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We report the slow-light enhanced spin-resolved in-plane emission from a single quantum dot (QD) in a photonic crystal waveguide (PCW). The slow light dispersions in PCWs are designed to match the emission wavelengths of single QDs. The resonance between two spin states emitted from a single QD and a slow light mode of a waveguide is investigated under a magnetic field with Faraday configuration. Two spin states of a single QD experience different degrees of enhancement as their emission wavelengths are shifted by combining diamagnetic and Zeeman effects with an optical excitation power control. A circular polarization degree up to 0.81 is achieved by changing the off-resonant excitation power. Strongly polarized photon emission enhanced by a slow light mode shows great potential to attain controllable spin-resolved photon sources for integrated optical quantum networks on chip., 7 pages,5 figures

In this study, time resolved (TR) Monte Carlo (MC) simulation program code was run to generate photon fluencies with increasing time steps. TR MC simulation was performed for ten time series from 4 ps to 52 ps. Generated photon fluencies were transferred to the image analysis programming platform. Imaging device geometry was created for test purpose in image reconstruction programming platform environment. Forward model weight matrix functions were calculated during each time period for 38 sources, and 38 detectors according to the back-reflected imaging geometry. A homogenous phantom, which simulated tissue, was chosen. Depending on the homogeneous tissue optical properties, such as tissue absorption coefficient μa, and tissue scattering coefficient μs, photons emitted from the laser source positions; migrated differently inside the imaging tissue. Photons migrate inside the tissue by some multiplication factor of ps depending on the tissue type for each 100-micrometer vertical distance. Superficial photons come photodetector point fast, depend on the source-detector neighborhood distances and tissue optical properties, respectively. Time resolved diffuse optic tomography (TRDOT) imaging systems are an emerging biomedical optic imaging modality due to progressive electronic technologies are helping to build the systems faster and cheap. As such, emerging microelectronic technology is giving important access to design and implement compact laser sources and photodetector units. Vertical cavity surface emitting light (VCSEL) as laser source and single photon avalanche diode (SPAD) arrays as photodetector units are becoming in common use as important hardware tools for designers and researchers in this field. TR diffuse photon analysis should be done routinely for better understanding of TRDOT devices. Hence, MC simulation driven TR photon fluence analysis was done for such a purpose in this study.

The excited state population of single solid-state emitters is subjected to energy fluctuations around the equilibrium driven by the bath and relaxation through the emission of phonons or photons. Simultaneous measurement of the associated spectral dynamics requires a technique with a high spectral and temporal resolution with an additionally high temporal dynamic range. We propose a pulsed excitation-laser analog of Photon-Correlation Fourier Spectroscopy (PCFS), which extracts the lineshape and spectral diffusion dynamics along the emission lifetime trajectory of the emitter, effectively discriminating spectral dynamics from relaxation and bath fluctuations. This lifetime-resolved PCFS correlates photon-pairs at the output arm of a Michelson interferometer in both their time-delay between laser-excitation and photon-detection and the time-delay between two photons. We propose the utility of the technique for systems with changing relative contributions to the emission from multiple states, for example, quantum emitters exhibiting phonon-mediated exchange between different fine-structure states., Comment: 15 pages, 5 figures total, including SI

The variation of photon fluence distributions [photon/cm2.s] for different input angle laser sources was shown by researchers experimentally [1]. According to this philosophy, different input angle source and detector photon entrance from tissue surface into imaging media have different photon fluence distributions for a specific tissue type. In this study, different input angle simulations were used for pulsed laser photons which uses time resolved (TR) Monte Carlo (MC) photon-tissue interaction simulation program to prove the philosophy in TR run mode. TR run mode MC simulation program trmc.c [2] was modified and used to generate TR photon counts inside the homogenous simulation environment. It has homogeneous tissue optical properties, absorption μa = 0.1 cm-1, scattering μs = 100 cm-1, and anisotropy g = 0.90 coefficients. Multi-input angle philosophy was first demonstrated by the researchers [1]. It was defined and experimentally proven. Photon fluencies which are forward model weight matrix coefficients differences were successfully shown for TR laser as a general procedure. In this study, differences were drawn for seven different input angle sources with pulsed laser photons. The proof-of-concept philosophy was shown successfully. The purpose of the use of pulsed laser is to show the righteousness of the philosophy in TR run mode, since the TR diffuse optical tomography (TRDOT) device would be made as a biomedical optic imaging (BOI) device. Cylindrical radial coordinate system which was defined in trmc.c [2] in earlier was used, the code was modified, and photon fluencies were generated based on the different input angle laser photons. Cylindrical coordinate system has 1 cm and 36-element radial r, and depth z grids. 100.000 photons were sent from pencil beam tissue surface point. Photons would be thought as group of ultra-narrow band pulsed laser photons. The main purpose of showing photon fluencies for different laser source input angles were succeeded and image reconstruction procedure was also applied. Ten time series were used which are [4, 8, 12, 16, 22, 26, 30, 38, 46, 52] picoseconds (ps). Different input angle photon fluence distribution figures were drawn. These are 0º, 15º, 30º, 45º, 60º, 75º, 90º. Photon fluence differences were also drawn and observed for different input angle laser sources. Forward model problem different input angle laser source and detector transfer functions were also drawn. Finally inlusion was embedded inside the homogenous simulation environment and images were reconstructed for both scenarios and localization error (LE), and concentration error (CE) was calculated for both scenarions and compared with each other.

The particle-like nature of light becomes evident in the photon statistics of fluorescence from single quantum systems as photon antibunching. In multichromophoric systems, exciton diffusion and subsequent annihilation occurs. These processes also yield photon antibunching but cannot be interpreted reliably. Here we develop picosecond time-resolved antibunching to identify and decode such processes. We use this method to measure the true number of chromophores on well-defined multichromophoric DNA-origami structures, and precisely determine the distance-dependent rates of annihilation between excitons. Further, this allows us to measure exciton diffusion in mesoscopic H- and J-type conjugated-polymer aggregates. We distinguish between one-dimensional intra-chain and three-dimensional inter-chain exciton diffusion at different times after excitation and determine the disorder-dependent diffusion lengths. Our method provides a powerful lens through which excitons can be studied at the single-particle level, enabling the rational design of improved excitonic probes such as ultra-bright fluorescent nanoparticles and materials for optoelectronic devices., Photon antibunching typically measures the time-averaged photophysics of multichromophoric nanoparticles. Here, the authors report on time-resolving photon antibunching, allowing the true number of chromophores and exciton diffusion to be measured in DNA origami and conjugated polymer aggregates.

Supplementary Document

Photochemistry is a largely unconsidered potential source of reactive species such as hydroxyl and peroxy radicals (OH and HO2, “HOx”) indoors. We present measured wavelength-resolved photon fluxes and distance dependences of indoor light sources including halogen, incandescent, and compact fluorescent lights (CFL) commonly used in residential buildings; fluorescent tubes common in industrial and commercial settings; and sunlight entering buildings through windows. We use these measurements to predict indoor HOx production rates from the photolysis of nitrous acid (HONO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), ozone (O3), formaldehyde (HCHO), and acetaldehyde (CH3CHO). Our results suggest that while most lamps can photolyze these molecules, only sunlight and fluorescent tubes will be important to room-averaged indoor HOx levels due to the strong distance dependence of the fluxes from compact bulbs. Under ambient conditions, we predict that sunlight and fluorescent lights will photolyze HONO to form OH at rates of 106–...

Dual-energy contrast-enhanced digital mammography (CEDM) has been used to decompose breast images and improve diagnostic accuracy for tumor detection. However, this technique causes an increase of radiation dose and an inaccuracy in material decomposition due to the limitations of conventional X-ray detectors. In this study, we simulated the dual-energy CEDM with an energy-resolved photon-counting detector (ERPCD) for reducing radiation dose and improving the quantitative accuracy of material decomposition images. The ERPCD-based dual-energy CEDM was compared to the conventional dual-energy CEDM in terms of radiation dose and quantitative accuracy. The correlation between radiation dose and image quality was also evaluated for optimizing the ERPCD-based dual-energy CEDM technique. The results showed that the material decomposition errors of the ERPCD-based dual-energy CEDM were 0.56–0.67 times lower than those of the conventional dual-energy CEDM. The imaging performance of the proposed technique was optimized at the radiation dose of 1.09 mGy, which is a half of the MGD for a single view mammogram. It can be concluded that the ERPCD-based dual-energy CEDM with an optimal exposure level is able to improve the quality of material decomposition images as well as reduce radiation dose.

Solvents lacking hydrogen atoms are very convenient models for elucidating the properties of singlet oxygen, since the lifetime of singlet oxygen in these solvents reaches tens milliseconds. Measuring intrinsic infrared (IR) phosphorescence of singlet oxygen at 1270 nm is the most reliable method of singlet oxygen detection. However, efficient application of the phosphorescence method to these models requires an equipment allowing reliable measurement of the phosphorescence kinetic parameters in the millisecond time range at low rates of singlet oxygen generation, which is a technically difficult problem. Here, we describe a highly sensitive LED (laser) spectrometer recently constructed in our laboratory for the steady-state and time-resolved measurements of the millisecond phosphorescence of singlet oxygen. In the steady-state mode, this spectrometer allows detection of singlet oxygen phosphorescence upon direct excitation of oxygen molecules in the region of dark-red absorption bands at 690 and 765 nm. For kinetic measurements, we used phenalenone as a photosensitizer, microsecond pulses of violet (405 nm) LED for excitation (irradiance intensity, ≤50 μW/cm2), a photomultiplier and a computer multichannel scaler for time-resolved photon counting. The decays of singlet oxygen in air-saturated CCl4, C6F6, and Freon 113 and quenching of singlet oxygen by phenalenone and dissolved molecules of triplet oxygen were measured. The relative values of the radiative rate constants of singlet oxygen in these media were determined. The results were compared with the absorption coefficients of oxygen measured by our group using the methods of laser photochemistry. Critical discussion of the obtained results and the data of other researchers is presented.

We have achieved a greater than 2.5× improvement in the acquisition time figure of merit of an EmiScope™ Time Resolved photon Emission (TRE)-based probe system, by optimization of the detector dark-count rate, photon detection efficiency, and timing jitter. The effects of detector after-pulsing were reduced by use of an optimized hold-off time.

Frequency-resolved photon correlations have proven to be a useful resource to unveil nonlinearities hidden in standard observables such as the spectrum or the standard (color-blind) photon correlations. In this manuscript, we analyze the frequency-resolved correlations of the photons being emitted from an optomechanical system where light is nonlinearly coupled to the quantized motion of a mechanical mode of a resonator, but where the quantum nonlinear response is typically hard to evidence. We present and unravel a rich landscape of frequency-resolved correlations, and discuss how the time-delayed correlations can reveal information about the dynamics of the system. We also study the dependence of correlations on relevant parameters such as the single-photon coupling strength, the filtering linewidth, or the thermal noise in the environment. This enriched understanding of the system can trigger new experiments to probe nonlinear phenomena in optomechanics, and provide insights into dynamics of generic nonlinear systems., MKS thanks Michael J Steel for stimulating discussions, and acknowledges funding from Australian Research Council (Discovery Project No. DP160101691) and the Macquarie University Research Fellowship Scheme. AGT acknowledges support from CSIC Research Platform on Quantum Technologies PTI-001 and from Spanish Project No. PGC2018-094792-B-100 (MCIU/AEI/FEDER, EU). RE and JA acknowledge project PID2019-107432GB-I00 from the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, Project No. H2020- FET Open 'THOR' Nr. 829067 from the European Commission, and Grant No. IT1164-19 from the Basque Government for consolidated groups of the Basque University.

This paper presents the development of an energy-resolved readout electronics for BGO and LYSO scintillator detectors for X-ray photon-counting imaging applications. The detector signal was modeled as an exponential decay waveform convoluted with the single photon response of SiPM detector. In order to achieve high counting rate, the detector signal was firstly processed by an active pole-zero compensation circuits. Then using the time-over-threshold (ToT) readout method, a time to digital converters (TDC) implemented in FPGA. Simulation and experimental results showed that the method can significantly shorten the pulse width. The spectrum measurement results showed that the signal from active Pole-Zero compensation circuit can almost retain the information of the original signal while the spectrum obtained by TOT method was badly distorted. The detailed analysis and test results will be presented in the paper.

In this work we demonstrate an approach of double arrival time monitors (ATM), which is employed to increase synchronization level between external femtosecond laser systems and 4th generation light sources. With comparison to the single arrival time monitor technique, which was routinely used for time resolved experiments at accelerator based light sources, here we demonstrate more than twice increase in the temporal resolution and elimination of temporal drifts. The proposed technique opens a way for sub femtosecond synchronization within large-scale facilities and laser systems.

We developed a prototype photon-counting mammography unit with a cadmium zinc telluride detector, which provides a new type of image with physical analysis parameters. Using the X-ray attenuation information obtained from this device, we examined the ability of this technique in discriminating substances and estimating their compositions. To estimate the substance compositions, we used resected breast tissues immediately after a surgical operation for invasive carcinoma of no special type, and used phantoms to reproduce mammary glands and adipose tissue. In our system, the spectrum penetrating the substance was measured with three energy bins in each pixel. The products of linear-attenuation coefficient and thicknesses for each bin were calculated. Using these three values, the scatterplots displaying all the values calculated from each pixel inside the region of interest (ROI) on the image were created. The scatterplot displaying only gravity values calculated for each ROI on the image was created for evaluating the separation of plot points to discriminate between different substance compositions. The gravity points placed on the malignant tumor tissue were plotted separately from those on the normal tissue. Furthermore, a fusion image was created by overlapping an X-ray image and values of this scatterplot points represented on a 10-step color scale. The fusion image was highlighting the differences in substance compositions using color tone, such as malignant tumor or mammary gland tissue, by adjusting the color scale level.

Spectrally resolved photon echo spectroscopy in the off-resonance condition is reported for the first time to study the coherence and population dynamics of CdSe quantum dots. In this case, the information related to the system dynamics can be inferred indirectly. This is especially useful when such dynamical information might be hidden under the absorption maxima of the sample. We observe that a substantial intensity of the photon echo signal was obtained in two different CdSe quantum dot samples (CdSe 610 and CdSe 640), which have absorption maxima at 620 nm and 590 nm, respectively. Due to the difference in sizes of these two quantum dots, a small change is observed in the molecular dynamics of these two quantum-dot samples. Specifically, the spectral diffusion of CdSe 640 occurs within the first 50 fs, whereas that for CdSe 610 occurs at about 100 fs timescale. The integrated plots of the photon echo signal, as a function of population time, result in two decay constants. The faster among the two decay components is pulse width limited and is in between 30 and 40 fs at different fixed coherence times for both samples. The slower decay component for the CdSe 610 sample is found to be in the range of 75–85 fs, while that for CdSe 640, it is between 82 and 92 fs at different fixed coherence times. SYNOPSIS Excitonic dynamics of CdSe quantum-dots is presented using time-dependent spectrally-resolved photon-echo spectroscopy at 810 nm, which is ~160 nm red-shifted from their absorption maxima. Information related to system dynamics is inferred indirectly from such ‘far-from-resonance’ photon-echo experiments, which would be especially useful when the information is hidden within the sample’s absorption maxima.

Energy-resolved photon counting detectors (ERPCD) are currently being developed for medical application. It is hoped that these detectors can be used for deriving precise material information. When used for that purpose, many researchers are concerned with the necessity to consider the response of ERPCD for analysis of measured spectra. To solve this issue, we plan to apply a correction for incomplete energy signals using the application of software. For establishing a correction procedure, we should know the response of ERPCD in terms of interactions between detector materials (Cd, Zn and Te), charge sharing effect, and energy resolution. First, to derive the ideal response of the ERPCD "R1", Monte-Carlo simulation was carried out. In the simulated R1, characteristic X-ray peaks of Cd and Te were clearly observed; these peaks are produced in multi-pixel-type detectors. Second, taking into consideration the charge sharing effect and energy resolution, response function "R2" was determined; constant-component-type charge sharing function and energy dependent Gaussian function were assumed based on published articles. Then comparing the experimental spectra (50 and 80 kV) measured with our test-model detector, parameters for R2 were determined. As a result, we can reproduce X-ray spectra measured with a multi-pixel-type ERPCD; typical parameters for R2 are peak efficiency 25% and energy resolution 8% at 80 keV. Next, using the X-ray spectra folded with R1×R2, ratios of full-energy peaks in the spectra were analyzed. X-ray attenuation of aluminum having a thickness of 1 cm was calculated for dental radiography application. In our application for material identification, attenuation coefficient μt should be determined from the measured spectra. When a tube voltage of 80 kV was applied, obtained μt for 50-80 keV is in good agreement with the theoretical values. Based on the present research, the results of response function experiments will be applied to our material identification method which was developed using ideal X-ray spectra.

A new energy-resolved photon-counting mammography (ERPCM) device with a cadmium telluride (CdTe) series detector (JOB Corporation, Japan) is currently being developed. The CdTe series detector can detect higher-energy photons with high sensitivity, enabling the use of high-energy X-rays for imaging. Our previous research, in which we compared ERPCM using high-energy X-rays (tube voltage 50 kV) with general mammography using low-energy X-rays (tube voltage about 30 kV), reported that ERPCM had a higher CNR (contrast-to-noise ratio) than general mammography. The purpose of this study was to examine the magnitude of the CNR using a simulation and ERPCM; especially we would like to examine the CNR when the tube voltage of higher than 50 kV was adopted. In the comparison of the CNRs, It was necessary to pay attention to equalizing the average glandular dose (AGD). Using the simulation and ERPCM, we compared the CNR between images taken at 50 kV and 75 kV under a constant AGD. The simulation phantom was composed of 50% mammary gland and 50% adipose tissue, and contained tumor regions. The thickness of the simulation phantom was varied. We put an acrylic plate (1 mm thickness) on an RMI-156 phantom. Furthermore, we placed the thicker acrylic plate (10, 20, 30, 40 mm) on the 156 phantom and 1 mm-thick acrylic plate to simulate thicker breast. Based on the results from the simulation, in the phantom thickness of 80 mm, the CNR of image taken by 75kV got extremely closer to that taken by 50kV. The advantage of the image taken at 75 kV for the thicker breast was also confirmed in ERPCM.

In this study, we propose a new image display method to obtain high contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR) using energy resolved photon-counting mammography (ERPCM) with a cadmium telluride (CdTe) series detector manufactured by JOB CORPOLATION. The CdTe series detector can detect high-energy photons with high sensitivity, enabling users to image with high-energy X-rays. Using this detector, it is possible to reduce the dose given to a patient while increasing the CNR. First, the spectrum was divided into three bins and their corresponding linear attenuation coefficients were calculated from input and output photon numbers. Further, absorption vector length (AVL) and average absorption length (AAL) were calculated from the linear attenuation coefficients and from thicknesses of objects after beam-hardening correction. We further compared the CNR between ERPCM and general mammography images under the constant average glandular dose (AGD). We imaged an acrylic plate (1 mm thick) on RMI-156 phantom, determined regions of interest (ROIs) on an acrylic plate and background, and calculated the CNR. Our ERPCM generated two types of images: an AVL image and an AAL image. AMULET Innovality manufactured by FUJIFILM generated an integrated image. MicroDose SI manufactured by Philips generated a count image and removed electrical noise by the photon-counting technique. The four images, in order of decreasing CNR, were the AAL image, AVL image, MicroDose image, and AMULET image. The proposed method using ERPCM generated an image with higher CNR than images using general mammography under the constant AGD.

Recently, the concept of an ''$N$-photon spectrum'' -- a spectrally resolved $N$-photon correlation function -- has been introduced as an innovative quantum optics characterization tool that uniquely reveals information about pathways underlying the generation of light in a given source. Here, the authors investigate experimentally the three-photon spectrum of resonance fluorescence from a single semiconductor quantum dot. The observations agree with previous theoretical work, revealing significantly more pronounced photon antibunching at the Mollow triplet sidebands and more strongly correlated emission through virtual states compared to the two-photon counterpart.

Atomic excitation to excited states in strong laser field is the key to high-order harmonic generation below ionization threshold, yet remains unclear mainly due to the lack of proper detection methods. We propose a frequency-resolved photon-electron spectroscopy technique to reconstruct population of excited states with the second delayed laser pulse. The technique utilizes Fourier transformation to separate ionization from different excited states to different positions on the spectrum. With the advantage of separation, we provide a scheme to reconstruct populations on different excited states after the first pulse. The scheme is validated by high-precision population reconstruction of helium and hydrogen atoms., Comment: 6 pages,3 figures

We propose an alternative formulation of the sensor method presented in [Phys. Rev. Lett 109, 183601 (2012)] for the calculation of frequency-filtered and time-resolved photon correlations. Our approach is based on an algebraic expansion of the joint steady state of quantum emitter and sensors with respect to the emitter-sensor coupling parameter \epsilon. This allows us to express photon correlations in terms of the open quantum dynamics of the emitting system only and ensures that computation of correlations are independent on the choice of a small value of \epsilon. Moreover, using time-dependent perturbation theory, we are able to express the frequency- and time- resolved second-order photon correlation as the addition of three components, each of which gives insight into the physical processes dominating the correlation at different time scales. We consider a bio-inspired vibronic dimer model to illustrate the agreement between the original formulation and our approach., Comment: 12 pages, 5 figures

Recently, photon-counting detectors capable of resolving incident x-ray photon energies have been considered for use in spectral x-ray imaging applications. For reliable use of energy-resolved photon-counting detectors (ERPCDs), energy calibration is an essential procedure prior to their use because variations in responses from each pixel of the ERPCD for incident photons, even at the same energy, are inevitable. Energy calibration can be performed using a variety of methods. In all of these methods, the photon spectra with well-defined peak energies are recorded. Every pixel should be calibrated on its own. In this study, we suggest the use of a conventional polychromatic x-ray source (that is typically used in laboratories) for energy calibration. The energy calibration procedure mainly includes the determination of the peak energies in the spectra, flood-field irradiation, determination of peak channels, and determination of calibration curves (i.e., the slopes and intercepts of linear polynomials). We applied a calibration algorithm to a CdTe ERPCD comprised of 128×128 pixels with a pitch of 0.35 mm using highly attenuated polychromatic x-ray beams to reduce the pulse pile-up effect, and to obtain a narrow-shaped spectrum due to beam hardening. The averaged relative error in calibration curves obtained from 16,384 pixels was about 0.56% for 59.6 keV photons from an Americium radioisotope. This pixel-by-pixel energy calibration enhanced the signal- and contrast-to-noise ratios in images, respectively, by a factor of ~5 and 3 due to improvement in image homogeneity, compared to those obtained without energy calibration. One secondary finding of this study was that the x-ray photon spectra obtained using a common algorithm for computing x-ray spectra reasonably described the peaks in the measured spectra, which implies easier peak detection without the direct measurement of spectra using a separate spectrometer. The proposed method will be a useful alternative to conventional approaches using radioisotopes, a synchrotron, or specialized x-ray sources (e.g., characteristic or fluorescent x-rays) by reducing concerns over the beam flux, the irradiation field of view, accessibility, and cost.

Dual-energy computed tomography (CT) techniques have been used to decompose materials and characterize tissues according to their physical and chemical compositions. However, these techniques are hampered by the limitations of conventional x-ray detectors operated in charge integrating mode. Energy-resolved photon-counting detectors provide spectral information from polychromatic x-rays using multiple energy thresholds. These detectors allow simultaneous acquisition of data in different energy ranges without spectral overlap, resulting in more efficient material decomposition and quantification for dual-energy CT. In this study, a pre-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique based on volume conservation was proposed for three-material decomposition. The technique was combined with iterative reconstruction algorithms by using a ray-driven projector in order to improve the quality of decomposition images and reduce radiation dose. A spectral CT system equipped with a CZT-based photon-counting detector was used to implement the proposed dual-energy CT technique. We obtained dual-energy images of calibration and three-material phantoms consisting of low atomic number materials from the optimal energy bins determined by Monte Carlo simulations. The material decomposition process was accomplished by both the proposed and post-reconstruction dual-energy CT techniques. Linear regression and normalized root-mean-square error (NRMSE) analyses were performed to evaluate the quantitative accuracy of decomposition images. The calibration accuracy of the proposed dual-energy CT technique was higher than that of the post-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique, with fitted slopes of 0.97-1.01 and NRMSEs of 0.20-4.50% for all basis materials. In the three-material phantom study, the proposed dual-energy CT technique decreased the NRMSEs of measured volume fractions by factors of 0.17-0.28 compared to the post-reconstruction dual-energy CT technique. It was concluded that the proposed dual-energy CT technique can potentially be used to decompose mixtures into basis materials and characterize tissues according to their composition.

Faster defect localization is achieved by combining IC simulations and internal measurements. Time resolved photon emission records photons emitted during commutations (current) rather than determining the voltage states. Comparing measured waveforms with simulations (STIL/VCD) localizes functional faults and timing issues. Summary Software diagnosis makes it possible to investigate many IC defects with fault simulation tools. Internal probing techniques, such as time resolved photon emission (TRP), can access "otherwise inaccessible" nodes. Hardware diagnosis can fine-tune the defect analyses and validate simulations by contributing "actual" measurements. The combination of software diagnosis and internal probing can reduce simulation time and internal measurements for faster localization of the defect. The challenge is to determine quickly if a measurement is good or not: Can some signal be measured (the transistor is at least activated)? Are the measured delays matching the simulation? If ATE detects a problem, the method presented in the paper saves time in locating the fault site by applying simulations to determine the duration and location of a meaningful measurement.

Time-resolved photon emission has been shown to be useful in analyzing clock skews and timing-related defects in flip-chip devices. In practice, time-resolved photon emission using the S-25 Quantar detector cannot be used at long loop lengths (typically >10 μs). This paper discusses a near-infrared (NIR) optimized time-resolved emission system to demonstrate that even with long loop lengths time-resolved photon emission can be extremely useful for defect localization. Specifically, it describes time-resolved photon emission system, and shows how time-resolved photon emission was used to solve two different issues that caused scan fails on silicon-on-insulator devices, and briefly discusses the interpretation of optical waveforms. The two issues are presented as case studies.

Photochemistry is a largely unconsidered potential source of reactive species such as hydroxyl and peroxy radicals (OH and HO

The coherent optical response from 140 nm and 65 nm thick ZnO epitaxial layers is studied using four-wave-mixing spectroscopy with picosecond temporal resolution. Resonant excitation of neutral donor-bound excitons results in two-pulse and three-pulse photon echoes. For the donor-bound A exciton (${\mathrm{D}}^{0}{\mathrm{X}}_{\text{A}}$) at temperature of 1.8 K we evaluate optical coherence times ${T}_{2}=33--50$ ps corresponding to homogeneous line widths of $13--19\phantom{\rule{0.222222em}{0ex}}\ensuremath{\mu}\mathrm{eV}$, about two orders of magnitude smaller as compared with the inhomogeneous broadening of the optical transitions. The coherent dynamics is determined mainly by the population decay with time ${T}_{1}=30--40$ ps, while pure dephasing is negligible. Temperature increase leads to a significant shortening of ${T}_{2}$ due to interaction with acoustic phonons. In contrast, the loss of coherence of the donor-bound B exciton (${\mathrm{D}}^{0}{\mathrm{X}}_{\text{B}}$) is significantly faster (${T}_{2}=3.6\phantom{\rule{0.16em}{0ex}}\mathrm{ps}$) and governed by pure dephasing processes.

We consider the photon-assisted tunneling (PAT) and the Landau-Zener-Stueckelberg (LZS) interference for double quantum dots induced electrostatically along a semiconducting carbon nanotube. An atomistic tight-binding approach and the time-dependent configuration interaction method are employed for description of the systems of a few confined electrons and holes. We reproduce the patterns of the LZS interference recently observed for the quantum double dots describing transport across hole-localized states. Moreover, we indicate that for charge configurations for which the ground-state is Pauli blocked PAT can be used for resolution of the transitions that involve spin-flip or intervalley transitions without the spin-valley conserving background signal.

The energy-resolved photon counting detector provides the spectral information that can be used to generate images. The novel imaging methods, including the K-edge imaging, projection-based energy weighting imaging and image-based energy weighting imaging, are based on the energy-resolved photon counting detector and can be realized by using various energy windows or energy bins. The location and width of the energy windows or energy bins are important because these techniques generate an image using the spectral information defined by the energy windows or energy bins. In this study, the reconstructed images acquired with K-edge imaging, projection-based energy weighting imaging and image-based energy weighting imaging were simulated using the Monte Carlo simulation. The effect of energy windows or energy bins was investigated with respect to the contrast, coefficient-of-variation (COV) and contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). The three images were compared with respect to the CNR. We modeled the x-ray computed tomography system based on the CdTe energy-resolved photon counting detector and polymethylmethacrylate phantom, which have iodine, gadolinium and blood. To acquire K-edge images, the lower energy thresholds were fixed at K-edge absorption energy of iodine and gadolinium and the energy window widths were increased from 1 to 25 bins. The energy weighting factors optimized for iodine, gadolinium and blood were calculated from 5, 10, 15, 19 and 33 energy bins. We assigned the calculated energy weighting factors to the images acquired at each energy bin. In K-edge images, the contrast and COV decreased, when the energy window width was increased. The CNR increased as a function of the energy window width and decreased above the specific energy window width. When the number of energy bins was increased from 5 to 15, the contrast increased in the projection-based energy weighting images. There is a little difference in the contrast, when the number of energy bin is increased from 15 to 33. The COV of the background in the projection-based energy weighting images is only slightly changed as a function of the number of energy bins. In the image-based energy weighting images, when the number of energy bins were increased, the contrast and COV increased and decreased, respectively. The CNR increased as a function of the number of energy bins. It was concluded that the image quality is dependent on the energy window, and an appropriate choice of the energy window is important to improve the image quality.

Dynamic hot-electron emission using time-resolved photon counting can address the long-term failure analysis and debug requirements of the semiconductor industry's advanced devices. This article identifies the detector performance parameters and components that are required to scale and keep pace with the industry's requirements. It addresses the scalability of dynamic emission with the semiconductor advanced device roadmap. It is important to understand the limitations to determining that a switching event has occurred. The article explains the criteria for event detection, which is suitable for tracking signal propagation and looking for logic or other faults in which timing is not critical. It discusses conditions for event timing, whose goal is to determine accurately when a switching event has occurred, usually for speed path analysis. One of the uses of a dynamic emission system is to identify faults by studying the emission as a general function of time.

14 pp. (2002)., We consider $J/\psi$ photoproduction in $e^+ e^-$ as well as linear photon colliders. We find that the process is dominated by the resolved photon channel. Both the once-resolved and twice-resolved cross-sections are sensitive to (different combinations of) the colour octet matrix elements. Hence, this may be a good testing ground for colour octet contributions in NRQCD. On the other hand, the once-resolved J/psi production cross-section, particularly in a linear photon collider, is sensitive to the gluon content of the photon. Hence these cross-sections can be used to determine the parton distribution functions, especially the gluon distribution, in a photon, if the colour octet matrix elements are known.

The goal of this paper was to investigate the benefits that could be realistically achieved on a microCT imaging system with an energy-resolved photon-counting x-ray detector. To this end, we built and evaluated a prototype microCT system based on such a detector. The detector is based on cadmium telluride (CdTe) radiation sensors and application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC) readouts. Each detector pixel can simultaneously count x-ray photons above six energy thresholds, providing the capability for energy-selective x-ray imaging. We tested the spectroscopic performance of the system using polychromatic x-ray radiation and various filtering materials with K-absorption edges. Tomographic images were then acquired of a cylindrical PMMA phantom containing holes filled with various materials. Results were also compared with those acquired using an intensity-integrating x-ray detector and single-energy (i.e. non-energy-selective) CT. This paper describes the functionality and performance of the system, and presents preliminary spectroscopic and tomographic results. The spectroscopic experiments showed that the energy-resolved photon-counting detector was capable of measuring energy spectra from polychromatic sources like a standard x-ray tube, and resolving absorption edges present in the energy range used for imaging. However, the spectral quality was degraded by spectral distortions resulting from degrading factors, including finite energy resolution and charge sharing. We developed a simple charge-sharing model to reproduce these distortions. The tomographic experiments showed that the availability of multiple energy thresholds in the photon-counting detector allowed us to simultaneously measure target-to-background contrasts in different energy ranges. Compared with single-energy CT with an integrating detector, this feature was especially useful to improve differentiation of materials with different attenuation coefficient energy dependences.

Purpose: The objective of the study was to demonstrate that, in x-ray computed tomography (CT), more than two types of materials can be effectively separated with the use of an energy resolved photon-counting detector and classification methodology. Specifically, this applies to the case when contrast agents that contain K-absorption edges in the energy range of interest are present in the object. This separation is enabled via the use of recently developed energy resolved photon-counting detectors with multiple thresholds, which allow simultaneous measurements of the x-ray attenuation at multiple energies. Methods: To demonstrate this capability, we performed simulations and physical experiments using a six-threshold energy resolved photon-counting detector. We imaged mouse-sized cylindrical phantoms filled with several soft-tissue-like and bone-like materials and with iodine-based and gadolinium-based contrast agents. The linear attenuation coefficients were reconstructed for each material in each energy window and were visualized as scatter plots between pairs of energy windows. For comparison, a dual-kVp CT was also simulated using the same phantom materials. In this case, the linear attenuation coefficients at the lower kVp were plotted against those at the higher kVp. Results: In both the simulations and the physical experiments, the contrast agents were easily separable from other soft-tissue-like and bone-like materials, thanks to the availability of the attenuation coefficient measurements at more than two energies provided by the energy resolved photon-counting detector. In the simulations, the amount of separation was observed to be proportional to the concentration of the contrast agents; however, this was not observed in the physical experiments due to limitations of the real detector system. We used the angle between pairs of attenuation coefficient vectors in either the 5-D space (for non-contrast-agent materials using energy resolved photon-counting acquisition) or a 2-D space (for contrast agents using energy resolved photon-counting acquisition and all materials using dual-kVp acquisition) as a measure of the degree of separation. Compared to dual-kVp techniques, an energy resolved detector provided a larger separation and the ability to separate different target materials using measurements acquired in different energy window pairs with a single x-ray exposure. Conclusions: We concluded that x-ray CT with an energy resolved photon-counting detector with more than two energy windows allows the separation of more than two types of materials, e.g., soft-tissue-like, bone-like, and one or more materials with K-edges in the energy range of interest. Separating material types using energy resolved photon-counting detectors has a number of advantages over dual-kVp CT in terms of the degree of separation and the number of materials that can be separated simultaneously.

New horizons in x-ray imaging have been opened up with the emergence of energy-resolved photon counting detectors (PCDs). These include the ability to differentiate material components and estimate their equivalent thickness or relative ratio by processing a single shot acquisition image. However, such techniques require highly accurate images, especially for materials close in terms of attenuation. The presence of scattered radiation leads to a loss of contrast and, more importantly, a bias in radiographic material imaging and artefacts in cone-beam CT. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the performance gain in material imaging when a Partial Attenuation Spectral Scatter Separation Approach (PASSSA) is used. This evaluation was based on numerical simulations using Sindbad-SFFD. The comparison of water and bone thickness images acquired from scatter free, scatter corrupted and PASSSA-corrected images showed that the application of the considered correction method improved thickness estimation accuracy. The average relative thickness estimation error per pixel was reduced by around a factor of 4.7 for both water and bone images when comparing scatter corrupted and PASSSA-corrected cases.

Spectrally resolved femtosecond three-pulse photon echo signal from some metal–octaethyl porphyrins (OEPs) like Zn(II)–OEP, Ni(II)–OEP, Co(II)–OEP is reported. Excited state dynamics is studied by time evolving photon echo spectra for different values of coherence and population relaxation times. Dependence on the spectrally resolved photon echo spectra on varying metal center is analyzed. For all these metallo-porphyrins, the electronic relaxation timescale is found to be limited by our laser pulsewidth of 50 fs whereas the timescale for intramolecular vibrational relaxation, occurring within the Q00 band was found to be over a picosecond for Co(II)–OEP and Ni(II)–OEP and within a picosecond for Zn(II)–OEP., Graphical abstract Spectrally resolved femtosecond three-pulse photon echo signal from some metal–octaethyl porphyrins (M–OEPs) like Zn(II)–OEP, Ni(II)–OEP, Co(II)–OEP is reported.

In this paper, we present the design and preliminary performance evaluation of a novel energy-resolved photon-counting (ERPC) detector for gamma ray imaging applications. The prototype ERPC detector has an active area of 4.4 cm × 4.4 cm, which is pixelated into 128 × 128 square pixels with a pitch size of 350 µm × 350µm. The current detector consists of multiple detector hybrids, each with a CdTe crystal of 1.1 cm × 2.2 cm × 1 mm, bump-bonded onto a custom-designed application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC). The ERPC ASIC has 2048 readout channels arranged in a 32 × 64 array. Each channel is equipped with pre- and shaping-amplifiers, a discriminator, peak/hold circuitry and an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) for digitizing the signal amplitude. In order to compensate for the pixel-to-pixel variation, two 8-bit digital-to-analog converters (DACs) are implemented into each channel for tuning the gain and offset. The ERPC detector is designed to offer a high spatial resolution, a wide dynamic range of 12–200 keV and a good energy resolution of 3–4 keV. The hybrid detector configuration provides a flexible detection area that can be easily tailored for different imaging applications. The intrinsic performance of a prototype ERPC detector was evaluated with various gamma ray sources, and the results are presented.

Using an energy-resolving photon counting detector, the amount of k-edge material in the x-ray path can be estimated using a process known as material decomposition. However, non-ideal effects within the detector make it difficult to accurately perform this decomposition. This work evaluated the k-edge material decomposition accuracy of two empirical estimators. A neural network estimator and a linearized maximum likelihood estimator with error look-up tables (A-table method) were evaluated through simulations and experiments. Each estimator was trained on system-specific calibration data rather than specific modeling of non-ideal detector effects or the x-ray source spectrum. Projections through a step-wedge calibration phantom consisting of different path lengths through PMMA, aluminum, and a k-edge material was used to train the estimators. The estimators were tested by decomposing data acquired through different path lengths of the basis materials. The estimators had similar performance in the chest phantom simulations with gadolinium. They estimated four of the five densities of gadolinium with less than 2mg/mL bias. The neural networks estimates demonstrated lower bias but higher variance than the A-table estimates in the iodine contrast agent simulations. The neural networks had an experimental variance lower than the CRLB indicating it is a biased estimator. In the experimental study, the k-edge material contribution was estimated with less than 14% bias for the neural network estimator and less than 41% bias for the A-table method.

Purpose: Recently, novel CdTe photon counting x-ray detectors (PCXDs) with energy discrimination capabilities have been developed. When such detectors are operated under a high x-ray flux, however, coincident pulses distort the recorded energy spectrum. These distortions are called pulse pileup effects. It is essential to compensate for these effects on the recorded energy spectrum in order to take full advantage of spectral information PCXDs provide. Such compensation can be achieved by incorporating a pileup model into the image reconstruction process for computed tomography, that is, as a part of the forward imaging process, and iteratively estimating either the imaged object or the line integrals using, e.g., a maximum likelihood approach. The aim of this study was to develop a new analytical pulse pileup model for both peak and tail pileup effects for nonparalyzable detectors. Methods: The model takes into account the following factors: The bipolar shape of the pulse, the distribution function of time intervals between random events, and the input probability density function of photon energies. The authors used Monte Carlo simulations to evaluate the model. Results: The recorded spectra estimated by the model were in an excellent agreement with those obtained by Monte Carlo simulations for various levels of pulse pileup effects. The coefficients of variation (i.e., the root mean square difference divided by the mean of measurements) were 5.3%–10.0% for deadtime losses of 1%–50% with a polychromatic incident x-ray spectrum. Conclusions: The proposed pulse pileup model can predict recorded spectrum with relatively good accuracy.

Our research goal is to develop diffuse optical tomography (DOT) capable of quantitative measurement. Information on optical pathlength is essential for reconstructing images with quantitative properties, and we have performed image reconstruction with a simulation model using a time-resolved photon path distribution (time-resolved PPD). The results showed that a DOT image reconstruction algorithm using this PPD is effective in quantifying the absorbers in a scattering medium such as human tissue. This algorithm uses a photon distribution independent of absorption by simply assuming that the measurement object is homogeneous, which means that PPD needs to be calculated only once. Our technique is therefore applicable to short-time imaging of measurement objects for which absorption changes flatness such as that in human tissue.

Niedrigdimensionale Nanostrukturen gelten als aussichtsreiche Kandidaten f��r die Realisierung von ultrakleinen Photodetektoren f��r zuk��nftige optische on-Chip Verbindungsleitungen. Aufgrund der CMOS-Kompatibilit��t und der herausragenden elektrischen und optischen Eigenschaften k��nnte insbesondere Germanium ein vielversprechendes Material f��r diese Strukturen sein. Die Verwendung von Ge Nanodr��hten f��r hochsensitive Photoleiter ist bisher jedoch weitgehend unerforscht. Diese Arbeit widmet sich der systematischen Untersuchung der elektrooptischen Eigenschaften von Ge Nanodr��hten. Dazu wurden monolithische Al-Ge-Al Heterostrukturen mit abrupten Grenzfl��chen und high-k Passivierung hergestellt. Der verwendete Fertigungsprozess erlaubte dabei die Erzeugung von ultrakurzen Ge-Segmenten ohne Limitierung durch die Aufl��sung eines Lithografiesystems. Nach der Integration der Nanodr��hte in Back-Gate gesteuerte Feldeffekttransistoren konnte ein p-Typ Verhalten festgestellt werden, das auf Oberfl��chendefekte zur��ckzuf��hren ist. Bei Anlegen eines externen elektrischen Feldes konnten zeitabh��ngige ��nderungen der Leitf��higkeit von ��ber 3 Gr����enordnungen beobachtet werden. Um dieses Ph��nomen zu erkl��ren wurde ein Modell entwickelt, in dem die langsame Umverteilung von Ladungen an der Oberfl��che, externen elektrischen Feldern entgegenwirkt. Das Zusammenspiel von elektrostatischem Gating und Trap-Besetzung kann einen Transportzustand bewirken, in dem Elektronenleitung f��r einige Minuten dominierend ist, was durch die Beobachtung eines negativen differentiellen Widerstandes belegt werden konnte. Tieftemperaturmessungen best��tigten die vorhergesagten kinetischen Barrieren und zahlreiche optische Untersuchungen zeigten ein dynamisches Verhalten wie es von Oberfl��chenst��rstellen in GeOx zu erwarten ist. Optische Messungen wurden an einem speziell entwickeltem Aufbau mit spektral durchstimmbaren Laser und Lock-In Verst��rker durchgef��hrt. Dabei konnte eine in Ge Nanodr��hten bisher unerreichte optische Verst��rkungen von ��ber 10 7 gezeigt werden. Dies wurde, in ��bereinstimmung mit Literaturberichten, auf das effektive Trapping von lichtgenerierten Ladungstr��gern an der Oberfl��che zur��ckgef��hrt. Es konnte au��erdem nachgewiesen werden, dass diese hohe Sensitivit��t f��r das gesamte sichtbare Spektrum und f��r Modulationsfrequenzen bis zu 10 kHz aufrecht erhalten bleibt. Durch systematische Reduzierung der Kanall��ngen konnten Photodetektoren mit Strukturgr����en unterhalb der Beugungsgrenze des einfallenden Lichtes hergestellt werden., Low dimensional nanostructures such as semiconductor nanowires (NW) have recently attracted increasing attention for their potential use as photodetectors in future optical on-chip interconnectors. In particular, germanium (Ge) may be a promising material, due to its CMOS compatibility and exceptional electrical and optical properties. However, the application of Ge NWs as highly sensitive photoconductive elements has been largely overlooked up till now. This work is dedicated to the systematic study of the electro-optical properties of vapor-liquid-solid (VLS) grown Ge NWs. Therefore, monolithic Al-Ge-Al NW heterostructures featuring abrupt interfaces and reliable high-k passivation were established during the course of this thesis. The employed fabrication techniques thereby allowed for the formation of ultrasmall Ge segments without being limited by the alignment of a lithography tool. For such NW systems integrated in back gated field effect transistors, transfer characteristics revealed p-type behavior, which is attributed to trapping effects at the surface. Further, by controlling the charge carrier density through electrostatic gating, a time-dependent change in conductivity over more than 3 orders of magnitude could be observed, with relaxation times in the range of several minutes. To explain this phenomenon, a model was developed in which the slow redistribution of surface charges compensates external electrical fields on the longterm. It was shown that the interplay of electrostatic gating and trap population can cause the charge transport to be electron dominated for several minutes, which was substantiated by the observation of negative differential resistance (NDR) in this regime. Further, low temperature measurements confirmed the proposed kinetic trapping barriers and numerous optical experiments demonstrated dynamic behavior as expected from trapping time constants of surface states in GeOx. Optical experiments were carried out by using a specifically designed measurement setup featuring a spectrally tunable laser source and a lock-in amplifier. Investigations revealed photoconductive gains exceeding 10 7, which is, to the best of my knowledge, the highest ever reported in Ge NWs. In agreement with literature, this was attributed to the photo-enhanced trapping of charge carriers at the surface. Moreover, this high sensitivity remains effective for the whole visible spectral range and for modulation frequencies up to 10 kHz. By systematically reducing channel lengths, ultrasmall photodetectors could be established with feature sizes far below the diffraction limit of incident light.

We investigated the effect of different imaging parameters, such as dose, beam energy, energy resolution and the number of energy bins, on the image quality of K-edge spectral computed tomography (CT) of gold nanoparticles (GNP) accumulated in an atherosclerotic plaque. A maximum likelihood technique was employed to estimate the concentration of GNP, which served as a targeted intravenous contrast material intended to detect the degree of the plaque's inflammation. The simulation studies used a single-slice parallel beam CT geometry with an x-ray beam energy ranging between 50 and 140 kVp. The synthetic phantoms included small (3 cm in diameter) cylinder and chest (33 × 24 cm2) phantoms, where both phantoms contained tissue, calcium and gold. In the simulation studies, GNP quantification and background (calcium and tissue) suppression tasks were pursued. The x-ray detection sensor was represented by an energy resolved photon counting detector (e.g., CdZnTe) with adjustable energy bins. Both ideal and more realistic (12% full width at half maximum (FWHM) energy resolution) implementations of the photon counting detector were simulated. The simulations were performed for the CdZnTe detector with a pixel pitch of 0.5-1 mm, which corresponds to a performance without significant charge sharing and cross-talk effects. The Rose model was employed to estimate the minimum detectable concentration of GNPs. A figure of merit (FOM) was used to optimize the x-ray beam energy (kVp) to achieve the highest signal-to-noise ratio with respect to the patient dose. As a result, the successful identification of gold and background suppression was demonstrated. The highest FOM was observed at the 125 kVp x-ray beam energy. The minimum detectable GNP concentration was determined to be approximately 1.06 mol mL-1(0.21 mg mL-1) for an ideal detector and about 2.5 mol mL-1(0.49 mg mL-1) for a more realistic (12% FWHM) detector. The studies show the optimal imaging parameters at the lowest patient dose using an energy resolved photon counting detector to image GNP in an atherosclerotic plaque. © 2014 Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine.

We present a technique that combines the power of single-molecule spectroscopy to separate subpopulations in a heterogeneous ensemble with submicrosecond correlation spectroscopy based on a Hanbury Brown and Twiss detection scheme. The use of four detectors allows such measurements to be performed with the spectral separation necessary for Foumlrster resonance energy transfer (FRET), which has become an important tool to study biomolecular structure and dynamics in single-molecule experiments. Our approach avoids the common limitations caused by the dead times of detectors and counting electronics in conventional single-molecule FRET experiments, and thus, allows access to dynamics down to the picosecond range. We illustrate the technical aspects of the method with recent measurements of the rapid chain dynamics in the unfolded state of a small protein.

In the following section, the requirements for the creation and the growth of a normal conducting domain due to single-photon-, or more general energy-absorption, that lead to a temporally measurable signal, are explained in more mathematical and physical depth than in the introductory chapter 1.2.