpose of this study is to examine the development of Executive Function (EF). Specifically, this study investigates whether there are consistent increases in EF performance on the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) from the age of 8 years to 15 years. Gender differences in the development of EF are also examined. To this end, the standardization data for eight of the D-KEFS tests were analyzed, comparing performance across age groups (8- year-olds, 9-year-olds, etc.) and gender groups. Significant age effects were found for all tests overall. However, significant change between consecutive age groups was found only for some age groups, on some tests. Gender effects were significant for two D-KEFS tests. However, age and gender interaction effects were not significant for any test. The results suggest that EF is developing, in irregular patterns, between the ages of 8 years and 15 years. There is not evidence for significant gender differences in the developmental course ofEF as measured by the D-KEFS.

The prevalence of overweight and obesity has continued to rise among adults. While biological factors contribute to overweight (Frayling et al., 2007), body weight regulation is influenced by behavior (Fuglestad, Jeffery, & Sherwood, 2012). Behavioral weight loss interventions often demonstrate only modest reductions in weight, possibly because the psychological factors that modulate obesity-related behaviors are rarely targeted in treatment. Thus, psychological flexibility may be of particular importance, given it describes the ability to perform goal-consistent behavior in the presence of contrary urges or environmental demands. To characterize the dynamic factors involved in psychological flexibility (Kashdan & Rottenberg, 2010), the present study examined between-group (overweight/obese: n=33, normal weight: n=47) differences in executive function, cognitive traits of awareness and acceptance, and heart rate variability (HRV). Individuals with overweight/obesity demonstrated poorer attention-shifting (Wisconsin Card Sorting Task, p = .009) and lower attention and awareness (Mindful Attention Awareness Scale, p = .01 and Difficulties in Emotion Regulation subscale emotional clarity, p = .006). Participants with overweight/obesity also demonstrated greater vagally-mediated HRV compared to normal weight with marginal significance (p = .07) and a medium effect size (partial eta squared = .042) across all HRV conditions (rest, stress, and recovery). No other significant differences were found regarding executive function (i.e., inhibition and working memory), cognitive features of acceptance and awareness (i.e. subscales of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation scale), or HRV reactivity and recovery. Findings suggest some factors essential to psychological flexibility may be altered in individuals with overweight/obesity compared to normal-weight.

The Incremental Repeated Acquisition (IRA) procedure requires a participant to learn to produce a new sequence of responses each session. The current work makes two novel contributions to the small body of literature describing the use of an IRA procedure in humans. First two methods of chain development; Forward and backward chaining are compared. Second, this is the first time an attempt has been made to obtain more than a single IRA measurement with children. The study also provides an expansion of previous work regarding the association between IQ, age and performance on a Backward Chaining IRA task by including younger participants (2.5 to 7 years) and a measure of executive function, the Dimensional Change Card Sort task. Previous research has indicated the performance on the Backward Chaining IRA task improves with age and increases in IQ. This study found that performance on both Forward and Backward Chaining IRA improved with age but not with IQ. The potential importance of various procedural differences between this and previous work is discussed. A within-subjects comparison of the Forward and Backward Chaining IRA indicated participants performed better on the Forward Chaining IRA Task.

This study compared 56 children between the ages of 7 and 13 with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), children with a diagnosis of ADHD and a reading disability (ADHD/RD), children with only a reading disability (RD), and a control group on measures of cognition, reading, executive function, and memory tasks. Specifically, the study was looking to examine the impact of comorbid disorders on the performance of children with ADHD on tests of cognitive function. Given that children diagnosed with ADHD frequently will display a learning disability, often a reading disability, this study also examined the impact of comorbidity on tests of cognitive function. All children were administered several measures of cognitive functioning, reading comprehension, executive function measures, and memory tasks. The data analysis consisted of comparing the children's performance from the four different groups on a variety of tasks. The results of the present study suggest that there are differences in performance on several measures of cognitive, reading, executive function, and memory ability between the four groups studied. Overall, the Control group had better performance than the other groups. Children in the ADHD and ADHD/RD group had deficits on various executive function and memory tasks. Children in the RD group had lower performance on various reading tasks.

The purpose of the current study was to assess the performance of depressed young adults on tests of executive function, while addressing the variables of age and medication status, which have been inconsistently measured in previous research. It was hypothesized that statistically significant group differences would occur on tests of executive functions in three distinct groups: medicated depressed, non-medicated depressed, and non-medicated non-depressed individuals. Participants included 53 adults who were medicated depressed ( n = 15), non-medicated depressed (n = 16), and non-medicated non-depressed (n = 22) and were between the ages of 19 and 40 years. Participants completed measures assessing depression, psychological well-being (including anxiety), intelligence, and executive functions. Between group comparisons revealed several statistically significant differences on executive function measures including the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) Trials Administered, WCST Failure to Maintain Set, Trail Making Test (TMT) B, Stroop Word, Stroop Color, Stroop Color-Word, and Stroop Interference. The non-medicated non-depressed group performed better overall than those in the non-medicated depressed and medicated depressed groups. Post hoc stepwise regression analyses indicated that anxiety predicted performance on a number of executive function measures to a greater degree than did depression. Findings suggest that executive functions of young adults are affected by depression, medication status, and anxiety. Results of the present study contradict the assumption that psychotropic medications do not affect cognitive abilities. These findings also suggest that future research investigating the interaction between anxiety and executive functions are necessary.

The Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) (Delis, Kaplan, & Kramer, 2001) is a battery of tests purported to measure those higher-level abilities generally termed "executive functions." While the D-KEFS possesses generally credible psychometric properties, the absence of adequately demonstrated "ecological validity" has been identified as a weakness of the D-KEFS. The purpose of this study was to attempt to assess the ecological validity of the D-KEFS using a sample of child chess players. All 18 of the D-KEFS tests appropriate for children were administered in this study. For comparison purposes, several other measures were also administered: the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, a measure of executive functioning, the Wide Range Intelligence Test, a measure of intelligence, two working memory subtests from the Wide Range Assessment of Memory and Learning-2, and the Behavior Rating Inventory of Executive Function. Twenty-eight participants between the ages of 8 and 12 years were divided into two groups based on their United States Chess Federation (USCF) rating score. One-way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA) revealed significant group differences on four of the nine D-KEFS scores. Pearson r correlations revealed many small to moderate correlations between performance on various D-KEFS tests and IQ, working memory, and other measures of executive functioning. Chess ability correlated significantly with only one score on one of the individual D-KEFS tests and none of the other 15 scores analyzed across the other measures. Further relationships between chess ability and performance on cognitive testing were not found, nor were consistently significant relationships between performance on the D-KEFS and the other measures. While these findings could be due to sample characteristics, it is also possible that the D-KEFS is not a valid measure of executive functioning in children.

Executive functions are the cognitive abilities that include self-regulation, inhibition of responding, planning, and mental flexibility. Previous studies on executive functions I I have focused on people with ADHD and other impairments. Studies on sleep and cognitive function abilities have focused on the effects of lack of sleep and the ability to perform executive function tasks. This study examined the cognitive abilities of children with no impairment in relationship to Time of Day, Sleep Duration and Sleep Quality. Thirty children ranging from age 7 to age 12 were recruited from the area. A self-report questionnaire on typical Sleep Duration and Sleep Quality, and the Child Behavior Checklist were sent one week in advance to be completed before the time of testing. The children were tested at either 9AM or 3PM on five executive function tasks. The executive function tasks included the Connors Continuous Performance Test, Digit Span, Tower of London, Controlled Oral Word Association Test and the Wisconsin Card Sorting Task. This study showed that when the participants perceived themselves to be well rested, (sleep duration and sleep quality self-reports) cognitive performance in some executive function tasks was more proficient, and this effect varied as a function of Time of Day of testing.

Working memory (WM) and inhibitory control (IC) are considered related but separable executive functions (EFs) among adults and adolescents. Although available evidence seems to suggest that these two constructs have not yet diverged among preschool children, aspects of previous studies of preschool populations leave open questions regarding findings indicating a unitary factor structure. To address limitations of previous studies, this study used well-defined tasks to examine the extent to which EF in preschool children was best represented by a single factor or by separate but correlated WM and IC factors. Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test for the presence of a 2-factor structure of EF among preschool children. Additionally, two types of inhibitory tasks, conflict and suppression, were examined in an attempt to extend evidence that suppression tasks differ more from working memory tasks than do response conflict tasks. Based on evidence that WM and IC measured during preschool relate differently to a variety of academic and behavioral outcomes, it was hypothesized that a model including separate latent factors for each executive function would fit the observed data better than a single-factor model. The model that included separate but related factors for WM and IC provided a significantly better fit to the data than a single-factor model, indicating the presence of separate WM and IC factors in this sample.

The Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS) is a relatively new measure of executive functioning (EF) that has not been fully evaluated for its potential of differentiating between children with and without ADHD. The Conners’ Continuous Peformance Test (CCPT) is a computerized task that has been studied extensively in ADHD populations and been found to have moderate success at predicting diagnostic status. The present study examined diagnostic group differences on the D-KEFS and CCPT between children with ADHD (n = 32) and a control group (n = 37). Results replicate previous findings in both the D-KEFS and general EF literature (Corbett et al., 2009; Frazier et al., 2004; Wodka et al., 2008a; Wilcutt et al., 2005). Specifically, ADHD group performance on several measures of planning, reconstitution, and inhibition was found to be below average or significantly lower than that of the control group. Additionally, performance on most D-KEFS variables, including some less executive tasks, was associated with diagnostic group status. Inattentive and Hyperactive/Impulsive symptoms, as rated by parents on the CPRS, were significantly related to almost all D-KEFS variables. However, higher magnitude correlations between Inattention and the Trailmaking and Color-Word Interference tests were noted. On the CCPT, between-group differences were found for Hit Reaction Time Standard Error, Detectability, and Omission errors. Intercorrelations between the CCPT and CPRS symptom scales revealed Reaction Time variables related to both symptom domains, Omissions related to Inattention, and Detectability and Response Style related to Hyperactivity/Impulsivity. Significant correlations between several CCPT and D-KEFS variables were found, with some planning/inhibition/switching and more basic skill D-KEFS measures being associated with CCPT scores. Moderate predictive utility of diagnostic group was found for both the D-KEFS and CCPT individually. Combined predictive utility of both measures resulted in non-significant models. Recommendations are provided regarding the use of the D-KEFS and CCPT in evaluating ADHD, as well as important future research directions.

Background: Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality among adults in the US (Ma, Chan, & Carruthers, 2014; Raj et al., 2015). According to epidemiological estimates put forth by the CDC, of the 1.7 million TBIs that occur annually in the United States, 80% are mild TBI (mTBI) (Ma, Chan, & Carruthers, 2014). At the sub-acute stage, mTBI patients often report experiencing post-concussion symptoms that include somatic (nausea, headache, dizziness), cognitive (poor attention, memory, and executive function), and behavioral or emotional changes (irritability, depression, emotional lability, anxiety) following their injury (Levin & Diza-Arrastia, 2015). Study Aims: The specific aims of the current study were to: 1) investigate the relationship between mood, subjective complaints of cognitive symptoms, and executive functioning (EF) performance in mTBI and control participants at the sub-acute time point; 2) evaluate the role of mood in understanding group differences in EF and subjective cognitive symptom complaints; 3) examine changes in mood and subjective cognitive symptom complaints in the mTBI group over time and determine if demographic factors, specifically ethnicity, impact mood, EF, and their relationship. Participants and Methods: Participants were 52 individuals recruited from the Departments of Neurosurgery and Emergency Medicine from UNMHSC within two weeks following a mTBI. Control participants included 32 sex- and age- matched individuals from the Albuquerque, New Mexico community. Participants attended two assessment sessions; the first session was 3-14 days post injury and the second session was ~2 months post injury. Participants completed self-report measures of post-concussion symptoms (the Neurobehavioral Symptom Inventory, the Frontal Systems Behavior Scale, the Patient-Reported Measurement Information System, the Rivermead Post-Concussion Symptoms Questionnaire) and a depression measure (BDI-II), as well as an objective neuropsychological functioning measure (the Executive Abilities: Measure and Instruments for Neurobehavioral Evaluation and Research assessment battery (NIH-EXAMINER) and a measure of premorbid intelligence (the Test of Premorbid Intelligence). Results: mTBI patients reported experiencing significantly worse mood and more subjective cognitive symptom complaints compared to healthy controls at two weeks post injury. While mTBI participants and healthy controls differed in estimates of premorbid intelligence, they did not differ in objectively measured EF. Across all self-report measures individuals with a mTBI did not demonstrate improvements in mood or symptoms between the first and second session. The current estimate of a small, non-significant effect size (d = .14) for group differences on the NIH-EXAMINER is consistent with reports from previous studies. Effect sizes for mood (d = .90) and subjective symptom reporting (d = .94) were much larger, and represent important targets for clinical intervention. Conclusions: EF deficits were not present in the sub-acute time frame, but group differences in depressive mood and the number of subjective complaints were prominent. Depression appears to be a critical treatment target for improving quality of life in mTBI patients, in contrast to EF functioning.

This dissertation examines the heterogeneity among immigrant children in the United States. Given the global demand for female labor from developing countries, that many of these families are poor and cannot afford to migrate together, and that once separated reunification is further prolonged by immigration policies, many immigrant children are separated from a primary caregiver for some portion of their development. This dissertation project compares the developmental outcomes of three groups of Caribbean immigrant children, one group of first-generation children who migrated with their mothers (family migration), another group of first-generation children who were separated from their mothers due to migration (separated migration), and a third group of second-generation children. Studying maternal separation in immigration illuminates an important context in which child development occurs for some immigrant children. Drawing support from the research on adverse childhood experiences, like childhood poverty, it is hypothesized that different immigration ecologies will engender different parent-child relations, mental health outcomes, and cognitive abilities. Chapter two examines the attachment patterns of Caribbean immigrant adolescents and establishes a link between maternal separation in immigration and attachment anxiety. Chapter three explores the role of attachment security and parenting styles on the mental health of Caribbean immigrant youth. The results of this paper show that attachment security fully mediates the link between immigration experiences and mental health outcomes. Chapter four proposes executive function as a potential explanatory variable for the academic disparities observed among immigrant youth. Results show that children from the family migration group report better cognitive flexibility than the other two groups. Results also show that parental involvement positively and significantly impacts executive function abilities. Together, this dissertation provides evidence that maternal separation due to immigration is associated with some adverse child development outcomes. The findings from this project are useful to families, educators, and policy-makers as work together to support this population.

Introduction: The primary study goal was to assess the feasibility of implementing a Randomized Clinical Trial (RCT) of Mindfulness-Based Relapse Prevention (MBRP) in a substance use and methadone clinic using a neuropsychological framework. Methods: Participation interest, retention rates, and feasibility of study design were examined. 13 participants were randomized to waitlist (n = 6) or MBRP (n =7). Associations between baseline variables and retention were examined. Executive function (EF) performance and topological properties of fNIRS resting-state networks were assessed. Results: Power was limited, but quantity of outside treatment was associated with retention. EF was variable, but within the average range. Network analyses revealed small world parameters in resting-state networks using fNIRS. Exploratory correlation analyses between EF and graph metrics were performed. Conclusions: The feasibility of using neuropsychological measures of EF and fNIRS in the context of a RCT in an outpatient substance use clinic was demonstrated.

Pain captures attention and may reduce the attentional resources needed to perform tasks of working memory, a key component of executive functioning involved in short-term information maintenance and processing. Individuals with chronic pain often report working memory deficits that interfere with daily functioning. Like pain, negative affect—namely, anxiety and pain catastrophizing—are also thought to consume attentional resources, and likely also have deleterious effects on working memory performance. However, a paucity of research exists on the interactive effect of pain and negative affect on working memory performance. The current study utilized two working memory performance measures (digit span and n-back) to evaluate the relationship between experimental pain and negative affect on cognitive performance. Due to limited research on chronic pain in non-clinical samples, relationships among variables and chronic pain status were also explored. Participants were 84 undergraduates aged 18 to 35. Linear mixed modeling failed to find any significant interactions between experimental pain and negative affect on digit span performance or overall n-back performance. However, significant three-way interactions emerged among experimental pain, cognitive load (e.g., difficulty), and negative affect (e.g., anxiety sensitivity, pain catastrophizing) on n-back performance. Findings indicate complex relationships among pain, negative affect, and working memory, likely dependent at least in part on individual differences. There is a need for further study on these nuanced differences, in part, to inform development of tailored interventions for individuals with chronic pain.

The ability to alter, regulate, or otherwise control one's own behavior is a valuable but limited human capacity. Good self-control facilitates success in life, but self-control attempts often fail. The present work examined two causes of self-control failure, divided attention and depleted self-control strength, and sought to demonstrate that these are closely related but separate causes of self-control failure. In Studies 1 and 2, controlling (vs. not controlling) attention at the start of the study reduced the ability to divide attention during a subsequent test of working memory, indicating that the ability to control attention relies on a depletable internal resource or strength. In Study 3, performing (vs. not performing) a test of divided attention impaired subsequent emotion suppression ability, indicating that the act of dividing attention depletes the same strength that underlies dissimilar forms of self-control. In Study 4, regulating (vs. not regulating) emotional expression reduced subsequent pain tolerance, but concurrent divided attention did not reduce pain tolerance, indicating that divided attention and depleted strength have different effects on behavior. The findings converge to show that divided attention and self-control strength are related but distinct determinants of the capacity for self-control.

Making choices that range from simple to complex and from important to inconsequential is something humans experience on a regular basis. This process is largely controlled by executive brain regions related to judgment and decision-making. Interestingly, such executive brain regions are associated with resting heart rate variability (HRV) defined as the temporal variation between heart beats and reflects cardiac vagal tone. If the areas of the brain responsible for decision making and HRV overlap, then resting HRV should predict better choice behaviors and performance. Adaptive choice visual search (ACVS) is a paradigm developed to capture the attentional control strategies observers deploy when making choices in dynamically shifting environments (Irons & Leber, 2018). In this dissertation, the primary aim was to explore the association between resting vagally mediated HRV and performance on the ACVS task. In addition, I sought to investigate if two psychological variables, i.) adaptive choice strategies and ii.) maximization, were independently associated with ACVS performance and how these variables moderated an HRV-ACVS association. Choice satisficing refers to the evaluation of selections in a choice situation that simply meet a threshold of acceptability (Schwartz, et al., 2002). I predicted that those with higher HRV would have faster reaction times (RT), utilize more optimal search strategies, and demonstrate qualities of maximizers - where individuals seek out the best available choice from all of the options available to them - based on their scores on the Maximization Scale (Schwartz, et al., 2002). I also hypothesized that switching between attentional sets incurs a response time cost, and that there will be lower switching costs among those with higher HRV. In my study, vagally mediated HRV was collected continuously throughout the experiment. Participants (N = 62; n = 34 males, n = 17 ethnic minorities, mean age = 20.84 years (SD = 2.86)) first completed a baseline-resting period, followed by a series of scales and questionnaires before moving into the first condition of the adaptive choice visual search task. Instructions and an opportunity to practice were given before proceeding with the choice block (CB) condition, followed by an effortful rating for the CB condition and a short break. During this break, participants were asked an open-ended question regarding their technique in which I classified individuals as 'performance maximizers', 'effort minimizers', and 'random searchers'. Next, participants completed the repeated strategy (RS) condition, an effortful rating, and a second break, followed by the optimal strategy (OS) condition, an effort rating, and the final break. Lastly, participants completed two more scales before being debriefed. Reaction time and accuracy were collected during all five blocks of visual search. Overall, the findings of my dissertation suggest resting HRV predicts ACVS performance in the RS and OS conditions only, or when the optimal strategy is enforced. Furthermore, HRV may be predictive of adaptive choice performance metrics as a function of trait tendencies to maximize and strategy selection, however future studies should work to verify such claims. Overall, the findings of my dissertation suggest HRV serves as a biomarker for individual differences in adaptive choice when the optimal strategy is known or enforced.

Research suggests executive function (EF) skills are critical for early academic success (Blair & Razza, 2007), yet less is known about their relation to other factors of student performance, such as persistence (LiGrinning, et al., 2010). Combining approaches from developmental cognitive neuroscience and educational psychology, the current study investigated the relation between student’s EF and factors of motivation on student performance. Students (N=84, Boys=33, Mage=6.94 years) were assessed on a battery of cognitive measures including measures of brain and behavioral correlates of EF. Student persistence during a challenging puzzle task, as well as intrinsic value and perceived competence for the task, were also measured. Findings indicate that persistence moderates the correlation between EF and persistent behavior. Thus, children who report high competency and have higher EF also show high persistent behavior. Additional findings revealed that that relation between EF and persistence across behavioral and neural levels differed by gender.

Plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) biomarkers of neuronal and glial dysfunction are increasingly used to evaluate cognitive impairment in aging and Alzheimer’s disease (AD). White matter hyperintensities (WMH) reflect microstructural injury and contribute to cognitive decline. Although previous studies have examined associations between plasma and CSF biomarkers, WMH, and global cognition, few have simultaneously examined these variables to predict performance in specific cognitive domains. The present study aimed to examine the relationships between WMH, biomarkers of neuronal and glial dysfunction (plasma neurofilament light chain [NfL], CSF growth associated protein 43 [GAP-43], CSF soluble TREM2 [sTREM2]), and episodic memory and executive function performance. 568 participants (mean age = 72, SD = 7) from the Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging Initiative were stratified by CSF AD biomarkers using the AT(N) framework (amyloid-β [A], p-tau [T], t-tau [N]) into no AD pathology (A-T-[N]-, n = 202), suspected non-AD pathophysiology (A-T±[N]+ or A-T+[N]±, n = 63), or AD continuum (A+T±[N]±, n = 303) groups. Relative importance analyses examined the relative contribution of each variable for episodic memory and executive function. Multiple linear regressions examined associations between WMH, biomarkers of neuronal and glial dysfunction, and specific cognitive domains, and whether these relationships were dependent on AT(N) group status. Plasma NfL and CSF GAP-43 were relatively important predictors of episodic memory and executive function respectively. Significant CSF GAP-43 and sTREM2 X AT(N) group interactions on cognition were observed. Taken together, NfL was a significant predictor of episodic memory across individuals with differing AT(N) group status and CSF GAP-43 was a predictor of episodic memory and executive function in individuals with AD pathology relative to those without AD pathology. These findings may aid in exploring novel biomarkers of vascular, neuronal, and glial dysfunction associated with specific cognitive domains as well as elucidating these associations within the context of AD biomarkers.

Introduction: Prior work indicates that discrete emotions are linked to multiple domains of cognitive function. However, presence and magnitude of the relationships observed between emotion and cognition have been inconsistent and largely limited to experimental emotion induction. Inconsistencies in the literature may stem from failure to consider approach versus avoidance motivations of expressed emotion. To date, no prior research has explored associations of cognition with emotions expressed during neuropsychological assessment. Approach/avoidance orientation during neuropsychological assessment is important to understand, as it might affect performance. Method: The current study examined associations between facial expressions of discrete emotions and cognitive performance in the context of virtual neuropsychological assessment. Data was drawn from two archival samples: a sample of older adults (ages 55-90) and a sample of younger adults (ages 18-30). Facial expressions of emotions, analyzed through digital phenotyping software, were examined on approach (i.e., anger, joy, sadness) and avoidance (i.e., fear, disgust) dimensions at the beginning of assessment. Methods also explored associations among emotions and self-reported symptoms of current depression and anxiety, and whether these symptoms predict test performance beyond the influence of discrete emotions. In light of prior work demonstrating differences in emotion and cognition in older and younger adults, analyses examined potential age-group differences as well.Results: Regarding approach emotions, facial expressions categorized as anger and joy predicted reduced cognitive performance in the domains of memory and executive function, respectively, while expressions categorized as sadness were associated with higher cognitive performance on a verbal learning test (though this latter finding did not remain significant after controlling for demographics). Facial expressions categorized as disgust and fear (avoidance emotions) were not significantly associated with test performance on any measure. Though relationships between emotion expression and test performance were largely similar between age groups, younger adults performed worse than older adults at higher levels of emotion categorized as joy on a task of working memory. In both older and younger adults, symptoms of neither depression nor anxiety predicted neuropsychological test performance beyond the influence of facial expressions of emotions. Discussion: Results of the current study generally did not align with approach/avoidance explanations for links among emotion and cognition. Instead, results might support an arousal-based explanation. However, problems in measurement of emotions may have hindered full investigation of approach/avoidance motivations. As facial expressions of emotion significantly predicted aspects of cognitive performance, routinely employing objective measures of emotion expressed at the time of neuropsychological assessment may improve validity and accuracy of assessment interpretation. Findings warrant further exploration of relationships among emotions on dimensions of approach/avoidance, high/low arousal, and positive/negative valence, cognition, and psychological symptoms in the context of neuropsychological assessment.

Since the early 2000s, the Hispanic population residing in the United States has dramatically grown by 55% (Puente et al., 2015), which increases the importance of understanding how cultural differences may affect neuropsychological test performance. Research demonstrates that pervasive differences exist between the Hispanic community and the dominant culture (Burton et al., 2012). Thus, altering the perception of normative behavior among children (Kärtner et al., 2011). The relative differences in developmental expectations may unfairly disadvantage Hispanic children and potentially lead to the over-pathology of minorities (Burton et al., 2012). The present study aimed to address the potential differences on the BRIEF2 test performances across Spanish-speaking subgroups based on the child’s age and gender, as well as their parents’ country of origin, English proficiency, and education levels. The sample consisted of 41 children (ages 5-18 years) with Spanish-speaking parents residing in the United States. Results suggested that index scores and the global executive composite on the BRIEF2 Spanish Version were significantly impacted by factors including the parents’ English proficiency and education levels, as well as the child’s age. More specifically, parents of children within the 8-12 age group endorsed more difficulties with cognitive regulation and global executive functioning skills than parents with children in the 5-17 and 13-18 age groups. Parents with limited English proficiency were more likely to rate their children with pathological behavioral regulation parents with bilingual or native English proficiency. Fathers with a primary school or graduate school education level were more likely to endorse difficulties with behavioral and cognitive regulation in their children as well as global executive functioning skills, whereas mothers with a middle school education were more likely to endorse difficulties with emotional regulation and global executive functioning skills in their children. The study highlights the need to interpret the results of the BRIEF2 Spanish Version with caution and for continued research with a larger sample size.

Introduction: The impact of pediatric traumatic brain injury (TBI) is far-reaching and has long-term effects on functioning in social, behavioral, and cognitive domains that persist past childhood and into adolescence and adulthood. Pediatric TBI has such long-lasting effects due to its disruption of early brain development. Deficits in executive functioning (EF) behaviors are among the most common and persistent impairments following TBI. A crucial component to consider when evaluating the level of functional impairment due to EF deficits is the number of environmental demands placed on the child. Raters from multiple settings provide information on these functional deficits that may not be measurable in a clinical setting or through standardized tests. We aimed to examine the unique contributions of parent versus teacher ratings in determining EF impairments following pediatric TBI. Methods: We examined data collected 6.8 years postinjury as part of the Ohio Head Injuries Outcomes (OHIO) study, a 12-year longitudinal study examining long-term outcomes following early childhood TBI in comparison to orthopedic injury (OI). We ran three backward stepwise regressions to determine the best model for each analysis—BRIEF Global Executive Composite scores, Behavior Regulation Index scores, and Metacognition Index scores. Multilevel models were conducted to determine the influence of injury severity (TBI versus OI), rater (parent versus teacher), and SES on reported BRIEF scores. Post-hoc analyses were run to examine interaction effects.Results: Our sample consisted of 93 total participants—43 with TBI and 50 with OI. The average age of the sample at injury was 5.13 years and 11.71 years at 6.8 years postinjury. There was a significant effect of injury severity (Estimate = 5.88, SE = 2.35, p = .014), rater (Estimate = 3.37, SE = 1.60, p = .039), and SES (Estimate = -4.839, SE = 1.31, p < .001) on the BRIEF GEC scores. There was a significant effect of injury severity (Estimate = 6.77, SE = 2.14, p = .002) and SES (Estimate = -3.62, SE = 1.19, p = .003) on reported BRIEF BRI scores. There was a significant effect of rater (Estimate = 4.71, SE = 1.57, p = .004) and SES (Estimate = -3.38, SE = 1.60, p = .036) on BRIEF MI scores. An interaction between rater and SES on BRIEF MI scores was also found (Estimate = -3.76, SE = 1.74, p = .034). Post-hoc analyses revealed that teachers of students from high SES reported significantly lower BRIEF MI scores than teachers of students from low SES (Estimate = -9.50, p = 0.001), but parent reports did not differ by SES (Estimate = -3.67, p = 0.204).Conclusions: Differences in observed EF deficits highlight the potential utility of obtaining reports from multiple informants. Results showed that teachers provide unique insight into EF skills following traumatic injuries, which can be utilized to gain a better understanding of a child’s range of deficits. This study addresses the gap in current literature of comparisons between parent and teacher reports in TBI populations and supports the use of proxy-reported information.

Past research has supported the idea that self-regulation uses a limited resource which is subject to depletion (Hagger, Wood, Stiff, & Chatzisarantis, 2010). Depletion has generally been measured by the reduced accuracy of task performance on one executive function task that follows another executive function task. The current study used two measures of time within a speech processing task to explore the effects of depletion on complex speech processing. Half of the participants completed the speech processing task before an inhibitory writing task (Group A), and the other half of the participants completed the inhibitory writing task before the speech processing task (Group B); Group B was therefore predicted to be depleted in their ability to complete the speech processing task relative to Group A. During the speech processing task, participants listened to sentences from two different speakers simultaneously, one a native speaker of English and the other a non-native speaker of English. Listeners were visually cued to listen to and repeat one speaker or the other in a random sequence. After repeating each sentence, participants were given a forced choice question requiring them to identify the sentence spoken by the target speaker. The forced choice answer set provided two answer choices, the sentence spoken by the native speaker of English and the sentence spoken by the non-native accented speaker of English. Answers to these forced choice questions were used to verify whether participants had attended to the correct target. The current study analyzed response times for the forced choice questions (FCR) as well as the self-paced advancement (SPA) times (the times the participants waited before progressing from item to item). Times were analyzed for each participant and as means across participants between the two experimental groups. Results indicated no significant group differences for either forced choice response (FCR) times or self paced advancement (SPA) times. Regression analyses revealed a trend of decreasing SPA time over the course of the experiment but no trends were observed for FCR time. These results indicate a lack of depletion effects on measures of FCR and SPA time and the possible effect of increasing automaticity on the SPA time measure.

MCCULLY, SCOUT N., M.A. AUGUST 2014 PSYCHOLOGYTASK-SWITCHING, FLEXIBLE SELF-REGULATION, AND PHYSICAL ACTIVITY IN YOUNG ADULTSDirector of Thesis: John A. UpdegraffThe gap between how active people intend to be and how active they are is an issue that eludes researchers and lay people alike. Temporal Self-Regulation Theory suggests that executive functions play a role in explaining the intention-behavior gap. The executive function of task-switching may play a unique role in physical activity in that it may promote means-shifting, or changing the methods by which one approaches a goal. I tested whether the executive function of task-switching predicts greater physical activity, and explored a potential mediating pathway via means-shifting. I also sought to replicate the finding that inhibitory control predicts greater physical activity. A sample of 128 college students (73% female, mean age = 19.9) completed baseline measures, one test of inhibitory control (Go/NoGo) and three tests of task-switching ability, then logged exercise daily for 2 weeks. Means-shifting was operationalized as activity substitution, coded when participants adopted an alternate activity on a day they planned to do something but did not. Controlling for baseline physical activity, intentions, and time, the indirect effect of task-switching on physical activity via activity substitution was significant (b = 12.02, p < .001). However, task-switching did not directly affect physical activity, even when activity substitution was not included in the model (b = 6.43, p = .223). In line with previous research, inhibitory control was found to have a direct effect on physical activity (b = 22.27, p = .018). The data indicate that executive functions do play a role in physical activity maintenance. Inhibitory control had a direct effect on physical activity, and while the direct effect of task-switching on physical activity was not significant, the indirect path indicates that those better at task-switching are also more likely to substitute activities, and thus engage in more physical activity.

The present study examined attachment disorganization and executive function as predictors of adolescent risky behavior. Additionally, the present study examined how attachment disorganization and executive function may differentially predict adolescent risky behavior for males and females. Measures of executive function, mother-infant attachment, adolescent risky behavior, family income, and gender were obtained from adolescent participants of the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (NICHD-SECCYD). Data was analyzed through structural equation modeling (SEM). Executive function, attachment, and risky behavior were unrelated in the study sample. Income was a significant predictor of attachment for females, but not males. Income was an equal and significant predictor of executive function for both males and females. Income was also a significant predictor of risky behavior for males and females, though a stronger predictor for females. Limitations and ideas for future research were discussed.

Previous research has shown that alcohol abuse may cause a deficit in frontal lobe functioning, specifically, areas of the frontal lobe that are related to executive function. Additionally, problems with executive function have been related to increased difficulty in managing cravings to addictive substances. The current study explored the relationship between alcohol use and performance on measures of executive functioning in a sample of 121 traditional college students. Students were given 5 measures of executive function designed to explore mental set shifting, updating, inhibition, sustained attention, and planning. These measures were used to examine the relationship between executive function and craving as measured by the Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale. Levels of alcohol use were also examined using the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test in relation to executive function performance and family history of alcohol abuse.

An evaluation of executive functioning is a critical component of a comprehensive assessment of higher cerebral functioning. The Tinker Toy Test (TTT) was introduced in 1982. This test allows an individual to demonstrate the extent of their executive capacities by permitting them to initiate, plan, and structure a potentially complex activity and carry it out independently in an unstructured fashion and administration is simple. This is a departure from more complex and structured tests of executive function. There is a dearth of research on the TTT and this study seeks to examine some of the psychometric properties of this instrument; i.e., working time minimum, gender effects, convergent and divergent validity, and potential intellectual correlates. Participants included 10 male and 30 female student volunteers from a large university in Central Florida. Participants had no history of neurologic disease/trauma or conditions that would affect motor functioning of the upper extremities. Participants completed a demographic questionnaire, the WASI-II, and the TTT. A two-way mixed-design ANOVA examining TTT scores as a function of work time and gender revealed a non-significant gender main effect, F(1, 21) = .09, p = .767. The work time main effect was not significant, , F(1, 21) = .324, p = .575. A significant work time x gender interaction was observed, F(1, 21) = 4.983, p = .037. Convergent validity was assessed by comparing the TTT scores with the Matrix Reasoning subtest, r(38) = .32, p = .044, and the Similarities, r(38) = .34, p = .03, subtest on the WASI-II. Divergent validity was assessed by comparing TTT scores to the Block Design subtest of the WASI-II, r(38) = .245, p = .127. No significant correlation was found between intelligence and TTT (VCI, r(38) = -.16, p = .335; PRI, r(38) = .15, p = .344; and FSIQ, r(38) = -.02, p = .928). The data supports the continued use of the 5-minute working time minimum presented by Lezak, as this temporal index was a more accurate representation of executive functioning. This study demonstrated no association between TTT scores and intellectual functioning. The findings of this study support the validity of this underutilized test of executive functioning and its inclusion in neuropsychological test batteries.

Background: Current neurocognitive models of obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) implicate dysfunction in top-down inhibitory control mechanisms. Research supports alteration in the functional activity of cortico-basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical loops in OCD, as well as the inferior parietal region, posterior medial cortex, thalamus and cerebellum. The cerebellum, once only known as a region of motor coordination, is now accepted as being highly involved in cognitive regulation as well. Emerging evidence of connectivity between the posterior cerebellum and areas of the brain related to inhibitory functioning, including the basal ganglia, prefrontal, and inferior parietal regions, suggests a potential cerebellar role in OCD-symptomology. In fact, in several disorders that, like OCD, are characterized by impaired cognitive regulation, differences in the size of the cerebellar vermis have been found to exist. Building off of the findings in these related disorders, we targeted our investigation on cerebellar vermal lobules I-V and VI-VII. Despite the strong case for a potential role of the cerebellum based on theory and the known connectivity of the cerebellum, we know of only one study specifically investigating cerebellar morphometry in OCD. Method and Analysis: Due to the highly irregular anatomical morphology of the cerebellar vermis, and limitations of automated morphometric algorithms, an integrative method of computer-assisted and manual tracing was used to increase accuracy in measuring this area of interest. All imaging and measurements were performed in the Freesurfer imaging software. Cerebellar vermal lobules I-V and VI-VII of an OCD group (n=15) and control group (n=15), were measured by multiple blind-raters trained with a detailed protocol and evaluated for inter-rater reliability. All imaging and neuropsychological data was collected in prior studies. Hypotheses: We made the following predictions: (i) a reduction in the volume of cerebellar vermal lobules VI-VII associated with a diagnosis of OCD (ii) no significant morphometric differences in cerebellar vermal lobules I-V between subjects with OCD and control subjects, as these areas are largely associated with sensorimotor regulation and, (iii) an association of OCD of greater severity (as assessed by the Y-BOCS) with a greater reduction of vermal tissue in cerebellar lobules VI-VII. Results: We found no significant differences in the morphometry of cerebellar vermis lobules I-V or VI-VII between subjects with OCD and controls, and no significant relationship between severity of OCD and morphometry. Significant correlations were found in the OCD group between vermal lobules VI-VII and the COWA-FAS test of verbal of fluency and VI-VII and the ROCFT-Copy. Conclusions: The observations of a possible lack of anatomical differences in the posterior cerebellar vermis between individuals with OCD and control subjects may potentially raise important questions about the underlying biological mechanisms of OCD, however because of the limited power in this finding, the current results cannot be interpreted before an extended investigation is conducted. The significant correlations between the vermal lobules VI-VII in the OCD group and the COWA-FAS and ROCFT-Copy, as well as a relationship between IQ and vermal lobules VI-VII in studies of autism suggest that the relationship between performance in specific cognitive domains and the morphometry of lobules VI-VII in OCD should also be investigated further.

Children with ADHD are characterized frequently as possessing underdeveloped executive functions and sustained attentional abilities, and recent commercial claims suggest that computer-based cognitive training can remediate these impairments and provide significant and lasting improvement in their attention, impulse control, social functioning, academic performance, and complex reasoning skills. The present review critically evaluates these claims through meta-analysis of 25 studies of facilitative intervention training (i.e., cognitive training) for children with ADHD. Random effects models corrected for publication bias and sampling error revealed that studies training short-term memory alone resulted in moderate magnitude improvements in short-term memory (d= 0.63), whereas training attention did not significantly improve attention and training mixed executive functions did not significantly improve the targeted executive functions (both nonsignificant: 95% confidence intervals include 0.0). Far transfer effects of cognitive training on academic functioning, blinded ratings of behavior (both nonsignificant), and cognitive tests (d= 0.14) were nonsignificant or negligible. Unblinded raters (d= 0.48) reported significantly larger benefits relative to blinded raters and objective tests (both p < .05), indicating the likelihood of Hawthorne effects. Critical examination of training targets revealed incongruence with empirical evidence regarding the specific executive functions that are (a) most impaired in ADHD, and (b) functionally related to the behavioral and academic outcomes these training programs are intended to ameliorate. Collectively, meta-analytic results indicate that claims regarding the academic, behavioral, and cognitive benefits associated with extant cognitive training programs are unsupported in ADHD. The methodological limitations of the current evidence base, however, leaves open the possibility that cognitive training techniques iv designed to improve empirically documented executive function deficits may benefit children with ADHD.

The most recent time-of-day (TOD) body of research has explored how TOD effects can influence certain cognitive domains such as semantic memory, episodic memory, processing speed, and executive functioning (Allen et al., 2008). Research by Horne and Ostberg (1976) has shown how differences in age can be associated with a preference for a certain TOD (i.e., morning or afternoon). Seventy-five percent of adults 65 years or older tend to prefer the morning, whereas fewer than 10% of younger adults tend to prefer the afternoon (Horne & Ostberg, 1976; West et al., 2002). Research by Allen and colleagues (2008) has shown how performance on certain tasks related to assessing different cognitive domains can be influenced by TOD effects (Allen et al., 2008; Intons-Peterson, Rocci, West, McLellan, & Hackney, 1998; May & Hasher, 1998; May, Hasher, & Stoltzfus, 1993). The adult western society has tended to focus on morning performance; however, the opposite effect is seen for younger adults. Morning performance has been found to be slightly impaired for younger adults when compared to older adult performance in the morning, and younger adults have shown the greatest advantage on tasks performed in the afternoon, when compared to older adults. To date, research has not examined the effects from TOD using a comprehensive and standardized measure of executive functioning (i.e., The Delis-Kaplin Executive Function System or D-FEFS) to compare difference in younger and older adult performance. The current study was intended to extend on the Allen et al. research and examine younger and older adult performance on executive functioning when they are tested at their preferred TOD or less preferred TOD.

The fields of psychology and neuroscience have found an interconnection between the autonomic nervous system (ANS), affect, and cognitive performance. Heart rate variability (HRV) may be a useful index of this relationship, representing the regulatory processes that facilitate adapting to emotions and environments to modulate mood and executive function. The current project consists of a series of experiments to investigate the relationship between trait affect, HRV, learning, and set-shifting performance. In the first experiment associations are found between negative affectivity, HRV, and set-shifting performance during an attentional set-shifting variant of the Virtual Morris Water Task (VMWT). Participants that exhibited both higher trait negative affectivity and lower baseline HRV displayed lower behavioral flexibility performance in the task. In Experiment 2, VMWT effects on HRV are examined. HRV is compared for individuals who completed the task and those that failed learning or failed shifting phases of the task. In the Complete group, HRV decreased during the task and remained low during a 5-minute recovery period. This pattern was not observed in the groups that failed to complete the task, suggesting ANS sregulation deficits potentially playing a role in failure to perform the task. When investigating changes by phase, it was found that the extradimensional shift condition elicited the significant decrease in HRV. In the final experiment, a single 10-minute HRV biofeedback training was given to participants to investigate if increases in vagal tone immediately elicit changes in flexibility and mood. The biofeedback group (BFB) showed increases in mood and HRV while exhibiting decreases in Wisconsin card sort task (WCST) preservative errors. These findings taken together aid in the understanding of underlying vagal mechanisms that effect the emotion-cognition relationship, and may provide evidence for novel, noninvasive, and quick interventions that target vagal modulation to enhance cognitive performance and executive function.