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The IPCC stresses the importance of achieving net-zero CO2 emissions worldwide by 2050 and natural climate solutions, particularly carbon farming, can play a significant role in this goal. However, current markets do not account for environmental externalities, which creates a mismatch between individual costs and societal benefits. Payment systems linked to carbon farming practices could help bridge this gap. Research is essential to develop effective agricultural carbon markets, and this study focuses on the opportunities and challenges faced by smallholder farmers in these markets. The research examines four areas: agricultural markets as a funding source for carbon farming, payments for carbon sequestration, opportunities for smallholder farmers, and cost-effective monitoring and verification of carbon stocks. Further research is needed to monitor carbon sequestration accurately, reduce GHG emissions, and develop institutional arrangements to promote sustainable production methods in Africa.

The UN Food Systems Summit 2021 was different from all six previous food summits held in the past eight decades. New features of this Summit included the fact that it was anchored in the Sustainable Development Goals, focused on food systems, was based on multi-stakeholder engagement, had a focus on country level strategies (so called National Pathways), and the Summit was held in New York rather than Rome, where the UN food agencies are based. Moreover, for the first time the UN called upon science to provide guidance for a food summit. In this article outcomes and political economy processes of the Summit are briefly reviewed, and then a focus is on the role of science for shaping outcomes is quantitatively assessed by reviewing the 118 country reports of National Pathways. In 62% of the countries’ strategies science, research, technology and innovation are more or less significantly mentioned. Quality of governance effectiveness is identified as a strong driver of more attention to science in countries’ strategies. The relative weight of agriculture in the national economy shows some positive correlation with attention to science too, whereas level of undernutrition does not correlate with attention to science in the strategies. Implications of these findings are drawn for the science – policy interface in food systems, and for the follow-up process to the Summit that has been put in place by the UN until 2030.

This paper synthesizes a set of national case studies conducted in the Sahelian countries during 2019- 2020 as a collaboration between national universities and research institutes, and the Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, with contributions from the Agrhymet Regional Centre, Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS). These case studies provide up-to-date knowledge and critical insights on the nexus of land degradation, climate change and energy in the Sahel. The current synthesis paper highlights their major findings and provides crosscutting and cross-regional analytical conclusions. First, the synthesis paper explores current trends in the Sahel region on land use and land degradation, energy use and supply, climate change projections and impacts, as well as their interactions and links to agricultural growth, food security, poverty reduction, and peace in the region. Second, technological, socio-economic and policy solutions at the nexus of land, water, energy and climate challenges that enable environmentally sustainable and socially inclusive rural development in the Sahel are discussed, including their interactions and implications for peace and stability in the region. The findings show that such socio-economic solutions as improving access to markets, strengthening social safety nets, increasing investments to transport and energy infrastructures, promoting land tenure security, expanding off-farm employment opportunities can greatly contribute to rural development in the Sahel, particularly by aiding climate change resilience and sustainable land management. Key technological innovations highlighted across the case studies include expanding irrigation and adopting water use efficient irrigation techniques, crop diversification, expanding agricultural mechanization, investing into restoring and rehabilitating degraded lands through reforestation, afforestation and agroforestry practices. The key lessons learnt from ongoing national policy initiatives for sustainable development highlight the importance of active stakeholder consultation and participation in policy formulation, institution of effective policy monitoring and assessment mechanisms, and avoiding of excessive reliance on external sources of funding for the successful implementation of sustainable development policies and programs. Based on these findings, the synthesis paper proposes an agenda for applied research to provide guidance to and accompany promising development strategies in and for the region.

The UN Food System Summit seeks to alter food systems to be healthier, safer, more sustainable, more efficient, and more equitable. This paper aims to inform the public and stakeholders interested in the Food Systems Summit about concepts and definitions of food systems and determinations of their change. To foster a clear understanding of food systems, especially with regard to the upcoming Food Systems Summit, we first present a general food system concept. We then introduce a concept based on science that provides a definition that the Food System Summit can use with the five goal-oriented Action Tracks (serving SDG2) and their interlinkages. We suggest a food system definition that encompasses food system thinking and the broad set of actors and drivers, embedding the concept of sustainability within it.

What may be learned from Africa and India on how they transform their food and agriculture sectors to provide affordable and healthy diets for all? And what are potential insights that may inform future strategic directions in food system strategies? These are the questions behind a food and agriculture policy research program reported here. In 2020, India and Africa constituted around 35 percent of the world population and three-quarters of the world’s poor (World Bank, 2020). In 1980 population growth in India was 2.3 percent but came down to 1 percent in 2020, whereas in Africa it was 2.8 percent and only reduced to 2.5 percent. Africa’s population is expected to surpass India’s in 2022. The African agriculture sector needs to grow sufficiently to address the fast growing demand for food with diversified diets. Comparing the agriculture sectors of India and Africa at an aggregate level would not be meaningful. Sectoral characteristics – such as natural resource endowment, production potential, agro-climatic zones, farming systems, the contribution of agriculture to GDP and the share of the workforce employed in agriculture – vary substantially within India and across Africa. Therefore, a comparison between Indian states and African countries may offer opportunities to study distinct agricultural growth trajectories. This analytical approach may help to identify lessons for mutual learning between and across India and Africa for the pathways towards sustainable and higher growth trajectories for improved food and nutrition security.

This paper synthesizes a set of national case studies conducted in the Sahelian countries during 2019-2020 as a collaboration between national universities and research institutes, and the Center for Development Research (ZEF), University of Bonn, with contributions from the Agrhymet Regional Centre, Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS). These case studies provide up-to-date knowledge and critical insights on the nexus of land degradation, climate change and energy in the Sahel. The current synthesis paper highlights their major findings and provides crosscutting and cross-regional analytical conclusions. First, the synthesis paper explores current trends in the Sahel region on land use and land degradation, energy use and supply, climate change projections and impacts, as well as their interactions and links to agricultural growth, food security, poverty reduction, and peace in the region. Second, technological, socio-economic and policy solutions at the nexus of land, water, energy and climate challenges that enable environmentally sustainable and socially inclusive rural development in the Sahel are discussed, including their interactions and implications for peace and stability in the region. The findings show that such socio-economic solutions as improving access to markets, strengthening social safety nets, increasing investments to transport and energy infrastructures, promoting land tenure security, expanding off-farm employment opportunities can greatly contribute to rural development in the Sahel, particularly by aiding climate change resilience and sustainable land management. Key technological innovations highlighted across the case studies include expanding irrigation and adopting water use efficient irrigation techniques, crop diversification, expanding agricultural mechanization, investing into restoring and rehabilitating degraded lands through reforestation, afforestation and agroforestry practices. The key lessons learnt from ongoing national policy initiatives for sustainable development highlight the importance of active stakeholder consultation and participation in policy formulation, institution of effective policy monitoring and assessment mechanisms, and avoiding of excessive reliance on external sources of funding for the successful implementation of sustainable development policies and programs. Based on these findings, the synthesis paper proposes an agenda for applied research to provide guidance to and accompany promising development strategies in and for the region.

The most widely recognized definition of bioeconomy The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development pledged to move away from growing inequality to more inclusive, shared growth, away from ecocide, mass extinction of our plant and animal biodiversity, and waste and destruction of our planet’s abundant but still finite natural resources to practices that respect and protect our common home, and away from activities that expose hundreds of millions of people to the insidious effects of rising global temperatures and its consequences for cli- mate risks. At the heart of the 2030 Agenda was a promise to prioritize to eradicate poverty and end hunger and malnutrition in all their forms. Too many people in the world today do not have access to sufficient, affordable, safe and healthy foods. About three billion people in the world cannot afford a healthy diet.1 To address this global challenge, G7 heads of states at their Summit in Elmau in 2015 committed to lifting 500 million people out of hunger and malnutrition by 2030, i.e. 72 percent of the total undernourished in 2019 and 60 percent of the total including COVID-19 projections in 2020,2 as part of a broader effort to be undertaken with partner countries to support the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, i.e. Sustainable Development Goal 2 (SDG 2) to end hunger and malnutrition by 2030 (Box 1). Obviously, more and different investments and policy actions are needed to reach a world without hunger and malnutrition. We conceptualize ending hunger from different angles: as an important and feasible investment opportunity from a human rights perspective, as a humanitarian obligation, and for economic development. Experiences with COVID-19 and related responses from societies and political leadership tell us that significant action is possible. The hunger problem can be solved and deserves such action. The UN Secretary General’s Food Systems Summit, and reform and policy efforts in support of the SDGs in many regions and countries, including by the EU and Germany, offer opportunities to take related interventions forward. This policy brief is a call to action from the research community to not only address the problems of hunger, malnutrition and poverty, but to actually act and invest and adapt policies to reach SDG 2 by 2030.

The global food system is malfunctioning, leaving large segments of the population undernourished or malnourished, and causing large environmental damage. Food losses in the production, processing and market- ing parts of the food systems are part of the problem. Food wasting at the retail, household and restaurant levels is a serious problem too. The analyses and calls for action in this volume are motivated by the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) No. 12, i.e. Ensuring sustainable consumption and production patierns, and specifically, “By 2030, halve per capita global food waste at the retail and consumer levels and reduce food losses along production and supply chains, including post-harvest losses”. This brief provides findings and Recommendations for Actions of an international Conference by the Pontifical Academy of Sciences with the Rockefeller Foundation.

Background The tremendous burden of malaria has led to renewed efforts focusing on malaria elimination in high burden countries and has spurred the development of novel tools such as the use of transgenic mosquitoes to modify or suppress vector populations to interrupt transmission. Gene drives offer a pathway to propagate transgenes and their associated phenotypes to future generations more efficiently than the natural 50% probability and could potentially be applied as a vector control method. This study evaluates the role of suppression gene drives within broader intervention strategies, using the sex-ratio distorting driving-Y gene drive as an example. Method We parameterize a spatially explicit, agent-based, mathematical model to capture malaria transmission in eight representative provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo, an operationally complex high-burden setting. We explore the potential impact of integrating driving-Y gene drive mosquitoes in malaria elimination strategies that include existing interventions such as insecticide-treated nets and treatment of clinical cases. An economic evaluation was performed to estimate the cost-effectiveness of gene drives, other interventions, and combinations. Findings Releases of gene drive mosquitoes were capable of eliminating malaria and were the most cost-effective intervention overall, as long as the drive component was highly effective with at least 95% X-shredding, and associated cost of deployment was below 7.17 $int per person per year. Interpretation Genetically-based vector control via suppression gene drive could be a cost-effective supplement to traditional malaria interventions for malaria elimination, but tight constraints on drive effectiveness and cost ceilings may prove to limit its operational feasibility.

The impacts of European agricultural and trade policies on agricultural development and food security in Africa are analyzed in this study. The research is prompted by the pending further development of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) after 2020. The proposal for the new CAP is based on higher ambitions with regard to environmental protection and climate change through mandatory ecological programs and an enhanced linkage of direct payments to the greening rules. The methodological approach comprises: (i) an examination and critical review of existing studies; (ii) an analysis and assessment of agricultural trade flows between the EU and Africa as a whole and in the context of case studies on meat and milk; (iii) a systematic consultation of leading experts in European and African agricultural and trade policy on trends and impacts of the CAP; and (iv) model simulations of the effects of possible reform projects on production in and trade flows with Africa. The study finds that direct payments to EU farmers continue to account for up to 50% of total farm income in the EU, but EU spending on agricultural development in Africa is rather small in comparison. The current EU agricultural subsidy policy hampers the development of African agriculture much less than it did before export subsidies and coupled subsidy payments were largely abolished. However, these earlier effects cannot be corrected quickly because agricultural productivity depends on longstanding favorable framework conditions and long-term investments in innovation. According to the expert consultation carried out for this study, a stronger environmental and climate orientation of the CAP is considered likely and would have a dampening effect on European agricultural exports to Africa. The model simulation estimates that European food exports to Africa would decrease under the expected EU policy changes. However, this reduction in European exports would be mainly taken over by other exporters. Investments in African agricultural development should be expanded by the EU. Although African raw agricultural material exports to the EU are largely free of duties, the access of processed products to the EU market is still limited due to complicated rules of origin and social and hygiene standards for goods imported into the EU. These standards are necessary but must be more transparent. The EU should provide more support to improve standards in Africa; otherwise, the export potential of African countries cannot be fully exploited.

This study looks at trends in Indian farm wages, analyses their linkage with food prices, and identifies factors which drove their growth in real terms. We employ quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques for this purpose. A vector-error correction model (VECM) is used to determine the linkage between farm wage inflation and food inflation, and a pooled mean group (PMG) estimation method, used for dynamic heterogeneous panels, is used to identify the drivers of growth in real farm wages. In last 20 years (1998-99 to 2017-18), wages of India’s farm labourers increased at an average annual rate of 9.3 per cent in nominal and 3.2 per cent in real terms. For an average agricultural labourer, the daily wage rates increased from less than INR 45 in 1998-99 to about INR 229 in 2017-18. In real terms (2004-05 prices), this increase was from INR 50 to about INR 90 per day. The empirical analysis of the monthly wage time series identified a structural break in January 2007. Specifically, the curve is near-flat before this break-point subsequent which it rises sharply. On the relation between food inflation and wage growth, evidence was found of a food-wage spiral where changes in food prices and farm wages were estimated to impact each other. However, the impact of food inflation emerged to be stronger on wages than vice-versa and this impact was observed to strengthen post 2007-08. The panel study (1987-88 to 2015-16) on the drivers of real wage growth was conducted around the January 2007 structural break. Before this break, growth in real wages was estimated to be mostly driven by growth in the agriculture sector. Any influence of non-agricultural sectors (manufacturing and construction) did not emerge significant during this period. However, post the break, the growth witnessed in both- non-agricultural (manufacturing and construction sectors) and agricultural sectors explained the sharp increases in real farm wages. The large public rural employment program, MGNREGA (introduced in 2005) was identified as a third potential force of influence on rural wages; however, among other significant factors, its contribution to farm wage growth was estimated to be low and with a lag. Policy implications based on these findings are that for faster growth in real farm wages, focus needs to be on augmenting labour productivity in agriculture. In order to pursue that, one needs to lead reforms in agriculture that can accelerate agri-GDP growth and ensure that the rest of the economy, especially the manufacturing and construction sector, grow much faster pulling labour out from the agricultural sector to higher productivity jobs in manufacturing, construction, and possibly also services.

Motivations and Aims of the Study This study is prompted by the pending further development of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) after 2020 and the consideration that, in the context of this potential change of EU agricultural policy, greater emphasis should be laid on African development, besides environmental, climate, health and distributional aspects. The aim of this study is to shed light on the impacts of European agricultural and trade policies on agricultural development in Africa, and the coherence of EU policies with development policy objectives. The consequences of Coronavirus controlling attempts that include border closures and market shut downs in both Europe and Africa have highlighted the key role of trade and market policies for development. The decision to establish the African Continental Free Trade Area (AfCFTA) provides another important reason to revisit EU – Africa trade policy relations in the important fields of food and agriculture. With a total volume of 400 billion euros for the 7-year budget period, which currently represents about 36% of the total budget (EU28), CAP spending is the largest expenditure item in the EU budget. Total EU development expenditures for Africa amount to about one-tenth of that, and the share for agricultural development and food security is only about 2% of the EU agricultural budget. In view of the goal to establish coherence between the agricultural and development policy of the EU, and in view of the high risks for food security in Africa due to the economic consequences of COVID-19, this budget imbalance must not be ignored. Moreover, Africa's opportunities and problems are becoming increasingly relevant for the EU, future EU policy should be examined whether they benefits Africa's agricultural development. This includes investment in sustainable agricultural productivity, infrastructure, and institutions that are conducive to trade. Common Agricultural Policy post-2020 On June 1, 2018, the European Commission presented the draft legislation on the future of the CAP for the period after 2020. It provides for a small reduction in the total volume of agricultural subsidies for its now 27 Member States. The proposal is based on higher ambitions with regard to environmental protection and climate change through mandatory ecological programs and an enhanced linkage of direct payments to the greening rules. A stronger environmental orientation is also considered very likely among the experts interviewed for this study. However, the draft also envisages changing the green architecture of the CAP and giving Member States greater freedom in achieving the targets set out in national strategic plans. This flexibility could lead to an increase in the use of coupled subsidies in some Member States, which in turn would increase export surpluses for some agricultural products. This could lead to renewed incoherence with agricultural development policy. Effects of European agricultural and trade policy in Africa Trade policy: In its present form, the CAP continues to promote food exports. In 2018, wheat (€3.3 billion), meat (€1 billion), dairy products (€1.7 billion) and processed food (€6 billion) were the main EU exports to Africa. Among these goods, the share of Africa’s imports from the EU ranges from 25% (meat) to 44% (dairy products). In the current debate on CAP adjustments, effects on developing countries have so far played a minor role, although the EU describes coherence with its development policy objectives as an important element of its policy. There is widespread agreement that, in the past, coupled subsidy payments, export refunds, and direct market interventions have made a major contribution to increasing agricultural production in the EU and have led to the EU’s increased export surplus. Low-priced food imports have weakened the agricultural sectors of African countries in the long-term and hindered the development of competitive agricultural production. These earlier effects cannot be corrected in the quickly because agricultural productivity depends on long standing favorable framework conditions and long-term investments in innovation. Regulatory framework: Although African raw agricultural material exports to the EU are largely free of duties under various agreements, processed products are only free of duties if it can be ruled out under the "country of origin" principle that components of the final good were imported from a third country. The proof of origin requires a list of the production stages and ingredients as well as their origin. This condition often makes it difficult for African exporters to export processed agricultural products to Europe, hindering the creation of regional value chains. De-bureaucratized regulations (supported by advice from development cooperation) should create flexibility if the majority of the ingredients originate from the partner country or the respective regional economic zone. Social and hygiene standards for goods imported into the EU are necessary but must be transparent. According to EU regulations, social standards must comply with the principles of the International Labour Organization (ILO). However, currently, these are not implemented consistently. It would be helpful if the EU provided more support to improve standards in Africa; otherwise, the export potential of African countries cannot be fully exploited. This should also include capacity strengthening in Africa to check the adherence to health standards of EU food products exported to Africa. Effects of direct payments: Direct payments to EU farmers continue to account for up to 50% of total farm income in the EU. As shown by the model simulations, a reduction in direct payments is not expected to have a significant impact on food production in Africa in the short-term because the decline in imports from the EU will largely be offset by imports from other world regions. In the long term, however, this could be different, as European agricultural enterprises may partly be kept in production locations by the direct payments where they would not be able to survive without these subsidies. Furthermore, the direct payments allow investment decisions that increase the productivity of variable production factors. The current EU agricultural subsidy policy hampers the development of African agriculture much less than it did before export subsidies and coupled subsidy payments were largely abolished. Meat case study: African countries on average import around 20% of meat products, a quarter of which come from the EU. Poultry accounts for the majority of African meat imports, with poultry parts accounting for three-quarters of African poultry imports from the EU. However, the European poultry sector benefits little from subsidy payments and European producer prices are relatively high in international comparison. The low export prices of poultry parts are a result of the low demand for these products in Europe and not a consequence of the CAP. This also means that a reduction of EU poultry exports through political measures (and the associated higher prices) would primarily burden consumers in Africa. Dairy products case study: Many countries in North and West Africa are heavily dependent on milk powder imports, some of which exceed domestic production multiple times. The CAP has far-reaching impact in the dairy market. Following the abolition of the milk quota, European milk production has continued to increase, although low European producer prices are supposed to reduce the incentive to do so. However, dairy farms in the EU still benefit from income support. Direct payments, as well as coupled subsidies (in some Member States), provide incentives for investing in productivity-enhancing technologies, and in this way positively affect milk production. In addition, the EU provides a safeguarding against price risks through support purchases of milk powder,1 which are re-supplied to the market below world market prices. On the other hand, in some African countries, the (proportional) production costs are lower than in European countries. At present, however, these African countries are not able to meet the rapidly growing demand for milk products on the continent. Investments in local value chains and improved infrastructure would increase African productivity and intra-African trade could gain in importance. Effects of CAP environmental orientation: According to the expert consultation carried out for this study, a stronger environmental and climate orientation of the CAP, which takes into account the indirect effects of intensive agriculture on the environment and climate, would have a dampening effect on European agricultural exports to Africa. In the model simulation, the implementation of the European Nitrate Regulation leads to a reduction in livestock farming and alters European meat production. As a result, European exports (especially of pork) to Africa would decrease by 33-52%, and European exports of dairy products by about 5-7%. However, this reduction in European exports would probably be mainly absorbed by other exporters, resulting in largely unchanged African meat consumption. Preliminary conclusions on CAP reform and trade policy with Africa i) The increased return to coupled subsidy payments and support prices now being considered in some EU countries, as already begun in 2013, is inconsistent with the objectives of the EU’s 1 Between January 2018 and June 2019, 380,000 tonnes of milk powder were sold from the intervention stock, which is about 50% of the 2018 export volume to Africa. development policy and should, therefore, be limited. Otherwise, there is a risk of increased unfair competition with Africa. ii) The more targeted linking of agricultural subsidies to environmental and climate regulations increases the costs of agricultural production in the EU, especially in livestock farming, and could be expected to reduce the EU's production and export surpluses. This would create local incentives in Africa to invest in domestic agriculture. iii) Extensive open market access to the EU for African agricultural products, in particular also processed food, without tariff escalation, shall be facilitated. Concession of result-oriented, long transition periods, and trade policies allowing for the protection of African agriculture (i.e. granting further scope to protect key agricultural industries beyond 2035) before African markets are fully opened shall be considered. iv) In a future strategic EU – Africa trade agreement adapted to AfCFTA, trade preferences should be transferred to such an agreement. In addition, "Aid for Trade" programs should be maintained regardless of the FTAs. v) New opportunities for direct digital trade in agricultural and food products from Africa should be facilitated, promoted and increased to create value addition in processed products (cocoa, tea, coffee) in decentralized rural areas. vi) Appropriate quality, health, environmental and social standards of agricultural and food products traded in and with Africa should be developed further together with African partners. Employment effects should be taken into account. The EU should provide support on improving these standards in Africa, e.g. through "Aid for Trade" programs, as African export potential would otherwise not be fully exploited. vii) Simplification of origin rules (supported through consultation with trading partners) should provide scope for flexibility, provided the majority of the ingredients originate in the partner country or regional economic area.

This study looks at trends in Indian farm wages, analyses their linkage with food prices, and identifies factors which drove their growth in real terms. We employ quantitative and qualitative analysis techniques for this purpose. A vector-error correction model (VECM) is used to determine the linkage between farm wage inflation and food inflation, and a pooled mean group (PMG) estimation method, used for dynamic heterogeneous panels, is used to identify the drivers of growth in real farm wages. In last 20 years (1998-99 to 2017-18), wages of India's farm labourers increased at an average annual rate of 9.3 per cent in nominal and 3.2 per cent in real terms. For an average agricultural labourer, the daily wage rates increased from less than INR 45 in 1998-99 to about INR 229 in 2017-18. In real terms (2004-05 prices), this increase was from INR 50 to about INR 90 per day. The empirical analysis of the monthly wage time series identified a structural break in January 2007. Specifically, the curve is near-flat before this break-point subsequent which it rises sharply. On the relation between food inflation and wage growth, evidence was found of a food-wage spiral where changes in food prices and farm wages were estimated to impact each other. However, the impact of food inflation emerged to be stronger on wages than vice-versa and this impact was observed to strengthen post 2007-08. The panel study (1987-88 to 2015-16) on the drivers of real wage growth was conducted around the January 2007 structural break. Before this break, growth in real wages was estimated to be mostly driven by growth in the agriculture sector. Any influence of nonagricultural sectors (manufacturing and construction) did not emerge significant during this period. However, post the break, the growth witnessed in both- non-agricultural (manufacturing and construction sectors) and agricultural sectors explained the sharp increases in real farm wages. The large public rural employment program, MGNREGA (introduced in 2005) was identified as a third potential force of influence on rural wages; however, among other significant factors, its contribution to farm wage growth was estimated to be low and with a lag. Policy implications based on these findings are that for faster growth in real farm wages, focus needs to be on augmenting labour productivity in agriculture. In order to pursue that, one needs to lead reforms in agriculture that can accelerate agri-GDP growth and ensure that the rest of the economy, especially the manufacturing and construction sector, grow much faster pulling labour out from the agricultural sector to higher productivity jobs in manufacturing, construction, and possibly also services.

In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly recognized access to safe water and sanitation infrastructure a matter of human right. This right is reflected in Sustainable Development Goal 6, whose targets 1 and 2 point to universal access to safe and affordable drinking water and adequate sanitation by 2030, in a gender equitable way. Progress towards these targets has been recorded, building on successes achieved under the previous framework of the Millennium Development Goals (Target 7.c). These positive developments could be expected to spill over to other dimensions of human development, health and nutrition in particular. Yet, progress in either of these dimensions, particularly among young children (SDG target 2.2 on ending all forms of malnutrition), is not commensurate. In this paper, we advocate for a systemic approach to water management for improved health and nutrition. We focus on rural and peri-urban areas of the developing world, where multi-purpose water systems are particularly relevant. As competition for safe water resources intensifies, it is important to understand the trade-offs between specific uses and their implications for health and nutrition, based on the gender and age of individuals. We conduct statistical and econometric analyses of secondary, nationally representative data for four countries: Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Ghana and India. These data sets have been routinely used to report on progress toward SDG 6 (availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all) and SDG 2 (ending hunger and achieving food security and improved nutrition for all). Our cross-sectional analysis reflects the positive association between access to improved sanitation infrastructure and long-term child nutrition outcomes (height-for-age and weight-for-age). On the other hand, the analysis fails to demonstrate a positive association between access to improved drinking water sources and the same child nutrition indicators. In the next step, we investigate the associations between multi-use water systems, especially around agricultural activities, and health and nutrition. To that end, we compile data from four household surveys we collected in the same countries, including indicators on the type of irrigation system. The regression analysis of this pooled dataset is complemented by an in-depth, context-specific analysis of behavior around drinking water use and irrigation practices. The analyses reveal a low correlation between water quality at the point of source and water quality at the point of use, drawing attention to behavioral issues around water use. Similarly, the prevalence of open defecation seems much more important to health and nutrition than the existence of sanitation infrastructure. Finally, irrigation is not per se a detrimental factor for drinking water quality or nutrition, but the integration of waste water irrigation in particular needs to be carefully managed in order to avoid adverse nutrition and health effects.

Artificial intelligence and robotics (AI/R) have the potential to result in great change of livelihoods. While individual impacts of AI/R on, for instance, employment, have been subject to a lot of research, how AI/R may affect the poor is scarce. This paper aims to draw attention to how AI/R may impact the poor and marginalized and highlights research needs. A thought experiment compares the future situation of the poor in an AI/R scenario to a scenario without AI/R. A framework is established that depicts poverty and marginality conditions of health, education, public services, work, small businesses including farming as well as voice and empowerment of the poor. This conceptual framework identifies points of entry of AI/R, and is complemented by a more detailed discussion of the way in which changes through AI/R in these areas may relate positively or adversely to the livelihood of the poor. This paper concludes that empirical scenarios and modelling analyses are needed to better understand the different components in the emerging technological and institutional AI/R innovations and identify how they will shape the livelihoods of poor households and communities.

In 2010, the United Nations General Assembly recognized access to safe water and sanitation infrastructure a matter of human right. This right is reflected in Sustainable Development Goal 6, whose targets 1 and 2 point to universal access to safe and affordable drinking water and adequate sanitation by 2030, in a gender equitable way. Progress towards these targets has been recorded, building on successes achieved under the previous framework of the Millennium Development Goals (Target 7.c). These positive developments could be expected to spill over to other dimensions of human development, health and nutrition in particular. Yet, progress in either of these dimensions, particularly among young children (SDG target 2.2 on ending all forms of malnutrition), is not commensurate. In this paper, we advocate for a systemic approach to water management for improved health and nutrition. We focus on rural and peri-urban areas of the developing world, where multi-purpose water systems are particularly relevant. As competition for safe water resources intensifies, it is important to understand the trade-offs between specific uses and their implications for health and nutrition, based on the gender and age of individuals. We conduct statistical and econometric analyses of secondary, nationally representative data for four countries: Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Ghana and India. These data sets have been routinely used to report on progress toward SDG 6 (availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all) and SDG 2 (ending hunger and achieving food security and improved nutrition for all). Our cross-sectional analysis reflects the positive association between access to improved sanitation infrastructure and long-term child nutrition outcomes (height-for-age and weight-for-age). On the other hand, the analysis fails to demonstrate a positive association between access to improved drinking water sources and the same child nutrition indicators. In the next step, we investigate the associations between multi-use water systems, especially around agricultural activities, and health and nutrition. To that end, we compile data from four household surveys we collected in the same countries, including indicators on the type of irrigation system. The regression analysis of this pooled dataset is complemented by an in-depth, context-specific analysis of behavior around drinking water use and irrigation practices. The analyses reveal a low correlation between water quality at the point of source and water quality at the point of use, drawing attention to behavioral issues around water use. Similarly, the prevalence of open defecation seems much more important to health and nutrition than the existence of sanitation infrastructure. Finally, irrigation is not per se a detrimental factor for drinking water quality or nutrition, but the integration of waste water irrigation in particular needs to be carefully managed in order to avoid adverse nutrition and health effects.

Artificial intelligence and robotics (AI/R) have the potential to result in great change of livelihoods. While individual impacts of AI/R on, for instance, employment, have been subject to a lot of research, how AI/R may affect the poor is scarce. This paper aims to draw attention to how AI/R may impact the poor and marginalized and highlights research needs. A thought experiment compares the future situation of the poor in an AI/R scenario to a scenario without AI/R. A framework is established that depicts poverty and marginality conditions of health, education, public services, work, small businesses including farming as well as voice and empowerment of the poor. This conceptual framework identifies points of entry of AI/R, and is complemented by a more detailed discussion of the way in which changes through AI/R in these areas may relate positively or adversely to the livelihood of the poor. This paper concludes that empirical scenarios and modelling analyses are needed to better understand the different components in the emerging technological and institutional AI/R innovations and identify how they will shape the livelihoods of poor households and communities.

While community-based health insurance (CBHI) becomes increasingly integrated into health systems in developing countries, there is still limited research and evidence on its probable health impacts beyond its functions for health financing or for facilitating access to services. Using a cross-sectional data from rural south-west Uganda, we apply a two-stage residual inclusion instrumental variables method to study the impact of community health insurance on stunting in children under five years. Results indicate that each year a household was enrolled in insurance was causally associated with a reduction in the probability of stunting of 5.7 percentage points. Predictive marginal effects show that children in households which have had insurance for at least 5 years had a probability of stunting of only 0.353 compared to 0.531 for children in households with no insurance. Households in CBHI were more likely to attend more free antenatal and postnatal care visits and report fewer illnesses and reported less health expenditures. Moreover, CBHI enrolment was also associated with reduced health costs. We recommend that developing countries should facilitate the expansion of community health insurance scheme not only for their contribution to health financing but even more for mortality and morbidity aversion.

Public works programs (PWPs) in sub-Saharan African countries have re-emerged as an important policy to stimulate employment generation in addition to their protective role such as consumption smoothening. The paper reviews evidence on the extent to which empirical research can substantiate the claim that labor-intensive PWPs in African countries have important economic benefits. We also refer to the experiences with PWPs in India and China for comparison. We aim to answer the following questions: Do PWPs stimulate job creation and raise earning potentials of beneficiaries? And, how do these programs augment employment generation. Based on our review complemented with secondary data analyses, we conclude that in addition to their role as an effective anti-poverty instrument, labor-intensive PWPs have important roles in mitigating poor labor market outcomes and thus enhance employment creation. Yet we also find that more systematic investigations on short-term implementation outcomes of PWPs are necessary, and – due to externalities that are not captured by short-term assessments at the program level – long-run impacts on employment and development also need more research attention.

The agriculture and food sector in India employ a significant proportion (about 44 percent) of the workforce, the majority of whom are not very educated and lack formal or informal skill training. Hence, they are unable to make the most out of their occupation. About 67 percent of the population in India is aged 15-64 years while 27 percent is aged 0-14 years (UNFPA n.d.). This offers both a challenge and an opportunity to skill the youth as well as the existing workforce in India with the objective to improve their productivity and enhance their incomes. This paper is a scoping study of policies and institutions that are operational in this context of skill formation in India, with a focus on the agriculture and food sector. It takes stock of ongoing initiatives and programs, their design and scope in achieving skill development in general and related to the agriculture and food sector in particular. In terms of policy, skill development has been accorded high priority with an objective to make the programs aspirational for youth as well as for them to recognize the value of experience and knowledge. The focus is laid on quality of training, assessment, and certification thus ensuring standards and greater market acceptability. These are prerequisites for investments in skills to bring higher returns in terms of remunerative jobs. The government has been a catalyst of change in this area in terms of designing, implementing and financing of such programs. The role of private players including both potential employers as well as global partners (government, business and nongovernmental organizations) has been widely recognized in upgrading the scope, target and outcomes as well as ensuring sustainability of the national skill development program. As technology plays a very important role in sustainable value chains, it creates demand for a better skilled workforce, and accordingly rewards them with better paid jobs and higher returns in farming. Hence designing appropriate qualification packs and training programs with a focus on innovations all along the value chains (that help promote technology adoption, facilitate effective value chain management, etc.) are critical. Also, innovative models of outreach (for example, classroom training for agricultural professionals, agricultural entrepreneurs, farmer field schools, and e-platforms) can add substantial value to skills at very low cost. Hence, scaling up fast is necessary to benefit the agriculture and food sector in India. While this paper gives an overview of the landscape of various programs and projects, and how they are being implemented by various actors (government, domestic private sector and international agencies), there is dire need to evaluate their outcomes in terms of increased incomes and more stable jobs of those trained through these programs.

While community-based health insurance (CBHI) becomes increasingly integrated into health systems in developing countries, there is still limited research and evidence on its probable health impacts beyond its functions for health financing or for facilitating access to services. Using a cross-sectional data from rural south-west Uganda, we apply a two-stage residual inclusion instrumental variables method to study the impact of community health insurance on stunting in children under five years. Results indicate that each year a household was enrolled in insurance was causally associated with a reduction in the probability of stunting of 5.7 percentage points. Predictive marginal effects show that children in households which have had insurance for at least 5 years had a probability of stunting of only 0.353 compared to 0.531 for children in households with no insurance. Households in CBHI were more likely to attend more free antenatal and postnatal care visits and report fewer illnesses and reported less health expenditures. Moreover, CBHI enrolment was also associated with reduced health costs. We recommend that developing countries should facilitate the expansion of community health insurance scheme not only for their contribution to health financing but even more for mortality and morbidity aversion.

Public works programs (PWPs) in sub-Saharan African countries have re-emerged as an important policy to stimulate employment generation in addition to their protective role such as consumption smoothening. The paper reviews evidence on the extent to which empirical research can substantiate the claim that labor-intensive PWPs in African countries have important economic benefits. We also refer to the experiences with PWPs in India and China for comparison. We aim to answer the following questions: Do PWPs stimulate job creation and raise earning potentials of beneficiaries? And, how do these programs augment employment generation. Based on our review complemented with secondary data analyses, we conclude that in addition to their role as an effective anti-poverty instrument, labor-intensive PWPs have important roles in mitigating poor labor market outcomes and thus enhance employment creation. Yet we also find that more systematic investigations on shortterm implementation outcomes of PWPs are necessary, and − due to externalities that are not captured by short-term assessments at the program level − long-run impacts on employment and development also need more research attention.

The agriculture and food sector in India employ a significant proportion (about 44 percent) of the workforce, the majority of whom are not very educated and lack formal or informal skill training. Hence, they are unable to make the most out of their occupation. About 67 percent of the population in India is aged 15-64 years while 27 percent is aged 0-14 years (UNFPA n.d.). This offers both a challenge and an opportunity to skill the youth as well as the existing workforce in India with the objective to improve their productivity and enhance their incomes. This paper is a scoping study of policies and institutions that are operational in this context of skill formation in India, with a focus on the agriculture and food sector. It takes stock of ongoing initiatives and programs, their design and scope in achieving skill development in general and related to the agriculture and food sector in particular. In terms of policy, skill development has been accorded high priority with an objective to make the programs aspirational for youth as well as for them to recognize the value of experience and knowledge. The focus is laid on quality of training, assessment, and certification thus ensuring standards and greater market acceptability. These are prerequisites for investments in skills to bring higher returns in terms of remunerative jobs. The government has been a catalyst of change in this area in terms of designing, implementing and financing of such programs. The role of private players including both potential employers as well as global partners (government, business and non-governmental organizations) has been widely recognized in upgrading the scope, target and outcomes as well as ensuring sustainability of the national skill development program. As technology plays a very important role in sustainable value chains, it creates demand for a better skilled workforce, and accordingly rewards them with better paid jobs and higher returns in farming. Hence designing appropriate qualification packs and training programs with a focus on innovations all along the value chains (that help promote technology adoption, facilitate effective value chain management, etc.) are critical. Also, innovative models of outreach (for example, classroom training for agricultural professionals, agricultural entrepreneurs, farmer field schools, and e-platforms) can add substantial value to skills at very low cost. Hence, scaling up fast is necessary to benefit the agriculture and food sector in India. While this paper gives an overview of the landscape of various programs and projects, and how they are being implemented by various actors (government, domestic private sector and international agencies), there is dire need to evaluate their outcomes in terms of increased incomes and more stable jobs of those trained through these programs.

In this paper, we adapt a new conceptual framework for the assessment of the economics of land degradation and sustainable land management to the Baltic region. The findings show that the problem of land degradation in the countries of the region is quite substantial, manifesting itself through reductions in the provision of land ecosystem services. Using a benefit transfer approach, the total economic value of these losses due to land degradation is estimated to be about 9 billion USD annually. On the other hand, we find that every dollar invested into restoring the degraded land ecosystems may return about 3 dollars in social gains after a 6-year period following the re-establishment of the higher value biome, making actions to address land degradation in the region both environmentally valuable and economically attractive.

Hunger has become ever more complex, and therefore efforts to sustainably eradicate hunger and malnutrition depend on policies and programs that match these complexities. Innovations are critical for progress. However, they require increased public and private investments as well. Key elements of inclusive policies and partnerships are agricultural development in the hunger-affected rural areas and communities to improve productivity will remain a major part of solutions. Farmers' own innovation capacities need strengthening. Investment in food and agricultural research and development (R&D) is an important tool for broad-based innovation, for instance, related to improved seeds. Digital technology is a game changer for food and nutrition security. Innovations for improved market functioning and avoidance of price shocks require information and early warning systems, as well as better preparedness with improved trade and food reserves policies. The environmental and climate change aspects of agricultural and land and water use change need more attention for sustainable hunger reduction. More attention to innovative social protection and direct nutrition intervention programs is needed, including addressing the micronutrient deficiencies in rural and urban areas. Hunger in complex emergencies needs to bring together development policy with diplomacy and security policy. Innovation initiatives like any development investments must follow principles of good governance, achieving investment at low transaction costs, sound financial practices, and avoidance of diversions of funds.

Hunger has become ever more complex, and therefore efforts to sustainably eradicate hunger and malnutrition depend on policies and programs that match these complexities. Innovations are critical for progress. However, they require increased public and private investments as well. Key elements of inclusive policies and partnerships are agricultural development in the hunger-affected rural areas and communities to improve productivity will remain a Major part of solutions. Farmers’ own innovation capacities need strengthening. Investment in Food and agricultural research and development (R&D) is an important tool for broad-based innovation, for instance, related to improved seeds. Digital technology is a game changer for food and nutrition security. Innovations for improved market functioning and avoidance of price shocks require information and early warning systems, as well as better preparedness with improved trade and food reserves policies. The environmental and climate change aspects of agricultural and land and water use change need more attention for sustainable hunger reduction. More attention to innovative social protection and direct nutrition intervention programs is needed, including addressing the micronutrient deficiencies in rural and urban areas. Hunger in complex emergencies needs to bring together development policy with diplomacy and security policy. Innovation initiatives like any development Investments must follow principles of good governance, achieving investment at low transaction costs, sound financial practices, and avoidance of diversions of funds.

This study provides an overview on the patterns and dynamics of mechanization in African agriculture over the 10 year period (2005-2014). Farm level and value chain related mechanization are considered. This study looks in to pattern of agricultural mechanization along the entire value chain (production, post-harvest, processing, transport and storage) and compares it with the annual average agricultural output over the same time period. Clusters of countries are identified by grouping countries into those that have simultaneously experienced high growth rate in agricultural machinery and also in agricultural output, including; Angola, Botswana, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Rwanda, Tanzania, Togo, and Zambia. On the opposite side of the spectrum are countries with low growth in machinery and in agricultural output, and include for instance Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Egypt. In general, there is a positive correlation (of 0.52) between agricultural machinery growth and agricultural output growth in Africa, which is a classical two – way relationship, not to be interpreted as a causal one.

This study provides an overview on the patterns and dynamics of mechanization in African agriculture over the 10 year period (2005-2014). Farm level and value chain related mechanization are considered. This study looks in to pattern of agricultural mechanization along the entire value chain (production, post-harvest, processing, transport and storage) and compares it with the annual average agricultural output over the same time period. Clusters of countries are identified by grouping countries into those that have simultaneously experienced high growth rate in agricultural machinery and also in agricultural output, including; Angola, Botswana, Ethiopia, Malawi, Mali, Morocco, Niger, Rwanda, Tanzania, Togo, and Zambia. On the opposite side of the spectrum are countries with low growth in machinery and in agricultural output, and include for instance Madagascar, Zimbabwe, Uganda, and Egypt. In general, there is a positive correlation (of 0.52) between agricultural machinery growth and agricultural output growth in Africa, which is a classical two - way relationship, not to be interpreted as a causal one.

Rural youth are an important yet underutilised resource for agricultural growth and economic development in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). In rural areas, the prevalence of vulnerable, low-quality jobs constitutes the main labour market challenge. The International Labour Organization estimates that among the working youth in SSA as many as 80% are employed in the informal economy, typically considered a more vulnerable form of employment, and close to 70% are poor. Many of those young people live in rural areas. Given that the agriculture sector remains the most important economic sector in the region, policies that support its development and increase the human capacities of rural youth can significantly improve employment opportunities and quality.

Innovations are fast changing the agricultural landscape driven by the increasing need to shift towards sustainable practices without sacrificing the productivity and profitability of farming. Innovations in technology, institutions, processes, and products have contributed to the growth of agriculture, globally and in developing countries including India and Africa, as observed in the cases of green revolution in cereals; and gene revolution in cotton. More recently, innovations in farm mechanization, micro irrigation, digital technology driven farm and crop management, financial services, energy efficient post-harvest management including LED and solar driven logistics, among others are gaining momentum. These have considerable potential to impact farmers’ livelihood through higher productivity, better returns, more employability and in turn catalysing the shift towards sustainable agricultural practices through optimal utilization of resources. In addition to these, innovations in business models – “uberization” of agri-mechanization, direct firm-farm linkages, aggregation of farmers through producer organizations, etc. that make agricultural technology more affordable and adoptable for smallholder farmers are critical for economic and human development of people who depend on agriculture for their income and livelihood security and in effect impact poverty alleviation. For the developing world, innovations must infuse inclusive growth and deliver maximum benefits to the smallholder farmers. The present study involves an extensive stocktaking exercise of the types of innovations that have emerged globally and in India in particular, and their increasing impact on the agricultural sector. The stocktaking exercise is based not only on peer-reviewed research from the academic fields, but also draws on recent corporate studies. This is done because we observe an accelerated innovation process in which business and startups (for instance in digital services) play an important role. The important trends and therein the lessons learnt which can be adapted to suit the local conditions in India are captured. The study also looks into the policy and institutional reforms that will catalyze the introduction and adoption of the advanced technology solutions in the context of Indian agriculture.

Households in developing countries face an enormous set of health risks from using contaminated water sources. In 2014, a group of 512 households relying on unimproved water, sanitation and hygiene practices in the Greater Accra region of Ghana were randomly selected to participate in the intervention on water quality self-testing and to receive water quality improvement messages (information). The treatment group was separated into two groups: (1) a school children intervention group and (2) an adult household members intervention group, to identify the role of intra-household decision making or resource allocation in the delivery of water quality information. The comparison group neither participated in the water quality self-testing nor received information. The impacts of the experiment are estimated using intention-to-treat (ITT), instrumental variable (IV) and differences-in-differences (DiD) estimators. Participation rate, which is used as a proxy for uptake, is higher among the school children intervention group in comparison to the adult intervention group. The results show that the household water quality testing and information experiment increase the choice of improved water sources and other safe water behaviors. The study implies that household water quality testing and information could be used as "social marketing" strategy in achieving safe water behaviors. The school children intervention group is more effective in the delivery of water quality information, thereby making a strong case of using school children as "agents of change" in improving safe water behaviors. The study also finds limited evidence of gender differentiated impacts based on the gender of the participants, especially in terms of improved water source choices. The findings have implications on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly on improvement in safe water behaviors and microbial analysis of water quality by providing practical experiences from resource poor settings.

Progress toward food and nutrition security (FNS) needs to be sharply accelerated in order to achieve the Sustainable Development Goal for ending hunger and malnutrition, especially in rural areas. The G20 should target interventions and investment opportunities to maximize impact on people and transformation of rural areas. Currently, few G20 countries map investments, technical assistance, capacity building and policy support in a data-driven way. Such tracking of needs, policies, and resources could include G20 countries' domestic efforts alongside countries they support with development assistance. The G20 could develop such a methodology to identify countries and interventions where additional resources could have a lasting impact. They could then systematically track and streamline FNS actions taken across international organizations and initiatives to efforts to help ensure the SDG is achieved.

La prévalence d’emplois vulnérables constitue le principal défi du marché du travail dans les zones rurales. L’organisation Internationale du travail estime que parmi les jeunes travailleurs de l’Afrique subsaharienne (AFSS), 80% sont employés dans l’économie informelle, généralement considérée comme une forme d’emploi vulnérable et près de 70% sont pauvres. La plupart de ces jeunes vivent dans des zones rurales. Étant donné que le secteur agricole reste le secteur économique le plus important de la région, les politiques qui soutiennent le développement et augmentent les capacités humaines de la jeunesse rurale peuvent améliorer considérablement les opportunités d’emploi.

Die ländliche Jugend Sub-Sahara Afrikas (SSA) ist eine wichtige, jedoch unzureichend genutzte Ressource für landwirtschaftliches Wachstum und wirtschaftliche Entwicklung in der Region. In ländlichen Gebieten stellt die hohe Anzahl unsicherer und qualitativ schlechter Arbeitsplätze die wichtigste Herausforderung für den Arbeitsmarkt dar. Laut Schätzungen der Internationalen Arbeitsorganisation (International Labour Organization) sind bis zu 80% der arbeitenden Jugendlichen in SSA in der informellen Wirtschaft tätig, die typischerweise als eine besonders unsichere Form der Beschäftigung angesehen wird, und fast 70% sind arm. Viele dieser jungen Menschen leben in ländlichen Gebieten. Da der Agrarsektor nach wie vor der wichtigste Wirtschaftssektor in der Region ist, können Maßnahmen, die seine Entwicklung unterstützen und die Kapazitäten der ländlichen Jugend erhöhen, die Anzahl und Qualität der Beschäftigungsmöglichkeiten erheblich verbessern.

The Indian Government has identified a unique opportunity in using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based solutions to streamline its inefficient, ineffective, and expensive subsidy operations. By bringing all subsidies, mainly food and fertilizer subsidy, under the ICT platform, the government aims to make its subsidy operations and delivery mechanisms- transparent, efficient, and effective. Food subsidy is the largest component of government's subsidy bill and is focus of the paper. Authors evaluate the possibility of substituting the existing system of subsidized grain distribution, i.e. Public Distribution System (PDS) with ICT-based Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system. Implementing DBT for food will imply substitution of the existing physical grain entitlement system under PDS/NFSA with a cash transfer made directly into the bank accounts of the beneficiaries. The ongoing policy discussions and strategies for executing DBT-food in India are observed to be prescriptive in nature and suffer, inter alia, on two accounts. One, they view the transition of states from existing PDS to ICT based DBT food as one-disruptive change rather than as an incremental process that contributes to making a system gradually ready for the big transition. Two, by prescribing a uniform timeline for implementation in all the 36 Indian states and Union Territories (UTs), policy makers fail to acknowledge the diverse economic, social, and financial vulnerabilities in different parts of country. The paper attempts to address this gap in political thinking and strategy formulation and present a case for a phased approach to roll out DBT in the Indian food sector. It proposes a scientific way of evaluating a state/UT's 'readiness' for shifting from PDS to DBT in food. The 'readiness' analysis involves studying a state's performance on three parameters: their demographics, performance of existing PDS and the current state of their banking infrastructure. Identification of these parameters draws on learning from national and international experiences in DBT for food, in particular that of Chandigarh and Puducherry (where it is completely rolled-out) that are detailed in the paper's first part. The analysis reveals that in the next five years i.e. by 2022, all Indian states and UTs can replace their existing PDS with DBT-food. We divide the 36 states/UTs into four Phases. The states that are most ready for DBT transition (Phase 1) are Punjab, Goa, Delhi, Daman and Diu, Chandigarh and Puducherry and they may make this shift in the next one year i.e. by 2018. In the second phase are six states- Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Kerala- who may transition to DBT by 2019. States with a very high share of nation's poor and malnourished and/or have high banking infrastructural deficits, are put into the Phase 3 and these 11 states are Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Maharashtra and Gujarat. These states may take about three and half years (i.e. by 2021) for implementing DBT-food. The last phase comprises of 13 states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, HP, J&K, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarakhand, A&N Islands and Lakshwadeep) that have been given a special category status by Union Government and the erstwhile Planning Commission. These 13 states have a low population density, or are geographically located in remote areas, and/or are socio-politically and economically sensitive areas. The states in Phase 3, 4, and 5 are given more time before they implement DBT-food so that they address their existing infrastructural deficits. For these states, the paper proposes an interim phase consisting of a reformed PDS employing IT solution for identity verification of beneficiaries. For cities, towns, urbanised areas in states in the last three Phases whose performance on the three parameters is better than their respective states, the paper proposes a hybrid approach whereby they can shift more quickly to DBT even as the rest of the State puts in place the PDS reform package. Overall, a phased approach with PDS reforms, maximum digitization and use of ICT and JanDhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) technologies and a secure criteria-based preparation for a shift to DBT in food is proposed in the paper. In order to make the transition from PDS to DBT-food successful, specific policy recommendations are made in the paper. Some of these recommendations are: 1. Open market grain availability: This will make or break the transition. Unless the Centre and the states ensure availability of enough food grains in the open market, the transition to DBT food is unlikely to be successful; 2. Inclusive financial integration: Even if we have adequate availability of food grains in the open market, if the banking infrastructure is not inclusive, DBT food will not deliver. Thus, simultaneous efforts are required to increase the number of bank branches, ATMs and BCs. There is a need to include Post offices, cooperative banks and even large PACS (which currently are not part of the core banking system) into this system; 3. Innovations in payment channels: Apart from vertical expansion of the banking network, we also recommend horizontal expansion of payment channels; 4. Hedge farmers' market risks: As a consequence of DBT food when the MSP procurement operations are scaled-down, the Centre and states should together work towards creating and facilitating deep and wide alternative markets for farmers to sell their surplus food grains; a. Provision of an unconditional cash transfer to the farmer: The government may also consider, in the longer run, substituting the existing input subsidy support for agriculture (including fertiliser subsidy) and output price support to farmers with a cash transfer made directly into the farmers' bank accounts; 5. Introduction of policies to complement the system: In order to avoid diversion of the transferred cash towards vices, government should ensure that the entire economic system grows up to meet the increased demand that is likely to result from greater disposable incomes with a household. In particular, there is a need to ensure commensurate increase and stable supply of high-value food, education and healthcare services; 6. Adequacy of the food subsidy amount: If instead of MSP in the food subsidy formula (1.25*MSP - CIP), we can have the Economic cost, then the current problem of 'inadequacy' of the food subsidy transfer amount, faced in Chandigarh and Puducherry, may be resolved; and 7. Leadership and political will: Political motivation in the States to implement the DBT or reforms in the PDS is a vital factor determining the future of PDS reforms. Overall, DBT has the potential to make way for a system of social security or universal basic income, a special income support- provided to every citizen- whose size can be adjusted to his or her needs and vulnerability. Although the concept of basic income is still at its infancy even in the most developed countries, the path to creating such a system has to be through the DBT. Notwithstanding initial problems in implementation and the problems of labour markets that DBT may trigger, a cash transfer systems has become a potent tool in the government's armoury of social welfare. As the country transitions from its low income position to becoming the world's fastest growing economy in a few years, a cash transfer system delivering a social security transfer to all can promote a growth process that is inclusive, efficient and sustainable.

The Indian Government has identified a unique opportunity in using Information and Communication Technology (ICT) based solutions to streamline its inefficient, ineffective, and expensive subsidy operations. By bringing all subsidies, mainly food and fertilizer subsidy, under the ICT platform, the government aims to make its subsidy operations and delivery mechanisms- transparent, efficient, and effective. Food subsidy is the largest component of government’s subsidy bill and is focus of the paper. Authors evaluate the possibility of substituting the existing system of subsidized grain distribution, i.e. Public Distribution System (PDS) with ICT-based Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) system. Implementing DBT for food will imply substitution of the existing physical grain entitlement system under PDS/NFSA with a cash transfer made directly into the bank accounts of the beneficiaries. The ongoing policy discussions and strategies for executing DBT-food in India are observed to be prescriptive in nature and suffer, inter alia, on two accounts. One, they view the transition of states from existing PDS to ICT based DBT food as one-disruptive change rather than as an incremental process that contributes to making a system gradually ready for the big transition. Two, by prescribing a uniform timeline for implementation in all the 36 Indian states and Union Territories (UTs), policy makers fail to acknowledge the diverse economic, social, and financial vulnerabilities in different parts of country. The paper attempts to address this gap in political thinking and strategy formulation and present a case for a phased approach to roll out DBT in the Indian food sector. It proposes a scientific way of evaluating a state/UT’s “readiness” for shifting from PDS to DBT in food. The “readiness” analysis involves studying a state’s performance on three parameters: their demographics, performance of existing PDS and the current state of their banking infrastructure. Identification of these parameters draws on learning from national and international experiences in DBT for food, in particular that of Chandigarh and Puducherry (where it is completely rolled-out) that are detailed in the paper’s first part. The analysis reveals that in the next five years i.e. by 2022, all Indian states and UTs can replace their existing PDS with DBT-food. We divide the 36 states/UTs into four Phases. The states that are most ready for DBT transition (Phase 1) are Punjab, Goa, Delhi, Daman and Diu, Chandigarh and Puducherry and they may make this shift in the next one year i.e. by 2018. In the second phase are six states- Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Karnataka and Kerala- who may transition to DBT by 2019. States with a very high share of nation’s poor and malnourished and/or have high banking infrastructural deficits, are put into the Phase 3 and these 11 states are Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Rajasthan, Jharkhand, Bihar, Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Maharashtra and Gujarat. These states may take about three and half years (i.e. by 2021) for implementing DBT-food. The last phase comprises of 13 states (Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, HP, J&K, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim, Tripura, Uttarakhand, A&N Islands and Lakshwadeep) that have been given a special category status by Union Government and the erstwhile Planning Commission. These 13 states have a low population density, or are geographically located in remote areas, and/or are socio-politically and economically sensitive areas. The states in Phase 3, 4, and 5 are given more time before they implement DBT-food so that they address their existing infrastructural deficits. For these states, the paper proposes an interim phase consisting of a reformed PDS employing IT solution for identity verification of beneficiaries. For cities, towns, urbanised areas in states in the last three Phases whose performance on the three parameters is better than their respective states, the paper proposes a hybrid approach whereby they can shift more quickly to DBT even as the rest of the State puts in place the PDS reform package. Overall, a phased approach with PDS reforms, maximum digitization and use of ICT and JanDhan-Aadhaar-Mobile (JAM) technologies and a secure criteria-based preparation for a shift to DBT in food is proposed in the paper. In order to make the transition from PDS to DBT-food successful, specific policy recommendations are made in the paper. Some of these recommendations are: 1. Open market grain availability: This will make or break the transition. Unless the Centre and the states ensure availability of enough food grains in the open market, the transition to DBT food is unlikely to be successful; 2. Inclusive financial integration: Even if we have adequate availability of food grains in the open market, if the banking infrastructure is not inclusive, DBT food will not deliver. Thus, simultaneous efforts are required to increase the number of bank branches, ATMs and BCs. There is a need to include Post offices, cooperative banks and even large PACS (which currently are not part of the core banking system) into this system; 3. Innovations in payment channels: Apart from vertical expansion of the banking network, we also recommend horizontal expansion of payment channels; 4. Hedge farmers’ market risks: As a consequence of DBT food when the MSP procurement operations are scaled-down, the Centre and states should together work towards creating and facilitating deep and wide alternative markets for farmers to sell their surplus food grains; a. Provision of an unconditional cash transfer to the farmer: The government may also consider, in the longer run, substituting the existing input subsidy support for agriculture (including fertiliser subsidy) and output price support to farmers with a cash transfer made directly into the farmers’ bank accounts; 5. Introduction of policies to complement the system: In order to avoid diversion of the transferred cash towards vices, government should ensure that the entire economic system grows up to meet the increased demand that is likely to result from greater disposable incomes with a household. In particular, there is a need to ensure commensurate increase and stable supply of high-value food, education and healthcare services; 6. Adequacy of the food subsidy amount: If instead of MSP in the food subsidy formula (1.25*MSP – CIP), we can have the Economic cost, then the current problem of “inadequacy” of the food subsidy transfer amount, faced in Chandigarh and Puducherry, may be resolved; and 7. Leadership and political will: Political motivation in the States to implement the DBT or reforms in the PDS is a vital factor determining the future of PDS reforms. Overall, DBT has the potential to make way for a system of social security or universal basic income, a special income support- provided to every citizen- whose size can be adjusted to his or her needs and vulnerability. Although the concept of basic income is still at its infancy even in the most developed countries, the path to creating such a system has to be through the DBT. Notwithstanding initial problems in implementation and the problems of labour markets that DBT may trigger, a cash transfer systems has become a potent tool in the government’s armoury of social welfare. As the country transitions from its low income position to becoming the world’s fastest growing economy in a few years, a cash transfer system delivering a social security transfer to all can promote a growth process that is inclusive, efficient and sustainable.

The low level and adverse trends of youth employment in Africa and in the Middle East in the last decade are key driving factors of poverty, stress migration, frustration and political instability. There needs to be a sense of urgency to change the situation. How can employment, especially for youth, be created rapidly in these regions? The paper discusses different policies for the generation of mass employment of both skilled and unskilled labor. The sectoral priorities differ within the regions, with rural and agricultural jobs playing a more significant role in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Both SSA and the Arab region show potentials for largescale public works programs. Un-orthodox economic policy actions are called for due to the pressing nature of the youth unemployment situation. These policies should aim at generating productive employment improving skills, and can be implemented both at the central and at the local level. Countries should be responsible for ownership, accountability and self-monitoring of policies and programs. Large scale international funding support should be considered when planning, implementation and supervision are actually credible and results oriented.

Households in developing countries face an enormous set of health risks from using contaminated water sources. In 2014, a group of 512 households relying on unimproved water, sanitation and hygiene practices in the Greater Accra region of Ghana were randomly selected to participate in the intervention on water quality self-testing and to receive water quality improvement messages (information). The treatment group was separated into two groups: (1) a school children intervention group and (2) an adult household members intervention group, to identify the role of intra-household decision making or resource allocation in the delivery of water quality information. The comparison group neither participated in the water quality self-testing nor received information. The impacts of the experiment are estimated using intention-to-treat (ITT), instrumental variable (IV) and differences-in-differences (DiD) estimators. Participation rate, which is used as a proxy for uptake, is higher among the school children intervention group in comparison to the adult intervention group. The results show that the household water quality testing and information experiment increase the choice of improved water sources and other safe water behaviors. The study implies that household water quality testing and information could be used as “social marketing” strategy in achieving safe water behaviors. The school children intervention group is more effective in the delivery of water quality information, thereby making a strong case of using school children as “agents of change” in improving safe water behaviors. The study also finds limited evidence of gender differentiated impacts based on the gender of the participants, especially in terms of improved water source choices. The findings have implications on the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly on improvement in safe water behaviors and microbial analysis of water quality by providing practical experiences from resource poor settings.

The low level and adverse trends of youth employment in Africa and in the Middle East in the last decade are key driving factors of poverty, stress migration, frustration and political instability. There needs to be a sense of urgency to change the situation. How can employment, especially for youth, be created rapidly in these regions? The paper discusses different policies for the generation of mass employment of both skilled and unskilled labor. The sectoral priorities differ within the regions, with rural and agricultural jobs playing a more significant role in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Both SSA and the Arab region show potentials for largescale public works programs. Un-orthodox economic policy actions are called for due to the pressing nature of the youth unemployment situation. These policies should aim at generating productive employment improving skills, and can be implemented both at the central and at the local level. Countries should be responsible for ownership, accountability and self-monitoring of policies and programs. Large scale international funding support should be considered when planning, implementation and supervision are actually credible and results oriented.

Innovations in agriculture hold the key to unlocking sustainable, inclusive growth potential while securing employment opportunities for young people. In India, this has given rise to a new generation of entrepreneurs and startups that have increased agricultural productivity and producer income. Key developments in Indian agriculture have been in areas such as digital innovations for pre and post-harvest management, efficient energy sources, biotechnology and the ���uberization��� of farm mechanization. These innovations have opened up new avenues of engagement with the sector and created job opportunities for technology developers, entrepreneurs and agribusiness specialists. India���s success in launching these innovations in smallholder agriculture has potential for replication in other developing nations, including smallholder economies of Africa, through partnerships for cooperation and knowledge transfer

Les pauvres en milieu rural diff��rent largement en ce qui concerne leurs capacit��s et le potentiel agro-��cologique des zones o�� ils vivent. Ainsi, l���intensification durable ne constitue pas seulement un autre probl��me d���optimisation pour assurer une productivit�� plus ��lev��e avec moins d���impact sur l���environnement. Il s���agit plut��t d���une t��che complexe de cr��ation de valeur par l���innovation dans les syst��mes institutionnels, organisationnels et technologiques des soci��t��s. Il est important de noter que l���intensification durable n���est pas un d��fi �� relever seulement par le secteur agricole, mais par la soci��t�� dans son ensemble. Les strat��gies pertinentes peuvent aller de l���augmentation de la r��colte ou de la diversit�� par zone �� l���augmentation des possibilit��s de revenus en dehors de l���agriculture.

Innovations are fast changing the agricultural landscape driven by the increasing need to shift towards sustainable practices without sacrificing the productivity and profitability of farming. Innovations in technology, institutions, processes, and products have contributed to the growth of agriculture, globally and in developing countries including India and Africa, as observed in the cases of green revolution in cereals; and gene revolution in cotton. More recently, innovations in farm mechanization, micro irrigation, digital technology driven farm and crop management, financial services, energy efficient post-harvest management including LED and solar driven logistics, among others are gaining momentum. These have considerable potential to impact farmers' livelihood through higher productivity, better returns, more employability and in turn catalysing the shift towards sustainable agricultural practices through optimal utilization of resources. In addition to these, innovations in business models - "uberization" of agri-mechanization, direct firm-farm linkages, aggregation of farmers through producer organizations, etc. that make agricultural technology more affordable and adoptable for smallholder farmers are critical for economic and human development of people who depend on agriculture for their income and livelihood security and in effect impact poverty alleviation. For the developing world, innovations must infuse inclusive growth and deliver maximum benefits to the smallholder farmers. The present study involves an extensive stocktaking exercise of the types of innovations that have emerged globally and in India in particular, and their increasing impact on the agricultural sector. The stocktaking exercise is based not only on peer-reviewed research from the academic fields, but also draws on recent corporate studies. This is done because we observe an accelerated innovation process in which business and startups (for instance in digital services) play an important role. The important trends and therein the lessons learnt which can be adapted to suit the local conditions in India are captured. The study also looks into the policy and institutional reforms that will catalyze the introduction and adoption of the advanced technology solutions in the context of Indian agriculture.

The rural poor differ widely with regard to their capabilities and the agro-ecological potential of the areas where they live. Thus, sustainable intensification is not just another optimization problem for ensuring higher productivity with less environmental impact. Rather it is a complex task of creating value through innovations in the institutional, organizational and technological systems of societies. Importantly, sustainable intensification is not only a challenge to be met by and within the agriculture sector alone, but by society as a whole. Relevant strategies can range from increasing crop harvest or diversity per area to increasing income opportunities outside agriculture.

To achieve food security for all, new resource policies for sustainable land and water use are needed. Land, water and energy need to be considered jointly in policies, not in isolation. G20 countries' policy makers, corporate and civil society actors, and those of other countries should act in coordinated fashion in the following four policy areas on which specific proposals are made in this policy paper: 1) focusing land, and water resource policies on human wellbeing, 2) investing in and sharing water, agricultural and energy innovations, 3) making wider use of digital opportunities for sustainable agriculture, and 4) re-designing global governance of agriculture and food.

The ever-growing population of India, along with the increasing competition for water for productive uses in different sectors - especially irrigated agriculture and related local water systems and drainage - poses a challenge in an effort to improve water quality and sanitation. In rural and peri-urban settings, where agriculture is one of the main sources of livelihood, the type of water use in irrigated agriculture has complex interactions with drinking water and sanitation. In particular, the multi-purpose character of irrigation and drainage infrastructure creates several interlinks between water, sanitation (WATSAN) and agriculture and there is a competition for water quantity between domestic water use and irrigated agriculture. This study looks at the determinants of the microbiological quality of stored drinking water among households residing in areas where communities use different types of irrigation water. The study used multiple tube fermentation method Most Probable Number (MPN) technique, a WHO recommended technique, to identify thermotolerant fecal coliforms and E. coli in water in the laboratory (WHO 1993). Overall, we found that the microbiological water quality was poor. The stored water generally had very high levels of Escherichia coli (E. coli) contamination, 80% of the households had water in storage that could not be considered potable as per the World Health Organization (WHO) standards, and 73% of the households were using a contaminated water source. The quality of household storage water was largely unaffected by the major household socioeconomic characteristics, such as wealth, education level or social status. Households using surface water for irrigation had poor drinking water quality, even after controlling for hygiene, behavioral and community variables. Drinking water quality was positively impacted by proper storage and water treatment practices, such as reverse osmosis. Hygiene and sanitation indicators had mixed impacts on the quality of drinking water, and the impacts were largely driven by hygiene behavior rather than infrastructures. Community open defaecation and high village-household density deteriorates household storage water quality.