Search

espanolEste articulo estudia los significados de las formas verbales shall y will en ingles moderno tardio, tal y como aparecen en el Corpus of History English Texts (1700-1900). Existen trabajos especificos sobre verbos modales en periodos historicos de la lengua inglesa, como Fachinetti (1997) y Gotti (2003). Para el estudio de estos modales, se emplean herramientas de corpus para identificar los sentidos de estos dos verbos en contexto. Los datos resultantes de este analisis se agrupan de acuerdo con estos significados. El concepto de modalidad que seguimos se basa principalmente en Palmer (1986; 2001), Hoye (2008) y van der Auwera y Plungian (1998). Las conclusiones muestran que estas formas verbales tenian, de hecho, significados modales, incluso si su uso perifrastico para indicar futuro era evidente. EnglishThis paper deals with the meanings of the verbal forms shall and will in the late Modern English period, as evinced in the Corpus of History English Texts (1700-1900). Earlier literature on modal verbs in historical periods includes Fachinetti (1997) and Gotti (2003). We study these modals using corpus tools in order to identify the senses of these two verbs in context and to group findings according to meaning. Our notion of modality mainly follows from Palmer (1986; 2001), Hoye (2008) and van der Auwera and Plungian (1998). Conclusions show that these verbal forms had indeed modal meanings, even if their periphrastic use to indicate future was evident.

The paper discusses the status of shall in today’s legal drafting and legal translation, and by presenting typologies by a number of authors briefly addresses the variety of meanings it is used to express, in both legislation and contracts. It introduces the “shall dilemma” faced by non-native legal translators working both from and into English. The dilemma consists in the discrepancy between the promiscuous and abundant use of shall in authentic as well as translated documents, on the one hand, and the recommendations found in various drafting manuals promoting either a shall-free policy or a disciplined use of shall, on the other hand. The research part presents the results of a survey carried out among a carefully chosen sample of professional legal translators to determine what their policy is on the use of shall. The results include both quantitative findings and additional comments made by the translators, and confirms the divide between actual practice and the recommendations. In the next section of the paper, the results are applied and a series of step-by-step exercises are introduced which should raise the awareness of legal translation trainees of the ambiguity of shall and teach them to use it in a reasoned and disciplined way.

Este artículo estudia los significados de las formas verbales shall y will en inglés moderno tardío, tal y como aparecen en el Corpus of History English Texts (1700-1900). Existen trabajos específicos sobre verbos modales en períodos históricos de la lengua inglesa, como Fachinetti (1997) y Gotti (2003). Para el estudio de estos modales, se emplean herramientas de corpus para identificar los sentidos de estos dos verbos en contexto. Los datos resultantes de este análisis se agrupan de acuerdo con estos significados. El concepto de modalidad que seguimos se basa principalmente en Palmer (1986; 2001), Hoye (2008) y van der Auwera y Plungian (1998). Las conclusiones muestran que estas formas verbales tenían, de hecho, significados modales, incluso si su uso perifrástico para indicar futuro era evidente. This paper deals with the meanings of the verbal forms shall and will in the late Modern English period, as evinced in the Corpus of History English Texts (1700-1900). Earlier literature on modal verbs in historical periods includes Fachinetti (1997) and Gotti (2003). We study these modals using corpus tools in order to identify the senses of these two verbs in context and to group findings according to meaning. Our notion of modality mainly follows from Palmer (1986; 2001), Hoye (2008) and van der Auwera and Plungian (1998). Conclusions show that these verbal forms had indeed modal meanings, even if their periphrastic use to indicate future was evident.

同じ語源に由来する話法の助動詞sollen(ドイツ語)、zullen(オランダ語)、shall(英語)の意味論的比較を試みる。本稿は、その第一段階である。辞書および文法書の例文を集めてコーパスとし、用法別の対照表を作成する。コーパスの規模は小さいが、いくつかの傾向をそこから読み取ることができる。たとえば、非認識的用法の1つで、sollenが「主語以外の意志」に由来する必然性を表しているのに対し、zullenやshallはより強く話者の意志を表現していること。いっぽう認識的用法では、sollenとzullenには「伝聞」の用法があるが、shallにはないこと。また、zullenやshallには、sollenにはない「話者の主観的推量」の意味があることなどである。三者の違いを概観し、報告する。

This scientific article is devoted to the study of shall/will semantics. In order to understand the current state of the language, it is necessary to regard each phenomenon of the modern language as a result of a long historical change, development and transformation. The issue of meaning and function of will/shall in modern English, which is the subject of our study, is of great interest in theoretical grammar. The study of this problem in diachrony will not only determine the role of shall/will in the formation of pure future tense, but also identify the conditions of these verbs combination with the infinitive to form modality

In this work the attention is focused to the numerical simulation of the experimental bending tests carried out on a total of six reinforced concrete r.c. plates the latter aimed to provide a basic understanding of the its performance when strengthened by Fiber Reinforced Cementitius Matrix (FRCM) Composites. Three of those were used as control specimens. The numerical simulation was carried out by LUSAS software. A good correlation between the FE results and data obtained from the test, both in the load–deformation behavior and the failure load was highlighted. This permits to prove that applied strengthening system gives back an enhancement 2.5 times greater in respect of the unreinforced case. A greater energy dissipation ability and a residual load-bearing capacity makes the proposed system very useful in the retrofitting as well as in the case of strengthening of bridge structures. Based on the validation of the FE results in bending, the numerical analysis was also extended to characterize the behavior of this strengthening system in tensile.

Les partisans du Plain Language Movement souhaitent supprimer des documents juridiques (mais pas exclusivement), chaque fois que cela est possible, ce qui, dans leur formulation, les rend difficiles à comprendre pour les non juristes. Bon nombre de ces documents se doivent, en effet, d’être accessibles au citoyen ordinaire. Il est essentiel que les changements soient précis et ne créent pas d’ambiguïté. Trois marqueurs verbaux sont directement concernés par cette (r)évolution : shall, must et le présent simple qui, aussi bien quantitativement que qualitativement, voient leurs emplois profondément modifiés. On se focalisera ici uniquement sur le discours normatif. Plain Language Movement advocates want, whenever possible, to eradicate from legal documents (among others) that which makes them difficult for lay readers to understand, since many of these documents should be accessible to the ordinary citizen. It is important that the changes should be precise and should not introduce any ambiguity. Three verbal markers are directly concerned by this (r)evolution : shall, must and the present simple. Their use is likely to change considerably, from a quantitative point of view as well as from a qualitative point of view. We shall focus exclusively on prescriptive texts.

The aim of this study is to investigate how the modal auxiliaries will and shall and the semi-modal BE going to are used to express futurity by individuals whose first language is Swedish. The study is corpus based, and the corpora used in this study consist of Swedish newspapers in English (SWENC) and material from blogs which are written in English by Swedes (BESC). These are compared with the press sub-corpora in F-LOB (the Freiburg-LOB Corpus of British English) and Frown (the Freiburg-Brown corpus of American English), which represent British and American varieties of English. The method is quantitative and the results are mainly presented in frequencies. The results show that all of the modals are used in SWENC and BESC. The core modal will is the most frequently used modal in all of the corpora and sub-corpora. The semi-modal BE going to is most frequently used in BESC and the second core modal shall is most frequent in SWENC. However, qualitative examination of shall revealed that the writers in SWENC use the modal differently from how it is used in F-LOB Press. This study shows evidence of variation in use of the modals which express futurity. The fact that the semi-modal BE going to exists in the Swedish material indicates that the process of grammaticalization continues in the Swedish form of English.