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Abstract We present data on the distribution of seven wasp families, Ceraphronidae, Diapriidae, Ismaridae, Megaspilidae, Platygastridae, Proctotrupidae and Scelionidae, collected in Georgia (Sakartvelo). Thirty-three genera are recorded for the first time from Georgia and 25 of them for the Caucasus. From these, 16 species level taxa are newly recorded in Georgia, and 14 identified species are new records for the Caucasus. This brings the number of known insect species in the Lagodekhi Protected Area (LPA) to 1682.

Une liste synonymique des espèces françaises de Bethylidae est proposée sur la base d’une synthèse bibliographique, à laquelle s’ajoutent six nouvelles espèces pour le pays signalées par l’auteur, portant le nombre d’espèces inventoriées à 76. Au sein de cette liste, une espèce du genre Plastanoxus, méritant des investigations supplémentaires, est nouvelle pour l’Europe et peut-être pour la science. Les conditions d’observation des espèces nouvelles pour la France sont précisées et des commentaires précisent lorsque le statut d’une espèce a changé ou n’est pas encore clair. Preliminary checklist of Bethylidae from France (Hymenoptera: Chrysidoidea) A synonymic list of French species of Bethylidae is proposed based on a bibliographical synthesis, to which six new species for the country are added by the author, bringing the number of known species to 76. Within this list, a species of the genus Plastanoxus, deserving further investigation, is new to Europe and possibly to science. The conditions for observing the species that are new to France are specified and comments are made when the status of a species has changed or is not yet clear.

The majority of organic waste globally is either dumped or placed on landfills, which can result in spreading of disease and pests, methane gas emissions, the deterioration of landscapes and odour pollution. One of the solutions to poor organic waste management is to create value from waste. A way to do this is with black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae (BSFL) composting. The interest for BSFL composting has increased the past 10 years mainly because it is a technology with relatively low investment costs. The part of the process where the seed larvae that are used in the treatment are produced is called BSF-colony. Producing seed larvae in an efficient way is an important part of the technology’s feasibility. However, there is limited research published on BSF-colony management, especially on a larger scale. The aim of the study was to investigate the factors that impact the efficiency of the BSF-colony on a large scale BSFL composting company in Kenya in a semi-open setting. The efficiency of the BSF-colony management was assessed in terms of emergence rate (percentage of pupa that emerge as flies), hatching rate (percentage of eggs that hatch and survive to 5 day old larva) and number of eggs laid per female BSF. The result of the study suggests that parasitic wasps (Dirhinus giffardii) can reduce the emergence rate significantly, and high temperatures and water shortage for the adult BSF can reduce the egg production. Observations made during the study indicate that personnel routines and how the BSF-colony is arranged also could affect the egg production significantly. The overall variation in the results suggests that other factors, beyond the ones investigated in the study, impact the efficiency of the BSF-colony, and further research regarding BSF-colony management is recommended Merparten av det organiska avfallet i världen dumpas eller läggs på deponier, vilket kan leda till spridning av sjukdomar och skadedjur, utsläpp av metangas, förstörelse av landskap och luktföroreningar. En av lösningarna på bristfällig hantering av organiskt avfall är att skapa värde av avfallet. Ett sätt att göra det är med hjälp av fluglarvskompostering med amerikansk soldatfluga (Hermetia illucens). Intresset för fluglarvskompostering har ökat under de senaste tio åren, främst på grund av att det är en teknik som inte behöver innebära höga investeringskostnader. Flugkolonin är den del av processen där sättlarverna som användes i komposteringen produceras. Att sättlarver produceras på ett effektivt sätt är en viktig del av teknikens genomförbarhet. Det finns dock begränsad forskning publicerad om effektivisering av flugkolonier, speciellt sådan som berör storskaliga kolonier. Syftet med studien var att undersöka vilka faktorer som påverkar flugkolonins effektivitet på ett storskaligt fluglarvskomposteringsföretag i Kenya i en halvöppen miljö. Flugkolonins effektivitet bedömdes i termer av metamorfosfrekvens (den andel av pupporna som blir flugor), antalet lagda ägg per fluga och kläckningsfrekvens (den andel ägg som kläcks och överlever till 5-7 dagar gamla larver). Resultatet av studien tyder på att parasitsteklar kan minska metamorfosfrekvensen avsevärt, och att höga temperaturer samt vattenbrist kan minska äggproduktionen. De observationer som gjordes under studien tyder på att personalens rutiner och hur flugkolonin är anordnad också kan påverka äggproduktionen avsevärt. Den relativt stora variationen i alla resultat tyder på att andra faktorer än de som undersökts i studien påverkar flugkolonins effektivitet, fortsatta studier inom effektivisering av flugkolonier rekommenderas

As sessile organisms, plants have evolved different strategies to defend themselves against various biotic stressors. An important aspect of the complex response of plants to biotic stress is the emission of volatile compounds (VOCs), which are involved in direct and indirect plant defence mechanisms. Indirect plant defences include a range of plant traits that mediate defence against herbivores and play an important ecological role by not only utilising plants' own capabilities but also signalling and attracting natural enemies of herbivores. Often the combination of volatiles emitted is specific to herbivores ; they are consequently recognised by parasites and other predators, providing a clear link between the volatile signature and the prey. In this review, we focus on indirect plant defence and summarise current knowledge and perspectives on relationships between plants, aphids, and parasitic wasps.

Parasitic wasps of the genus Tamarixia represent important biological control agents of members of the true bug group, Psylloidea, and are host specific; therefore, they can be used to control insect pests. In this study we report, for the first time, the presence of the parasitoid Tamarixia dahlsteni in Mexico and its mitochondrial barcode region of the cytochrome oxidase I gene (COI). We also review the species diversity of the genus Tamarixia in Mexico.

Background: Although the negative effects of insecticides and herbicides on beneficial and non-target invertebrates are well documented, there is limited information on potential negative impacts of pest and weed management practices used in organic farming on invertebrate activity. Methods: Using established field experiments designed to compare different ground cover crops (used to suppress weeds and increase nitrogen availability and soil health) and mass-trapping systems (used for olive fly control) in organic olive production systems, we monitored the impact of these practices on invertebrate activity. Results: When different ground cover crops were compared, ground cover crops established from a vetch/pea/barley seed mixtures resulted in significantly higher parasitic wasps activity than ground cover vegetation in control plots (plots in which Medicago seed were sown and failed to establish) that were dominated by the weed Oxalis pes-caprae. When two bottle based mass-trapping systems were compared, the traps caught similar numbers of olive flies and some non-target invertebrates (mainly other Diptera, Neuroptera and Lepidotera and Formicidae), although no parasitic wasps or pollinators (bees; bumble bees) were caught in traps. Analyses of invertebrate profiles found in McPhail monitoring traps showed that invertebrate activity profiles were similar in plots with and without mass-trapping devices. In addition, as expected, redundancy analyses showed that climatic parameters (temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind direction) are significant explanatory variables/drivers for invertebrate activity in olive orchards. Conclusions: The results presented indicate that mixed legume/cereal ground cover crops may increase the activity of parasitic wasps and may act as a reservoir for natural enemies of agricultural pest and that olive fly mass-trapping systems may lure and kill some non-target invertebrates, but do not affect the activity of two main groups of beneficial invertebrates namely pollinators and parasitic wasps.

Two new species of the small and rarely collected family Megalyridae are described from China: Carminator daliensis Chen & Liuhe, sp. nov. from Yunnan and Ettchellsia hainanensis Chen & Liuhe, sp. nov. from Hainan. A key to megalyrid species of China is provided. The biogeographical implication of the new taxa is discussed.

The current study describes the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of an egg parasitoid wasp, Telenomus remus Nixon 1937. This mitogenome is 16,014 bp in length, consisting of 37 typical coding genes (13 protein-coding genes, 22 transfer RNA genes and two ribosomal RNA genes). The start codons of the protein-coding genes are ATN and the stop codons are TAA or TAG. The secondary structures of most transfer RNA genes could be detected, except for trnS(AGN) and trnQ. Rearrangements of 14 transfer RNA genes in the mitogenome has generated a novel gene order, including two new gene clusters, trnN-trnF-trnS(AGN)-trnR between ND3 and ND5, and trnM-trnV-CR-trnE-trnC-trnY-trnQ-trnI-trnA between srRNA and ND2. The sister relationship between T. remus and other congeneric species is highly supported by phylogenetic analysis based on the protein-coding and ribosomal RNA gene sequences.

Hemipterans, mosquitoes, and parasitic wasps probe in a variety of substrates to find hosts for their larvae or food sources. Probes capable of sensing and precise steering enable insects to navigate through solid substrates without visual information and to reach targets that are hidden deep inside the substrate. The probes belong to non-related taxa and originate from abdominal structures (wasps) or mouthparts (hemipterans and mosquitoes), but nevertheless share several morphological characteristics. Although the transport function clearly differs (egg laying and acquisition of liquid food), the functional demands on the mechanical behaviour of the probe within the substrate tend to be similar. The probe needs to be thin to limit substrate deformation, and long, in order to attain substantial path lengths or depths. We linked the morphology across taxa to the different functional requirements, to provide insights into the biology of probing insects and the evolution of their probes. Current knowledge of insect probes is spread over many taxa, which offers the possibility to derive general characteristics of insect probing. Buckling during initial puncturing is limited by external support mechanisms. The probe itself consist of multiple (3–6) parts capable of sliding along one another. This multi-part construction presumably enables advancement and precise three-dimensional steering of the probe through the substrate with very low net external pushing forces, preventing buckling during substrate penetration. From a mechanical viewpoint, a minimum of three elements is required for 3D steering and volumetric exploration, as realised in the ovipositors of wasps. More elements, such as in six-element probes of mosquitoes, may enhance friction in soft substrates. Alternatively, additional elements can have functions other than ‘drilling’, such as saliva injection in mosquitoes. Despite the gross similarities, probes show differences in their cross sections, tip morphologies, relative lengths of their elements, and the shape of their interconnections. The hypothesis is that the probe morphology is influenced by the substrate properties, which are mostly unknown. Correlating the observed diversity to substrate-specific functional demands is therefore currently impossible. We conclude that a multipart probe with sliding elements is highly effective for volumetric substrate probing. Shared functional demands have led to an evolutionary convergence of slender multi-element probes in disparate insect taxa. To fully understand 3D probing, it is necessary to study the sensory and material properties, as well as the detailed kinematics and dynamics of the various probes in relation to the nature of the selective pressure originating from the species-specific substrates. Such knowledge will deepen our understanding of probing mechanisms and may support the development of slender, bio-inspired probes.

Seed coating (‘seed treatment’) is the leading delivery method of neonicotinoid insecticides in major crops such as soybean, wheat, cotton and maize. However, this prophylactic use of neonicotinoids is widely discussed from the standpoint of environmental costs. Growing soybean plants from neonicotinoid-coated seeds in field, we demonstrate that soybean aphids (Aphis glycines) survived the treatment, and excreted honeydew containing neonicotinoids. Biochemical analyses demonstrated that honeydew excreted by the soybean aphid contained substantial concentrations of neonicotinoids even one month after sowing of the crop. Consuming this honeydew reduced the longevity of two biological control agents of the soybean aphid, the predatory midge Aphidoletes aphidimyza and the parasitic wasp Aphelinus certus. These results have important environmental and economic implications because honeydew is the main carbohydrate source for many beneficial insects in agricultural landscapes.

International audience; A new genus and species of orussoid wasps, Cretorussus vilhelmseni gen. et sp. nov., is described based on new material from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. Its wing venation and body characters lead us to emend the diagnosis of the family Burmorussidae. Cretorussus vilhelmseni gen. et sp. nov. is considered to be a specialized parasitic wasp of wood-living hosts because of the orussid-like ocellar crown, antennae attached well above clypeus, and antennal grooves absent. Interestingly, the third tarsomere carries a prominent lanceolate lobe, serving as part of the host detection. We propose a summary of the orussoid fossil diversity. Lastly, we discuss the implications of several characters of Burmorussidae that are involved in host detection.

Insecticides can have consequences for beneficial arthropods. Insect parasitoids can contact insecticides through direct exposure spray droplets or residues on crop foliage. Here, we focus on better understand the response of Meteorus pulchricornis (Wesmael), a parasitoid wasp of lepidopteran pests, and its detoxification mechanisms on stress caused by phoxim and cypermethrin. Hence, we determined the dose–mortality curves and estimating the sublethal concentrations (LC30 and LC50). Then, we applied the sublethal concentrations against adult parasitoids to assess its survival, parasitism efficacy, and also developmental and morphometric parameters of their offspring. Simultaneously, we check the activities of glutathione S-transferase (GST), acetylcholinesterase (AChE), and peroxidase (POD) after sublethal exposure of both insecticides, which has measured until 48 h after treatment. Overall, phoxim and cypermethrin exhibited acute lethal activity toward the parasitoid with LC50 values 4.608 and 8.570 mg/liter, respectively. Also, we detect that LC30 was able to trigger the enzymatic activity of GST, AChE, and POD, suggesting a potential detoxification mechanism. However, even when subjected to sublethal exposure, our results indicate strong negatives effects, in particular for phoxim, which has affected the parasitism efficacy and also the developmental and morphometric parameters of M. pulchricornis offspring. Therefore, it can be concluded that both phoxim and cypermethrin have negative impacts on M. pulchricornis and we suggest cautioning their use and the need for semifield and field assessments to confirm such an impact.

These guidelines follow from a paper on the analysis of ratios in multivariate morphometry by Baur and Leuenberger (2011). The paper is intended as a companion for those who prefer a more practical approach, for instance taxonomists, who would like to apply the MRA methods. Examples are demonstrated using a dataset of parasitic wasps of the genus Dibrachys (Hymenoptera: Pteromalidae). In addition, R-scripts are provided, so that the Figs. 2-9 can be reproduced. However, for this it is necessary to also download the Dibrachys dataset (from Peters and Baur 2020), as well as the source files with the MRA functions (from Baur and Leuenberger 2020). For achieving best results, all files should be put in a single folder and R-Studio (or any other IDE) opened by clicking on one of the R-scripts. All files are available individually and with an own link. For convenience, I have compiled all files also in a ZIP file. Papers quoted above you may find in the section References of this Zenodo package. Citation of this package Baur, Hannes (2020, November 9) Exploring Size and Shape with Multivariate Ratio Analysis (MRA). Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4256704., {"references":["Baur H, Leuenberger C (2011) Analysis of ratios in multivariate morphometry. Systematic Biology 60: 813–825. https://doi.org/10.1093/sysbio/syr061","Baur H, Leuenberger C (2020) Multivariate Ratio Analysis (MRA): R-scripts and tutorials for calculating Shape PCA, Ratio Spectra and LDA Ratio Extractor. Zenodo. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3890195","Peters RS, Baur H (2020) Datasets and R-scripts used for the revision of the Dibrachys cavus complex by Peters & Baur, 2011, Zootaxa 2937.1. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4264539"]}

As part of a wider study on the morphology and systematics of the terminal-instar larvae of Chalcidoidea parasitoids of gall wasps (Hym., Cynipidae) in Europe, a comparative study of the larval morphology of three species of Eulophidae, Aprostocetus eurytomae (Nees), Aulogymnus skianeuros (Ratzeburg) and Dichatomus acerinus Förster; and three species of Eupelmidae, Eupelmus aseculatus (Kalina), E. cerris Förster and E. microzonus Förster is presented. The studied taxa are key components of the communities associated with different galls on herbs, shrubs and oaks in different ecosystems of Mediterranean area. Main characters of interest found on the studied species were larval body shape, head capsule structure, mouthparts, mandibles and chaetotaxy pattern of body and head. Diagnostic characters of the families and species are described and illustrated for the first time with scanning electron microscopy (SEM). Information on the biology of each species is discussed and illustrated with photographs, including new rearing records., Financial support for this paper was provided from Spanish Government by means of research projects CGL2005-01922/BOS, CGL2009-10111 and MINECO/FEDER (UE) CGL2015-66571-P to JLNA.

Synanthropic flies are members of order Diptera and considered as medical and veterinary pests. In this study, parasitoid wasps were determined and their natural host preferences in order to select a suitable agent for biological control of flies. The pupae of three species of flies; Musca domestica, Lucilia sericata and Sarcophaga haemorrhoidalis were used as hosts for natural parasitoids. For this issue, as much as 50 pupae of each fly species put in three separate dishes with covered top by a net. These dishes were placed in the field to attract parasitoid wasps. The most parasitic rate was related to N. vitripennis (%17.2). Host preferences of N. vitripennis on M. domestica pupae were higher than observed parasitism on L. sericata and S. haemorrhoidalis. The emerging rate of two parasitoids; P. vindemmiae and S. nigroaenea were one per host pupae. According to the result, N. vitripennis can be an appropriate candidate for use as natural enemy which expected to be effective in controlling various species of synanthropic flies. Therefore, S. nigroaenea was more suitable to biological control of housefly populations.

Background Parasitic insects are well-known biological control agents for arthropod pests worldwide. They are capable of regulating their host’s physiology, development and behaviour. However, many of the molecular mechanisms involved in host-parasitoid interaction remain unknown. Results We sequenced the genomes of two parasitic wasps (Cotesia vestalis, and Diadromus collaris) that parasitize the diamondback moth Plutella xylostella using Illumina and Pacbio sequencing platforms. Genome assembly using SOAPdenovo produced a 178 Mb draft genome for C. vestalis and a 399 Mb draft genome for D. collaris. A total set that contained 11,278 and 15,328 protein-coding genes for C. vestalis and D. collaris, respectively, were predicted using evidence (homology-based and transcriptome-based) and de novo prediction methodology. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the braconid C. vestalis and the ichneumonid D. collaris diverged approximately 124 million years ago. These two wasps exhibit gene gains and losses that in some cases reflect their shared life history as parasitic wasps and in other cases are unique to particular species. Gene families with functions in development, nutrient acquisition from hosts, and metabolism have expanded in each wasp species, while genes required for biosynthesis of some amino acids and steroids have been lost, since these nutrients can be directly obtained from the host. Both wasp species encode a relative higher number of neprilysins (NEPs) thus far reported in arthropod genomes while several genes encoding immune-related proteins and detoxification enzymes were lost in both wasp genomes. Conclusions We present the annotated genome sequence of two parasitic wasps C. vestalis and D. collaris, which parasitize a common host, the diamondback moth, P. xylostella. These data will provide a fundamental source for studying the mechanism of host control and will be used in parasitoid comparative genomics to study the origin and diversification of the parasitic lifestyle.

Most organisms must ingest water to compensate for dehydration. In parasitic wasps, the importance of water and the behaviors driving its consumption are poorly understood. Here, we describe a waterintake strategy of Pachycrepoideus vindemmiae, a parasitoid of spotted-wing drosophila (SWD, Drosophila suzukii). Longevity measurements indicated that P. vindemmiae benefits from drinking water and from host-feeding on the water-rich hemolymph of SWD pupae. After exposing wasps to different water regimens, we observed increased host-feeding in water-deprived wasps despite honey availability. This resulted in greater SWD mortality because the host-feeding process killed the pupae, and because wasps that engaged in greater host-feeding parasitized more hosts. Behavioral observations showed that the host-feeding time of water-deprived wasps doubled compared to water-fed individuals. Host-feeding did not affect parasitoid offspring mortality. We conclude that P. vindemmiae benefits from ingesting water and that it host-feeds on SWD pupae as a water-intake strategy. These are interesting findings not only because water has rarely been reported as a critical nutrient for adult parasitoids, but especially because preying for the purpose of hydration is not a common strategy in nature. This strategy enhances parasitoid survival and reproduction, with positive consequences for its host-killing capacity and potential as a biocontrol agent. Made available in DSpace on 2020-01-14T00:42:34Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 WaterDeprivedParasiticwasps.pdf: 1770918 bytes, checksum: 53bf9992c35790bf9919c675188e85b7 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2019

Hemipterans, mosquitoes, and parasitic wasps probe in a variety of substrates to find hosts for their larvae or food sources. Probes capable of sensing and precise steering enable insects to navigate through solid substrates without visual information and to reach targets that are hidden deep inside the substrate. The probes belong to non-related taxa and originate from abdominal structures (wasps) or mouthparts (hemipterans and mosquitoes), but nevertheless share several morphological characteristics. Although the transport function clearly differs (egg laying and acquisition of liquid food), the functional demands on the mechanical behaviour of the probe within the substrate tend to be similar. The probe needs to be thin to limit substrate deformation, and long, in order to attain substantial path lengths or depths. We linked the morphology across taxa to the different functional requirements, to provide insights into the biology of probing insects and the evolution of their probes. Current knowledge of insect probes is spread over many taxa, which offers the possibility to derive general characteristics of insect probing. Buckling during initial puncturing is limited by external support mechanisms. The probe itself consist of multiple (3–6) parts capable of sliding along one another. This multi-part construction presumably enables advancement and precise three-dimensional steering of the probe through the substrate with very low net external pushing forces, preventing buckling during substrate penetration. From a mechanical viewpoint, a minimum of three elements is required for 3D steering and volumetric exploration, as realised in the ovipositors of wasps. More elements, such as in six-element probes of mosquitoes, may enhance friction in soft substrates. Alternatively, additional elements can have functions other than ‘drilling’, such as saliva injection in mosquitoes. Despite the gross similarities, probes show differences in their cross sections, tip morphologies, relative lengths of their elements, and the shape of their interconnections. The hypothesis is that the probe morphology is influenced by the substrate properties, which are mostly unknown. Correlating the observed diversity to substrate-specific functional demands is therefore currently impossible. We conclude that a multipart probe with sliding elements is highly effective for volumetric substrate probing. Shared functional demands have led to an evolutionary convergence of slender multi-element probes in disparate insect taxa. To fully understand 3D probing, it is necessary to study the sensory and material properties, as well as the detailed kinematics and dynamics of the various probes in relation to the nature of the selective pressure originating from the species-specific substrates. Such knowledge will deepen our understanding of probing mechanisms and may support the development of slender, bio-inspired probes.

Hemipterans, mosquitoes, and parasitic wasps probe in a variety of substrates to find hosts for their larvae or food sources. Probes capable of sensing and precise steering enable insects to navigate through solid substrates without visual information and to reach targets that are hidden deep inside the substrate. The probes belong to non-related taxa and originate from abdominal structures (wasps) or mouthparts (hemipterans and mosquitoes), but nevertheless share several morphological characteristics. Although the transport function clearly differs (egg laying and acquisition of liquid food), the functional demands on the mechanical behaviour of the probe within the substrate tend to be similar. The probe needs to be thin to limit substrate deformation, and long, in order to attain substantial path lengths or depths. We linked the morphology across taxa to the different functional requirements, to provide insights into the biology of probing insects and the evolution of their probes. Current knowledge of insect probes is spread over many taxa, which offers the possibility to derive general characteristics of insect probing. Buckling during initial puncturing is limited by external support mechanisms. The probe itself consist of multiple (3–6) parts capable of sliding along one another. This multi-part construction presumably enables advancement and precise three-dimensional steering of the probe through the substrate with very low net external pushing forces, preventing buckling during substrate penetration. From a mechanical viewpoint, a minimum of three elements is required for 3D steering and volumetric exploration, as realised in the ovipositors of wasps. More elements, such as in six-element probes of mosquitoes, may enhance friction in soft substrates. Alternatively, additional elements can have functions other than ‘drilling’, such as saliva injection in mosquitoes. Despite the gross similarities, probes show differences in their cross sections, tip morphologies, relative lengths of their elements, and the shape of their interconnections. The hypothesis is that the probe morphology is influenced by the substrate properties, which are mostly unknown. Correlating the observed diversity to substrate-specific functional demands is therefore currently impossible. We conclude that a multipart probe with sliding elements is highly effective for volumetric substrate probing. Shared functional demands have led to an evolutionary convergence of slender multi-element probes in disparate insect taxa. To fully understand 3D probing, it is necessary to study the sensory and material properties, as well as the detailed kinematics and dynamics of the various probes in relation to the nature of the selective pressure originating from the species-specific substrates. Such knowledge will deepen our understanding of probing mechanisms and may support the development of slender, bio-inspired probes.

Feeding in insect parasitoids can have significant implications from behavioral and evolutionary ecology standpoints. Females of many species not only search for hosts to lay their eggs on, but also may use them as a food source. Host-feeding, as this behavior is known, occurs mostly in the Hymenoptera. There is some evidence of benefits of host feeding at the intraspecific level, but there are only few studies of the potential association between host feeding behavior and life-history traits across hymenopteran parasitoids. The main goal of this paper is to test for correlated evolution of host feeding and various other life-history traits, aiming for an understanding of the diversity of parasitoid life histories. For this, we performed a comparative analysis based mainly on phylogenetically independent contrasts (PIC), using data for 187 species of hymenopteran parasitoids, and (1) examined whether host-feeding behavior is correlated with life span, lifetime potential fecundity, and maximum egg load, (2) re-tested the potential evolutionary correlation suggested by Jervis et al. [Journal of Animal Ecology 70 (2001) 442] between host feeding and the ovigeny index (OI), and (3) re-tested the possible correlation between lifetime potential fecundity and life span across species and examined whether host feeding affects this relationship. Results indicate a positive evolutionary correlation between host feeding and both life span and maximum egg load, and a negative evolutionary correlation between host feeding and OI. Lifetime potential fecundity does not correlate with host feeding but correlates positively with life span. The effect of the interaction between host feeding and life span on potential fecundity was not significant. As has been noted in the past, the array of correlations between traits suggests the existence of adaptive suites of life-history traits involving trade-offs based on resource allocation patterns. Fil: Fischbein, Deborah. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Centro Regional Patagonia Norte. Estación Experimental Agropecuaria San Carlos de Bariloche; Argentina Fil: Jofré, Nélida Raquel. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Centro Regional Patagonia Norte. Estación Experimental Agropecuaria San Carlos de Bariloche; Argentina Fil: Corley, Juan Carlos. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas; Argentina. Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria. Centro Regional Patagonia Norte. Estación Experimental Agropecuaria San Carlos de Bariloche; Argentina

At least one member of the whitefly Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) species complex is a vector of cassava mosaic geminiviruses and cassava brown streak viruses, which cause serious damage to cassava, Manihot esculenta Crantz. The whiteflies are predominantly attacked by Eretmocerus mundus Mercet and Encarsia sophia (Girault & Dodd) (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae). These parasitoids had, however, not been able to control B. tabaci populations on cassava. This study therefore aimed at elucidating how life history parameters limit the performance of the parasitoids. We conducted the study under fluctuating laboratory conditions to determine the development duration, longevity and fertility of these parasitoids. The initial egg count on emergence and development duration were higher in E. mundus than in E. sophia. Similarities occurred in the development duration of females and males E. mundus, whereas the females of E. sophia developed about two days earlier than their males. Mean longevity of females when provided with honey diet was 5.4 days for E. mundus and 6.6 days for E. sophia, and averaged 5.5 days and 11.3 days, respectively, when developed on whitefly nymphs. Progeny production averaged 25.6 offspring for E. mundus and 16.5 for E. sophia. The net reproductive rate of E. mundus was 13.1 as opposed to 15.5 for E. sophia. The intrinsic rate of increase was 0.10 for E. mundus and 0.11 for E. sophia. Mean generation time was 24.9 and 26.2 days for E. mundus and E. sophia, respectively. The results suggest that E. mundus is the most suitable candidate for high B. tabaci population control, whereas E. sophia may be effective under low B. tabaci populations.

Background We challenge the oft-repeated claim that the beetles (Coleoptera) are the most species-rich order of animals. Instead, we assert that another order of insects, the Hymenoptera, is more speciose, due in large part to the massively diverse but relatively poorly known parasitoid wasps. The idea that the beetles have more species than other orders is primarily based on their respective collection histories and the relative availability of taxonomic resources, which both disfavor parasitoid wasps. Though it is unreasonable to directly compare numbers of described species in each order, the ecology of parasitic wasps—specifically, their intimate interactions with their hosts—allows for estimation of relative richness. Results We present a simple logical model that shows how the specialization of many parasitic wasps on their hosts suggests few scenarios in which there would be more beetle species than parasitic wasp species. We couple this model with an accounting of what we call the “genus-specific parasitoid–host ratio” from four well-studied genera of insect hosts, a metric by which to generate extremely conservative estimates of the average number of parasitic wasp species attacking a given beetle or other insect host species. Conclusions Synthesis of our model with data from real host systems suggests that the Hymenoptera may have 2.5–3.2× more species than the Coleoptera. While there are more described species of beetles than all other animals, the Hymenoptera are almost certainly the larger order. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s12898-018-0176-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A review of the genus Phaestacoenitus Smits van Burgst, 1913 in Israel is pre­sented. A new species, Ph. fuscipennis n. sp., is described and Ph. longicaudus n. stat. is recorded from Israel for the first time; both species are illustrated along with the type species of genus, Ph. demeyerei Smits van Burgst, 1913. All known Phaestacoenitus species are keyed.

Hemipterans, mosquitoes, and parasitic wasps probe in a variety of substrates to find hosts for their larvae or food sources. Probes capable of sensing and precise steering enable insects to navigate through solid substrates without visual information and to reach targets that are hidden deep inside the substrate. The probes belong to non‐related taxa and originate from abdominal structures (wasps) or mouthparts (hemipterans and mosquitoes), but nevertheless share several morphological characteristics. Although the transport function clearly differs (egg laying and acquisition of liquid food), the functional demands on the mechanical behaviour of the probe within the substrate tend to be similar. The probe needs to be thin to limit substrate deformation, and long, in order to attain substantial path lengths or depths. We linked the morphology across taxa to the different functional requirements, to provide insights into the biology of probing insects and the evolution of their probes. Current knowledge of insect probes is spread over many taxa, which offers the possibility to derive general characteristics of insect probing. Buckling during initial puncturing is limited by external support mechanisms. The probe itself consist of multiple (3–6) parts capable of sliding along one another. This multi‐part construction presumably enables advancement and precise three‐dimensional steering of the probe through the substrate with very low net external pushing forces, preventing buckling during substrate penetration. From a mechanical viewpoint, a minimum of three elements is required for 3D steering and volumetric exploration, as realised in the ovipositors of wasps. More elements, such as in six‐element probes of mosquitoes, may enhance friction in soft substrates. Alternatively, additional elements can have functions other than ‘drilling’, such as saliva injection in mosquitoes. Despite the gross similarities, probes show differences in their cross sections, tip morphologies, relative lengths of their elements, and the shape of their interconnections. The hypothesis is that the probe morphology is influenced by the substrate properties, which are mostly unknown. Correlating the observed diversity to substrate‐specific functional demands is therefore currently impossible. We conclude that a multipart probe with sliding elements is highly effective for volumetric substrate probing. Shared functional demands have led to an evolutionary convergence of slender multi‐element probes in disparate insect taxa. To fully understand 3D probing, it is necessary to study the sensory and material properties, as well as the detailed kinematics and dynamics of the various probes in relation to the nature of the selective pressure originating from the species‐specific substrates. Such knowledge will deepen our understanding of probing mechanisms and may support the development of slender, bio‐inspired probes.

Entender quais fatores influenciam a variação na composição de espécies em sistemas multitróficos é um objetivo fundamental em ecologia. Entretanto, estudos sobre a composição local de insetos parasitoides geralmente negligenciam a importância relativa das características de plantas consumidas por seus insetos herbívoros hospedeiros. Neste contexto, nosso objetivo foi avaliar os efeitos diretos e indiretos, mediados pela similaridade de herbívoros, da distância filogenética, da sincronia do período de floração e da similaridade de abundância das plantas sobre a similaridade de parasitoides. Como sistema de estudo, usamos espécies de Asteraceae, herbívoros endófagos de capítulos e insetos parasitoides. Usando análises de rotas, consideramos as similaridades de herbívoros e parasitoides entre pares de espécies de plantas em termos qualitativos (similaridade de Sørensen), quantitativos (similaridade de Bray-Curtis) e filogenéticos (similaridade de Sørensen taxonômica). Em geral, demonstramos que a similaridade de herbívoros é o principal determinante da similaridade de parasitoides. Mesmo que as características das plantas tenham explicado a menor parte da variação na similaridade de parasitoides, essas características tiveram importâncias relativas inconsistentes entre os índices de similaridade usados. Dessa forma, nossos resultados indicam que, apesar das espécies de plantas constituírem uma barreira adicional potencial para os parasitoides de herbívoros endófagos encontrarem os seus hospedeiros, os parasitoides de herbívoros em capítulos de Asteraceae não as enxergam dessa forma. Estes parasitoides respondem principalmente à variação composicional dos seus hospedeiros nas plantas que estes últimos consumem. Logo, demonstramos como as composições dos níveis tróficos superiores nesse sistema tri-trófico é estruturado diretamente e indiretamente por interações antagônicas. Understanding how interactions between trophic levels structure species composition is one of the main goals of ecological studies. Mechanisms that explain the compositional structure of parasitoid insects usually neglect the direct and indirect effects of plants’ characteristics, which can also determine the compositional structure of their host herbivore insects. In this context, our goal was to evaluate how plants’ characteristics (abundance, floral phenology, and phylogenetic distance) and herbivores’ compositional similarity determine parasitoids’ compositional similarity. As study system, we used Asteraceae species, flower-head feeding insects, and parasitoids. Using path analysis, we considered parasitoids and herbivores’ similarities, in qualitative (Sørensen similarity), quantitative (Bray-Curtis similarity), and phylogenetic proximity (taxonomic Sørensen similarity) terms. In general, we demonstrated that herbivores’ similarity is the major predictor of parasitoids’ similarity. Even though the effects of plants’ characteristics explained the smallest part of the variation in parasitoids’ similarity, these characteristics had inconsistent relative importance among the similarity indexes used here. Thus, our results indicate that although plant species constitute a potential additional barrier for the parasitoids of endophagous herbivores to find their insect hosts, herbivore parasitoids in flower heads of Asteraceae do not see the plant species in this way. The parasitoids respond mainly to the compositional variation of their insect hosts in the plant species that the latter consume. Therefore, we show how the composition of the upper trophic levels in this tri-trophic system is structured directly and indirectly by antagonistic interactions. Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES

Tamarixia bicolor Mercet (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae: Tetrastichinae) was collected in Israel for the first time in 2015. Heterotrioza sahlbergi (Šulc) (Hemiptera: Triozidae) is now reported as a new host record for this parasitoid. This psyllid species was found in Israel in 1992, feeding on Atriplex spp. (Amaranthaceae). A study of T. bicolor on this host, including dissections of parasitized immatures of H. sahlbergi, has revealed it to be a solitary nymphal endoparasitoid.

Chemical compounds (infochemicals or semiochemicals) play an important role both in intra-specific and inter-specific communication. For example, chemical cues appear to play a key role in the host selection process adopted by insect parasitoids. In recent years significant advances have been made in order to understand the chemical ecology of insect parasitoids. However, little information is available about the evolution of semiochemical use in the host location process of insect parasitoids. Here we investigated the strategy adopted by seven closely related parasitoid species in the genus Melittobia when foraging for four different suitable hosts. By using an integrated approach that combined olfactometer bioassays and phylogenetic investigations, we found that: (1) exploitation of host-derived semiochemicals is widespread in the Melittobia genus; (2) there is specificity of attraction toward the different host species tested; in particular, the early-branching species in the Melittobia genus are attracted to odors associated with leaf cutting bees (Megachile rotundata) whereas the most-diverged species are attracted to odors associated with solitary mud dauber wasps (Trypoxyilon politum). Regardless of the phylogenetic relationships, no Melittobia species exhibited attraction toward odors of factitious laboratory hosts (i.e., the flesh fly Sarcophaga bullata). Interestingly, five Melittobia species are also attracted by odors associated with honeybees hosts which indicate that these parasitoids could be potential pests of honeybees. Our study shed light on the host location within the Melittobia genus and represents a first attempt to understand semiochemical use in an evolutionary perspective in the context of parasitoids' foraging behavior.

Background Insects are important models to study learning and memory formation in both an ecological and neuroscience context due to their small size, behavioral flexibility and ecological diversity. Measuring memory retention is often done through simple time-consuming set-ups, producing only a single parameter for conditioned behavior. We wished to obtain higher sample sizes with fewer individuals to measure olfactory memory retention more efficiently. New method The high-throughput individual T-maze uses commercially available tracking software, Ethovision XT®, in combination with a Perspex stack of plates as small as 18 × 18 cm, which accommodates 36 olfactory T-mazes, where each individual wasp could choose between two artificial odors. Various behavioral parameters, relevant to memory retention, were acquired in this set-up; first choice, residence time, giving up time and zone entries. From these parameters a performance index was calculated as a measure of memory retention. Groups of 36 wasps were simultaneously tested within minutes, resulting in efficient acquisition of sufficiently high sample sizes. Results This system was tested with two very different parasitic wasp species, the larval parasitoid Cotesia glomerata and the pupal parasitoid Nasonia vitripennis, and has proven to be highly suitable for testing memory retention in both these species. Comparison with existing methods Unlike other bioassays, this system allows for both high-throughput and recording of detailed individual behavior. Conclusions The high-throughput individual T-maze provides us with a standardized high-throughput, labor-efficient and cost-effective method to test various kinds of behavior, offering excellent opportunities for comparative studies of various aspects of insect behavior.

Molecular genetics and symbiont diagnostics have revolutionized our understanding of insect species diversity, and the transformative effects of bacterial symbionts on host life history. Encarsia inaron is a parasitoid wasp that has been shown to harbour two bacterial endosymbionts, Wolbachia and Cardinium. Known then as E. partenopea, it was introduced to the USA in the late 1980s from populations collected in Italy and Israel for the biological control of an ornamental tree pest, the ash whitefly, Siphoninus phillyreae. We studied natural populations from sites in the USA, the Mediterranean and the Middle East as well as from a Cardinium-infected laboratory culture established from Italy, with the aims of characterizing these populations genetically, testing reproductive isolation, determining symbiont infection status in their native and introduced range, and determining symbiont role. The results showed that the two Encarsia populations introduced to the USA are genetically distinct, reproductively isolated, have different symbionts and different host-symbiont interactions, and can be considered different biological species. One ('E. inaron') is doubly infected by Wolbachia and Cardinium, while only Cardinium is present in the other ('E. partenopea'). The Cardinium strains in the two species are distinct, although closely related, and crossing tests indicate that the Cardinium infecting 'E. partenopea' induces cytoplasmic incompatibility. The frequency of symbiont infection found in the native and introduced range of these wasps was similar, unlike the pattern seen in some other systems. These results also lead to a retelling of a successful biological control story, with several more characters than had been initially described.

An inventory of the pteromalid fauna of Syrdarya–Kyzylkum and Betpakdala–Moyynkum desert territories of southern Kazakhstan is presented for the first time. Thirty-four species in 23 genera are listed, and information on their hosts and distribution is provided. Mesopolobus auditor Dzhanokmen, 1975 is treated here as a subspecies Mesopolobus diffinis auditor Dzhanokmen, 1975, stat. rev. The subspecies is known so far only from the desert and semidesert areas of Kazakhstan and Central Asia.

Aphidiinae (Braconidae: Aphidiinae) is a subfamily of endoparasitic wasps specialized in parasitizing aphids. Although, to date, different methods have been used to measure parasitism level, obtaining an accurate estimate remains challenging due to several limiting factors. This study was set to: 1) Compare efficiency of conventional and molecular-based methods in estimating parasitism level of the pomegranate aphid Aphis punicae (Passerini; Hemiptera: Aphididae), and 2) Estimate seasonal activity of the Aphidiinae parasitoids of the pomegranate aphid. The molecular approach (polymerase chain reaction [PCR]) detected the presence of three main parasitoids Lysiphlebus fabarum (Marshal; Hymenoptra: Braconidae), Binodoxys angelicae (Haliday; Hymenoptra: Braconidae), and Ephedrus persicae (Frogatt; Hymenoptra: Braconidae). The presence of hyperparasitoid and aphid DNAs did not interfere with the outcome, indicating specificity of the selected primers. Minimum concentrations of DNA needed for successful amplifications were 16.33, 28.65, and 22.65 ng µl−1, for L. fabarum, B. angelicae, and E. persicae, respectively. The level of parasitism was significantly higher in spring (28.42%) than both summer and fall; parasitism level during summer (11.89%) and fall (5.86%) formed a homogeneous statistical subset. Although the overall level of parasitism estimated by PCR (22.7%) was more than twofold higher than those estimated by a conventional counting method (10.5%), there was a strong positive correlation between the two approaches. Provided the potential limitations of either method, simultaneous use of both methods was recommended for an objective estimate of the effectiveness of the Aphidiinae parasitoids as biological control agents of A. punicae.

Twenty-two species of the genus Euplectrus are newly recorded from Southeast Asia, South Asia and Oceania, sometimes from more than one country: 18 spe­cies from Vietnam (bicolor, brevisetulosus, cinctiventris, colliosilvus, flavi­gas­ter, fuscicoxalis, indicus, koebelei, laphygmae, leucostomus, liparidis, longi­pe­tiolatus, manilae, parvulus, peduncularis n. sp., petiolatus, reticulatus, trans­ver­sus); nine from Malaysia (brevisetulosus, euplexiae, fuscicoxalis, laphygmae, leu­costomus, longipetiolatus, reticulatus, pahangi n. sp., selangori n. sp.); five from Papua New Guinea (brevisetulosus, ceylonensis, flavigaster, fuscicoxalis, la­phygmae); two from Thailand (ceylonensis, fuscicoxalis); three from Cam­bo­dia (colliosilvus, koebelei, leucostomus); two from Taiwan (eup­lexiae, fus­ci­coxalis); and one from each of Nepal (ceylonensis), India (la­phygmae), Sri Lanka (manilae), South Korea (manilae), and French Polynesia (manilae). Se­ven species are redescribed. An identification key to Euplectrus species from Southeast Asia is provided.

Redescriptions of the following seven species are made: Mesochorus gemellus Holmgren, 1860, M. tachypus Holmgren, 1860, M. diversicolor Viereck, 1912, M. brevicollis Thomson, 1886, M. giberius (Thunberg, 1822), M. marginatus Thomson, 1886, and M. tetricus Holmgren, 1860. Three new species are described: M. marginatoides Vikberg sp. n. from Finland and Sweden, M. skanensis Vikberg sp. n. from Sweden, and M. ranini Vikberg sp. n. from Finland. The female of M. plumosus Dasch, 1971 is described from Finland (this species is known earlier only from N. America). A key to females of the eleven studied European species of Mesochorus is included. The following formal nomenclatural acts or changes are made: lectotypes are designated for Mesochorus tachypus Holmgren, 1860 and for M. tetricus Holmgren, 1860. Mesochorus tachypus Holmgren, 1860, stat. n. (= M. macrurus Thomson, 1886, syn. n.), M. diversicolor Viereck, 1912, stat. n., M. brevicollis Thomson, 1886, stat. n., M. marginatus Thomson, 1886, stat. n., and M. tetricus Holmgren, 1860 (= M. curvicauda Thomson, 1886, syn. n.). Many females of M. tachypus and M. tetricus were found near the ground in the spruce forests in Janakkala, South Finland very late in the season (from October to December in 2011-2016). M. cimbicis (Ratzeburg, 1844) has been reared from cocoons of Trichiosoma sp. (scalesii Leach aggregate) and T. nanae Vikberg & Viitasaari in Finland. The correct primary host of Mesochorus bipartitus Schwenke, 1999 is Lygus rugulipennis Poppius (Hemiptera: Miridae). Seuraavat lajit kuvataan uudelleen: Mesochorus gemellus Holmgren, 1860, M. tachypus Holmgren, 1860, M. diversicolor Viereck, 1912, M. brevicollis Thomson, 1886, M. giberius (Thunberg, 1822), M. marginatus Thomson, 1886, ja M. tetricus Holmgren, 1860. Ruotsista kuvataan uusi laji Mesochorus skanensis Vikberg sp. n. ja Suomesta kuvataan kaksi uutta lajia: M. marginatoides Vikberg sp. n. ja M. ranini Vikberg sp. n., joista edellinen myös Ruotsista. Lajien tunnistamisen helpottamiseksi on laadittu tutkimuskaava tutkitun 11 eurooppalaisen lajin naaraille. Seuraavat nimistöön vaikuttavat muutokset tehdään: Lajeille Mesochorus tachypus Holmgren ja M. tetricus Holmgren vahvistetaan lektotyypit. Mesochorus tachypus Holmgren, 1860, stat. n. (= M. macrurus Thomson, 1886, syn.n.), M. diversicolor Viereck, 1912, stat.n., M. brevicollis Thomson, 1886, stat. n., M. marginatus Thomson, 1886, stat.n. ja M. tetricus Holmgren, 1860 (= M. curvicauda Thomson, 1886, syn. n.). Lajien Mesochorus tachypus ja M. tetricus naaraita löytyi runsaasti Janakkalan kuusimetsistä loka-joulukuussa vuosina 2011 - 2016. Ne ilmeisesti talvehtivat kuusien alla karikkeessa. Laji M. cimbicis (Ratzeburg, 1844) on kasvatettu Suomessa kahdesta karvanuijapistiäislajista, joista toinen esiintyy Käsivarren Lapissa ja toinen, rämenuijapistiäinen, elää toukkana vaivaiskoivuilla soilla. Lajin Mesochorus bipartitus Schwenke, 1999 oikea primaari-isäntä on Miridae-heimon lude Lygus rugulipennis. Pohjois- Amerikasta kuvatun lajin M. plumosus Dasch, 1971 löytöjä esitetään Janakkalasta ja lajin naaras kuvataan.

Summary Low-dose crosstalk between jasmonic acid and salicylic acid signalling pathways results in a dynamic plant phenotype in terms of plant volatile emission and behavioural responses of an herbivorous spider mite., The jasmonic acid (JA) and salicylic acid (SA) signalling pathways, which mediate induced plant defence responses, can express negative crosstalk. Limited knowledge is available on the effects of this crosstalk on host-plant selection behaviour of herbivores. We report on temporal and dosage effects of such crosstalk on host preference and oviposition-site selection behaviour of the herbivorous spider mite Tetranychus urticae towards Lima bean (Phaseolus lunatus) plants, including underlying mechanisms. Behavioural observations reveal a dynamic temporal response of mites to single or combined applications of JA and SA to the plant, including attraction and repellence, and an antagonistic interaction between SA- and JA-mediated plant responses. Dose-response experiments show that concentrations of 0.001mM and higher of one phytohormone can neutralize the repellent effect of a 1mM application of the other phytohormone on herbivore behaviour. Moreover, antagonism between the two signal-transduction pathways affects phytohormone-induced volatile emission. Our multidisciplinary study reveals the dynamic plant phenotype that is modulated by subtle changes in relative phytohormonal titres and consequences for the dynamic host-plant selection by an herbivore. The longer-term effects on plant–herbivore interactions deserve further investigation.

A brief review of phylogenetic and taxonomic implications of chromosomal analysis of parasitoid Hymenoptera is given. Although karyotypic research of parasitoids is generally represented by studies using pre-existing phylogenetic reconstructions of certain taxa, accumulating evidence can suggest some chromosomal synapomorphies that define a number of clades. As far as taxonomic aspects of the chromosomal analysis of parasitoid Hymenoptera are concerned, this analysis is most effective at the species level.

In this study, essential oil (EO) extracted from aerial parts of Melaleuca alternifolia plants cultivated in Italy was evaluated for biotoxicity against adults of Mediterranean fruit fly, Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae), and its parasitoid, Psyttalia concolor (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). Tea tree EO was mainly composed of oxygenated monoterpenes and monoterpene hydrocarbons. The three major constituents of this EO were 4-terpineol, γ-terpinene and α-terpinene (35.10%, 17.40% and 10.70%, respectively). M. alternifolia EO was proved to be toxic against C. capitata and P. concolor . Through contact and fumigation assays, tea tree EO showed lower LC 50 values towards C. capitata over P. concolor (contact: 0.117 μL oil/cm 2 vs. 0.147 μL oil/cm 2 ; fumigation: 2.239 μL oil/L air vs. 9.348 μL oil/L air). In ingestion formulation, the LD 50 value was lower in C. capitata (0.269% of EO, w/w) than in P. concolor (0.638% of EO, w/w). This study extends the number of effective essential oils against the Mediterranean fruit fly and provides useful information for the development of new tephritid control tools. This could expidite the building of eco-friendly alternatives in fruit fly integrated control programmes, thus reducing the use of broad-spectrum insecticides.

A checklist of Iranian Cryptinae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) for all species recorded in Iran is given. The list is based on detailed studies of all available published data and some new collected samples. Until now 123 species in 42 genera belonging to 3 tribes of this subfamily have been known from Iran. Cryptinae is the most species-rich subfamilies of Ichneumonidae, and has a worldwide distribution. Two genera, Goryphus Holmgren, 1868 and Thaumatogelis Schwarz, 1995 were recorded for the first time for the Iranian fauna. Many parts of the country are still studied insufficiently or even not studied at all, so we suppose that the total species richness in Iran is essentially higher.

The diagnosis and new contributions of the genus Chorebus Haliday, 1833 from Eastern Iranian provinces (North Khorasan, Khorasan-e Razavi, and Sistan-o Baluchestan) are provided. Samplings were carried out from 2009 to 2014. A total of 18 species are listed. Chorebus (C.) ruficollis (Stelfox, 1957) is recorded for the first time from Iran. An identification key is provided for Chorebus species occurring in the Eastern Iran.

An annotated list of Braconidae (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonoidea) for all species recorded from the territory of Iran during more than a hundred years (1901–2016) of research is given. A checklist of 780 species in 141 genera belonging to 26 subfamilies of Braconidae known from Iran is listed, among them 34 species are exclusive for the Iranian insect fauna. Host and distributional data in Iran are also provided.

Three new species of Ettchellsia Cameron, namely, E. ignita sp. n. from Peninsular Malaysia and Borneo, E. nigripes sp. n. from Sulawesi and E. reidi sp. n. from Borneo are described and illustrated. A key to the species of Ettchellsia is provided based on females.

Eleven species of Elasmus are recorded from Barrow Island in northern Western Australia, including nine not previously recorded for Western Australia. Elasmus curticornis sp. n. is described as new to science.

Natural enemies may go through genetic bottlenecks during the process of biological control introductions. Such bottlenecks are expected to be particularly detrimental in parasitoid Hymenoptera that exhibit complementary sex determination (CSD). CSD is associated with a severe form of inbreeding depression because homozygosity at one or multiple sex loci leads to the production of diploid males that are typically unviable or sterile. We observed that diploid males occur at a relatively high rate (813% of diploid adults) in a field population of Cotesia rubecula in Minnesota, USA, where this parasitoid was introduced for biological control of the cabbage white Pieris rapae. However, our laboratory crosses suggest two-locus CSD in a native Dutch population of C. rubecula and moderately high diploid males survival (approximately 70%), a scenario expected to produce low proportions of diploid males. We also show that courtship behavior of diploid males is similar to that of haploid males, but females mated to diploid males produce only very few daughters that are triploid. We use our laboratory data to estimate sex allele diversity in the field population of C. rubecula and discuss the possibility of a sex determination meltdown from two-locus CSD to effective single-locus CSD during or after introduction.

Plants can accumulate and release defensive chemicals by activating various signaling pathways when they are damaged by herbivores or pathogens. The jasmonic acid pathway is activated after damage by chewing herbivores. Here we used jasmonic acid (JA) as an exogenous elicitor to induce feral cabbage plants. In this study, the effects of root JA (RJA) and shoot JA (SJA) induction on the foraging behavior of , a parasitoid of the large cabbage white butterfly , was investigated under semi-field conditions. In all combinations of differently induced plants (RJA, SJA and control plants), the percentages of shoot induced plants that were visited by at least one wasp were significantly higher than those of controls or root induced plants during 3 h of foraging. Consequently, parasitism rates of on shoot-JA induced plants were significantly higher than on plants induced with JA to the roots or control plants in all tests. However, this behavioral preference was not reflected in the allocation of offspring. The clutch sizes of eggs on control, root induced and shoot induced plants were not significantly different from each other in two-choice or three-choice experiments, but did differ with clutch size in the two-choice experiment of uninduced control plants versus SJA. This semi-field study helps to further understand the choice behavior and preferences of parasitoids in natural multitrophic communities in which plants induced with root or shoot herbivores occur together.

Two closely related parasitoid wasp species with different host specificities were used for experimental studies on the biology of host finding, a crucial element of parasitoid life history: The habitat and host specialist Nasonia vitripennis and the habitat and host generalist Dibrachys microgastri (Chalcidoidea: Pteromalidae). The host finding parameters tested included reaction to olfactory cues, aspects of locomotor activity, ability to locate hidden hosts and day-night-activity. The results revealed distinct inter- specific differences that match the respective host and habitat ranges of the two species. In N. vitripennis host finding is dominated by olfactory reaction to hosts and host habitat, i.e., fly puparia and birds' nests. In D. microgastri olfactory cues have only a minor role. Its host finding is characterized by rapid searching at random. Both species are able to locate hidden hosts. Although still incomplete, these insights into host finding by two parasitoid species with different life history strategies indicate they can be char- acterized by specific combinations of behavioural host finding features.

DNA barcoding is a modern method for the identification of different species, including insects. Among animals, the major emphasis of DNA barcoding is on insects. Due to this global trend we addressed this approach for surveying a group of insects. The parasitic wasps (including primary and hyperparasitoids) of pome fruit orchard aphids were collected from Iran-Mashhad during 2009-2010. Preliminary identification of this group was performed by using morphological and morphometric characters and SEM. The COI gene in the specimens was amplified and sequenced. In this survey, Aphidius matricariae, Binodoxys angelicae, Diaeretiella rapae, Ephedrus persicae, Lysiphlebus fabarum and Praon volucre parasitoids and Alloxysta sp., Asaphes suspensus, Dendrocerus carpenteri, Pachyneuron aphidis, Syrphophagus aphidivorus hyperparasitoids were studied. Based on intra-interspecies distances and phylogenetic analysis using NJ, all species possess diagnostic barcode sequences. The results of this study show that the COI sequence could be useful in identification study of this group of insects. Here we have provided the first GenBank data for the COI gene of the above-mentioned hyperparasitoids as well as an initial attempt toward preparing DNA barcodes for Iranian parasitoid and hyperparasitoid aphids.

Plants under attack by aboveground herbivores emit complex blends of volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Specific compounds in these blends are used by parasitic wasps to find their hosts. Belowground induction causes shifts in the composition of aboveground induced VOC blends, which affect the preference of parasitic wasps. To identify which of the many volatiles in the complex VOC blends may explain parasitoid preference poses a challenge to ecologists. Here, we present a case study in which we use a novel bioinformatics approach to identify biologically relevant differences between VOC blends of feral cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.). The plants were induced aboveground or belowground with jasmonic acid (JA) and shoot feeding caterpillars (Pieris brassicae or P. rapae). We used Partial Least Squares--Discriminant Analysis (PLSDA) to integrate and visualize the relation between plant-emitted VOCs and the preference of female Cotesia glomerata. Overall, female wasps preferred JA-induced plants over controls, but they strongly preferred aboveground JA-induced plants over belowground JA-induced plants. PLSDA revealed that the emission of several monoterpenes was enhanced similarly in all JA-treated plants, whereas homoterpenes and sesquiterpenes increased exclusively in aboveground JA-induced plants. Wasps may use the ratio between these two classes of terpenes to discriminate between aboveground and belowground induced plants. Additionally, it shows that aboveground applied JA induces different VOC biosynthetic pathways than JA applied to the root. Our bioinformatic approach, thus, successfully identified which VOCs matched the preferences of the wasps in the various choice tests. Additionally, the analysis generated novel hypotheses about the role of JA as a signaling compound in aboveground and belowground induced responses in plants.

The genetic basis of host preference has been investigated in only a few species. It is relevant to important questions in evolutionary biology, including sympatric speciation, generalist versus specialist adaptation, and parasite-host co-evolution. Here we show that a major locus strongly influences host preference in Nasonia. Nasonia are parasitic wasps that utilize fly pupae; N. vitripennis is a generalist that parasitizes a diverse set of hosts whereas N. giraulti specializes on Protocalliphora (bird blowflies). In laboratory choice experiments using Protocalliphora and Sarcophaga (flesh flies), N. vitripennis shows a preference for Sarcophaga while N. giraulti shows a preference for Protocalliphora. Through a series of interspecies crosses we have introgressed a major locus affecting host preference from N. giraulti into N. vitripennis. The N. giraulti allele is dominant and greatly increases preference for Protocalliphora pupae in the introgression line relative to the recessive N. vitripennis allele. Through the utilization of a Nasonia genotyping microarray, we have identified the introgressed region as 16 megabases of chromosome 4, although a more complete analysis is necessary to determine the exact genetic architecture of host preference in the genus. To our knowledge, this is the first introgression of the host preference of one parasitoid species into another, as well as one of the few cases of introgression of a behavioral gene between species.

Parasitic wasps employ a wide range of chemical cues to find their hosts. Very recently, we discovered how 2 closely related egg parasitoids, Trichogramma brassicae and Trichogramma evanescens, exploit the anti-aphrodisiac pheromone benzyl cyanide of one of their hosts, the gregarious large cabbage white butterfly Pieris brassicae that deposits a clutch of more than 20 eggs per oviposition bout. The pheromone is transferred by male butterflies to females during mating to enforce female monogamy. On detecting the anti-aphrodisiac, the tiny parasitic wasps ride on a mated female butterfly to a host plant and then parasitize her freshly laid eggs. The present study demonstrates that both wasp species similarly exploit the anti-aphrodisiac mixture of methyl salicylate and indole of another host, the more common solitary small cabbage white butterfly Pieris rapae that deposits only one egg at a time. Interestingly, this behavior is innate in T. brassicae, whereas T. evanescens learns it after one successful ride on a mated female butterfly. Moreover, we show that the wasps only respond to the anti-aphrodisiacs of the 2 cabbage white butterflies when the ubiquitous compounds are part of a complete mated female odor blend. Obviously, parasitic wasps use the sophisticated espionage-and-ride strategy to find eggs of different gregarious and solitary host species. From the wasps' perspective there seems to be a trade-off between the abundance and egg-laying behavior of the butterflies. Our findings suggest that Pieris butterflies are under strong selective pressure to minimize the use of an anti-aphrodisiac. Copyright 2010, Oxford University Press.

Karyotypes of 16 Eupelminae species were analyzed. The haploid chromosome number was found to be much more diverse than the n = 5 previously recorded for three studied species. All species investigated of Eupelmus (Eupelmus), Eupelmus (Macroneura), Merostenus excavatus and three species of Anastatus have a karyotype of n = 5; n = 7 in Eupelmus (Episolindelia) linearis, n = 8 in Arachnophaga picardi, and n = 10 in Anastatus ruficaudus. The modal chromosome number is n = 5 and this is considered to be the plesiomorphic character state for the subfamily; karyotypes with higher chromosome numbers are hypothesized to be derived independently from the ancestral state by centric fission. This cytogenetical data provides important information on the subfamily systematics, especially the subgeneric classification of Eupelmus and generic placement of Eupelmus rostratus.

It is well established that plants infested with a single herbivore species can attract specific natural enemies through the emission of herbivore-induced volatiles. However, it is less clear what happens when plants are simultaneously attacked by more than one species. We analyzed volatile emissions of lima bean and cucumber plants upon multi-species herbivory by spider mites (Tetranychus urticae) and caterpillars (Spodoptera exigua) in comparison to single-species herbivory. Upon herbivory by single or multiple species, lima bean and cucumber plants emitted volatile blends that comprised mostly the same compounds. To detect additive, synergistic, or antagonistic effects, we compared the multi-species herbivory volatile blend with the sum of the volatile blends induced by each of the herbivore species feeding alone. In lima bean, the majority of compounds were more strongly induced by multi-species herbivory than expected based on the sum of volatile emissions by each of the herbivores separately, potentially caused by synergistic effects. In contrast, in cucumber, two compounds were suppressed by multi-species herbivory, suggesting the potential for antagonistic effects. We also studied the behavioral responses of the predatory mite Phytoseiulus persimilis, a specialized natural enemy of spider mites. Olfactometer experiments showed that P. persimilis preferred volatiles induced by multi-species herbivory to volatiles induced by S. exigua alone or by prey mites alone. We conclude that both lima bean and cucumber plants effectively attract predatory mites upon multi-species herbivory, but the underlying mechanisms appear different between these species.