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Eggshell waste and husk ash are abundant in Indonesia, with a population of 263 million, which is estimated to reach 483,920 tons and 10 million tons, respectively. However, this waste has not been utilized optimally, so it has a negative impact on the environment. This study aims to analyze the quality (compressive strength and water absorption) of a mixture of eggshells and husk ash as paving blocks for buildings to reduce the environmental burden. The experiment was carried out using a 2 factor factorial design: eggshells (4 levels: 0%, 5%, 7% and 15%); and husk ash (4 levels: 0%, 5%, 8% and 10%). The data were analyzed using analysis of variance, followed by analysis of mean using the least significant difference (LSD). The results showed that the mixture of eggs and husk ash had good quality, so it could reduce the need for Portland cement, which has a negative impact on the environment during production process. The best quality of a paving block was a mixture of 10% of husk ash and 15% of eggshells (A4B4 treatment) with the compressive strength value of 39 Mpa and water absorption of 5.8% (good).

The aim of this work was application of ground eggshells in various amounts by weight as a biofiller for natural rubber (NR) biocomposites. Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), ionic liquids (ILs), i.e., 1-butyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (BmiCl) and 1-decyl-3-methylimidazolium bromide (DmiBr), and silanes, i.e., (3-aminopropyl)-triethoxysilane (APTES) and bis [3-(triethoxysilyl)propyl] tetrasulfide (TESPTS), were used to increase the activity of ground eggshells in the elastomer matrix and to ameliorate the cure characteristics and properties of NR biocomposites. The influence of ground eggshells, CTAB, ILs, and silanes on the crosslink density, mechanical properties, and thermal stability of NR vulcanizates and their resistance to prolonged thermo-oxidation were explored. The amount of eggshells affected the curing characteristics and crosslink density of the rubber composites and therefore their tensile properties. Vulcanizates filled with eggshells demonstrated higher crosslink density than the unfilled sample by approximately 30%, whereas CTAB and ILs increased the crosslink density by 40–60% compared to the benchmark. Owing to the enhanced crosslink density and uniform dispersion of ground eggshells, vulcanizates containing CTAB and ILs exhibited tensile strength improved by approximately 20% compared to those without these additives. Moreover, the hardness of these vulcanizates was increased by 35–42%. Application of both the biofiller and the tested additives did not significantly affect the thermal stability of cured NR compared to the unfilled benchmark. Most importantly, the eggshell-filled vulcanizates showed improved resistance to thermo-oxidative aging compared to the unfilled NR.

ispartof: ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS AND BIOAVAILABILITY vol:34 issue:1 pages:338-351 status: accepted

The comparatively greater cost of producing biodiesel in comparison to petroleum diesel is one of the key drawbacks. Eggshells and leftover chicken fat are examples of poultry wastes that can be used to produce biodiesel at a low cost as catalysts and oil, respectively. In this study, eggshell-derived CaO and its doping with sodium methoxide catalyst for enhancing catalytic activity was synthesized for the transesterification of waste chicken fat and characterized by FT-IR and XRD analyses. XRD studies confirmed the crystalline structure of the developed catalyst and doping of sodium with eggshell-derived CaO. The transesterification reaction was performed at different reaction parameters such as the catalyst loading, the methanol to oil ratio, the reaction temperature, and the reaction time. The biodiesel produced at the maximum yield was evaluated by gas chromatography mass spectrometry analysis. A maximum yield of 96% biodiesel was obtained with catalyst loading of 2 wt% of oil, as well as a methanol to oil ratio of 13:1 at 60 °C in 1 h. The output demonstrates that eggshell waste is a potentially accessible source of biomass-derived nano catalyst for the synthesis of biodiesel using chicken fat as a feedstock.

a. INTRODUCCION ......................................................................... 10 b. RESUMEN EJECUTIVO .................................................................. 14 c. REFERENTE TEÓRICO Y CONCEPTUAL .......................................................... 15 REFERENTE TEÓRICO .......................................................................... 15 Abono Orgánico ................................................................................... 16 Cascaras de huevos .......................................................................... 16 Calcio ................................................................... 17 Estudio de Factibilidad ..................................................................... 18 Estudio de mercado .......................................................................... 18 Estudio Técnico ........................................................................... 18 Estudio organizacional ..................................................................... 19 Estudio financiero ............................................................. 19 Pollinaza ........................................................... 20 REFERENTE CONCEPTUAL .......................................................... 20 d. MÓDULO DE MERCADO ............................................................... 25 1. Calcio para plantas a base de cascaras de huevo ...................................................... 25 2. Características técnicas ................................................ 26 2.1. Usos .......................................................... 26 2.2. Beneficios ......................................................................... 27 2.3. Productos Sustitutos ....................................................... 28 2.4. Productos Complementarios ........................................................... 30 3. Consumidor Final ................................................................... 30 3.1. Segmentación de Mercado ......................................................................... 30 3.2. Características socioculturales ............................................................ 31 3.3. Delimitación Área Geográfica .................................................................. 32 4. Análisis de Demanda ....................................................... 33 4.1. Diseño Muestral ............................................................. 33 4.2. Validación del instrumento ............................................................. 35 4.3. Cálculo de la Demanda Actual ........................................................................ 46 4.4. Proyección de la Demanda ............................................................... 47 Proyección demanda insatisfecha ................................................ 47 5. Análisis de la Oferta ......................................................... 48 6. Análisis de Precios ........................................................ 49 7. Canales de Comercialización ................................................. 49 8. Imagen del Producto/Servicio ......................................................... 50 9. Estrategia de Publicidad .................................................. 50 e. MÓDULO TÉCNICO Y ORGANIZACIONAL .................................................................. 53 1. Tamaño del proyecto ................................................................ 53 2. Localización ............................................................... 60 2.1. Macrolocalización ..................................................... 60 2.2. Microlocalización ............................................................ 63 3. Distribución en planta ..................................................... 65 4. Proceso de producción ................................................................ 67 A. Recoger y recibir materia prima ................................................................ 68 B. Remitir órdenes de pedido ........................................................ 68 C. Seleccionar y limpiar .................................................................... 68 D. Secado de las cáscaras ....................................................... 68 E. Pulverizar las cáscaras .......................................................................................... 68 F. Control de calidad ......................................................................... 68 G. Empaquetado del producto .................................................................. 69 H. Almacenar ................................................................. 69 I. Cargar y distribuir ................................................................... 69 5. Naturaleza jurídica ................................................... 69 6. Misión ............................................................. 70 7. Visión .............................................................................. 71 10. Organigrama ......................................................... 74 11. Manual de funciones ............................................................. 76 f. MÓDULO DE IMPACTO SOCIAL, ECONÓMICO Y AMBIENTAL ....................................................... 82 g. MÓDULO FINANCIERO .............................................. 86 1. Inversión ................................................ 86 2. Punto de equilibrio .............................................. 94 3. Capital de trabajo ......................................................................... 96 4. Flujo neto de inversión .................................................................. 97 5. Proyecciones .............................................................. 98 6. Flujo neto de operaciones .................................................... 100 7. Flujo neto del plan de negocios ......................................................... 101 8. Evaluación financiera ...................................................... 102 9. Fuentes de financiación ............................................................ 105 Conclusión ....................................................... 106 Recomendaciones ................................................ 109 Referencias ................................................................... 111 ANEXOS ......................................................................... 115 Los abonos orgánicos son una excelente alternativa de fertilización, debido que suplen las necesidades biológicas del suelo; asimismo, poseen propiedades fisicoquímicas que mejoran e incrementan la producción de cultivos, generan resistencia a enfermedades y plagas en los mismos y además son de fácil elaboración pues pueden ser producidos a nivel de finca y representan precios menores en cuanto fertilizantes químicos. Existe una gran variedad de abonos orgánicos, la diferencia entre estos radica en el producto y proceso que se aplica para su transformación en material orgánico. Pregrado Administrador(a) en Finanzas y Negocios Internacionales Creación de Empresa

Considerando la importancia que ha venido tomando con el paso de los años la búsqueda de sustitos para materiales que tengan algún efecto contaminante a través de diferentes tipos de investigaciones y ensayos, con el fin de poder implementar alternativas que contrarresten al problema de contaminación por el cual esta pasando el mundo actualmente, el presente proyecto tiene como objetivo principal determinar la resistencia a la compresión que obtendría una mezcla de concreto al sustituirle parte de su material cementante por cascaras de huevo triturado y calcinado en porciones de 10%, 20%, 30% y 35% a través de los ensayos respectivos que se le realizan a las muestras cilíndricas en el laboratorio, para poder así conocer su viabilidad y proponer de manera concisa la utilización de este tipo de material no convencional en las mezclas de concreto que se utilizan hoy en día para el uso de mobiliario arquitectónico, recalcando el hecho de que se le hace una comparación de los resultados obtenidos respecto a una resistencia promedio que tiene una muestra de concreto tradicional de 21 MPa o 3000 PSI. Por tal motivo, a través de un proceso de recolección de los materiales y agregados se realizan las muestras cumpliendo con lo establecido en las normas del INVIAS para los agregados e INCONTEC para la realización de los cilindros, mencionando que a las cascaras de huevo se les someten procesos de trituración y calcinación para obtener un material apto de reemplazar al cemento permitiendo una correcta adherencia entre los demás materiales al momento de mezclar. Una vez se obtienen los cilindros y se fallan a través de las pruebas de compresión en el laboratorio de la Universidad Santo Tomas, se puede asegurar que el cilindro de 10% de reemplazo de cascaras de huevo obtuvo la resistencia mas cercana a los 21 MPa, por lo tanto, se genera una nueva alternativa para utilizar en cualquier tipo de uso mobiliario arquitectónico que requiera concreto a través de un material enfocado a la sostenibilidad dándole un mejor uso y con la posibilidad de poder implementarse no solo en Tunja sino en cualquier parte del mundo. Considering the importance that has been taking over the years the search for substitutes for materials that have some polluting effect through different types of research and tests, in order to be able to implement alternatives that counteract the pollution problem for which The world is currently going through, the main objective of this project is to determine the compressive strength that a concrete mixture would obtain by replacing part of its cementing material with crushed and calcined egg shells in portions of 10%, 20%, 30% and 35% through the respective tests that are carried out on the cylindrical samples in the laboratory, in order to know their viability and concisely propose the use of this type of unconventional material in the concrete mixtures that are used today. nowadays for the use of architectural furniture, emphasizing the fact that a comparison is made of the results obtained Compared to an average strength of a traditional concrete sample of 21 MPa or 3000 PSI. For this reason, through a process of collecting the materials and aggregates, the samples are made in compliance with the provisions of the INVIAS standards for aggregates and INCONTEC for the production of cylinders, mentioning that the eggshells are They undergo crushing and calcination processes to obtain a material suitable for replacing cement, allowing a correct adherence between the other materials at the time of mixing. Once the cylinders are obtained and they are failed through the compression tests in the laboratory of the Santo Tomas University, it can be ensured that the cylinder of 10% replacement of eggshells obtained the closest resistance to 21 MPa, therefore, a new alternative is generated to use in any type of architectural furniture use that requires concrete through a material focused on sustainability, giving it a better use and with the possibility of being implemented not only in Tunja but in any part of the world. Pregrado

The high consumption of chicken eggs produces tons of eggshells daily, generating a serious environmental problem, since they are improperly disposed of in sanitary landfills. This residue is mostly composed of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), a precursor for obtaining calcium oxide (CaO). Thus, this work aimed to obtain CaO from hen eggshells in order to confirm its characteristics as a biomaterial due to structural, chemical and thermal analysis for industrial purposes, which can be applied in the area of ​​catalysis. For this, the samples were calcined at different temperatures (650, 700, 800 and 900 °C) with a residence time of two hours. The in natura and synthesized samples were analyzed by XRD, FTIR and TGA/DrTGA. The diffractograms confirmed the presence of CaCO3 as the main phase for the in natura eggshells, and for the samples calcined at different temperatures, CaO was formed as the main phase. The absorption bands showed the appearance of Ca-O binding for all calcined samples. In addition, for those subjected to 650 and 700 °C, C-O absorption bands were also found, attributed to the presence of CaCO3. The thermogravimetric curves, in turn, showed that all calcined samples were characterized as stable, as they did not present significant variation in their respective masses as a function of the programmed time and temperature. Thus, this residue is an excellent alternative and sustainable source for the production of CaO as a biomaterial. El alto consumo de huevos de gallina produce toneladas de cáscaras de huevo diariamente, generando un grave problema ambiental, ya que son desechados indebidamente en rellenos sanitarios. Este residuo está compuesto mayoritariamente por carbonato de calcio (CaCO3), precursor para la obtención de óxido de calcio (CaO). Así, este trabajo tuvo como objetivo obtener CaO a partir de cáscaras de huevo de gallina con el fin de confirmar sus características como biomaterial debido al análisis estructural, químico y térmico con fines industriales, que pueda ser aplicado en el área de catálisis. Para ello, las muestras se calcinaron a diferentes temperaturas (650, 700, 800 y 900 °C) con un tiempo de residencia de dos horas. Las muestras in natura y sintetizadas fueron analizadas por XRD, FTIR y TGA/DrTGA. Los difractogramas confirmaron la presencia de CaCO3 como fase principal para las cáscaras de huevo in natura, y para las muestras calcinadas a diferentes temperaturas se formó CaO como fase principal. Las bandas de absorción mostraron la apariencia de unión Ca-O para todas las muestras calcinadas. Además, para los sometidos a 650 y 700 °C también se encontraron bandas de absorción de C-O, atribuidas a la presencia de CaCO3. Las curvas termogravimétricas, a su vez, mostraron que todas las muestras calcinadas se caracterizaron como estables, ya que no presentaron variación significativa en sus respectivas masas en función del tiempo y temperatura programados. Por lo tanto, este residuo es una excelente fuente alternativa y sostenible para la producción de CaO como biomaterial. O consumo elevado de ovo de galinha produz diariamente toneladas de cascas de ovos, gerando um grave problema ambiental, uma vez que são descartadas de forma inadequada em aterros sanitários. Este resíduo é composto, em sua maior parte, por carbonato de cálcio (CaCO3), um precursor para a obtenção do óxido de cálcio (CaO). Assim, neste trabalho objetivou-se obter CaO a partir das cascas de ovos de galinha a fim de confirmar suas características como um biomaterial em função de análise estrutural, química e térmica para fins industriais, podendo ser aplicado na área da catálise. Para tanto, as amostras foram calcinadas em diferentes temperaturas (650, 700, 800 e 900 °C) com tempo de permanência de duas horas. As amostras in natura e sintetizadas foram analisadas por DRX, FTIR e TGA/DrTGA. Os difratogramas confirmaram a presença de CaCO3 como fase principal para as cascas de ovo in natura, sendo que para as amostras calcinadas em diferentes temperaturas ocorreu a formação CaO como fase principal. As bandas de absorção evidenciaram o aparecimento da ligação Ca-O para todas as amostras calcinadas. Além disto, para aquelas submetidas a 650 e 700 °C, foram ainda encontradas bandas de absorção de C-O, atribuídas à presença do CaCO3. As curvas termogravimétricas, por sua vez, mostraram que todas as amostras calcinadas se caracterizaram como estáveis, pois não apresentaram variação significativa em suas respectivas massas em função do tempo e temperatura programados. Desta forma, esse resíduo é uma excelente fonte alternativa e sustentável para a produção de CaO como biomaterial.

The need for the fabrication of sustainable aluminium matrix composites (AMCs) is being sought after as practical alternatives to conventional metals and their alloys. This study was undertaken to investigate the effect of sustainable materials on the mechanical, physical and corrosion resistant properties of AA 6063. The weight fraction of the hybrid reinforcements was varied at 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 wt.%. For each variation, the fly ash and eggshells were weighed equally. The fabrication route selected was stir casting. The analysis of the density showed that the property decreased with increasing weight fraction of the hybrid reinforcements. Evaluation of the microhardness revealed hardness values of 78.13, 81.19, 81.54, 82.14, and 86.71 HV for the base metal, 2.5, 5.0, 7.5 and 10.0 wt.% samples respectively. The corrosion resistant properties were studied in 3.5 wt.% NaCl medium. The investigation showed that the reinforced AMCs exhibited improved corrosion resistance compared to the base metal. However, the 7.5 wt.% sample exhibited the least corrosion rate of 8.649 X 10-5 g/h.

The textile industry in Indonesia has increased since the 1980s. From the non-oil and gas sector, the textile industry is the government's largest source of income. In addition to its impressive growth, about 10-15% of the used textile dyestuff is wasted at the dyeing process can exceed the maximum Chemical Oxygen Demand level of 150 mg/L. Synthetic dyes contain carcinogenic ingredients that can harm the environment and aquatic biota. The alternative for handling the dye waste is the adsorption method using bio adsorbent from a mixture of chicken eggshells and rice husk ash. Both have the potential to be used as adsorbents because they have an active site, abundant amounts, and are economical. This study was to determine the effect of the process variables of the adsorbent mass ratio, contact time, and pH on the adsorption capacity of methylene blue using a mixture of eggshells and rice husk ash with the UV-Vis Spectrophotometer analysis method. The results showed that the optimal conditions for the adsorption of 20 ppm methylene blue were 0.2:0.8 gram of adsorbent ratio, 80 minutes, and pH of 3. The adsorption capacity obtained was 98.817%, reduced the methylene blue concentration to 0.237 ppm.

Biowastes from agriculture, sewage, household wastes, and industries comprise promising resources to produce biomaterials while reducing adverse environmental effects. This study focused on utilising waste-derived materials (i.e., eggshells as a calcium source, struvite as a phosphate source, and CH3COOH as dissolution media) to produce value-added products (i.e., calcium phosphates (CaPs) derived from biomaterials) using a continuous flow hydrothermal synthesis route. The prepared materials were characterised via XRD, FEG-SEM, EDX, FTIR, and TEM analysis. Magnesium whitlockite (Mg-WH) and hydroxyapatite (HA) were produced by single-phase or biphasic CaPs by reacting struvite with either calcium nitrate tetrahydrate or an eggshell solution at 200 °C and 350 °C. Rhombohedral-shaped Mg-WH (23–720 nm) along with tube (50–290 nm diameter, 20–71 nm thickness) and/or ellipsoidal morphologies of HA (273–522 nm width) were observed at 350 °C using HNO3 or CH3COOH to prepare the eggshell and struvite solutions, and NH4OH was used as the pH buffer. The Ca/P (atomic%) ratios obtained ranged between 1.3 and 1.7, indicating the formation of Mg-WH and HA. This study showed that eggshells and struvite usage, along with CH3COOH, are promising resources as potential sustainable precursors and dissolution media, respectively, to produce CaPs with varying morphologies.

The rise in global energy demand has encouraged exploring into other innovative methods of generating renewable fuels from different forms of waste. Due to its accessibility, culinary used vegetable oil is regarded as a potential source for profitable production of biodiesel. In the present study, the viability of producing biodiesel from used vegetable oil (UVO) by utilizing CaO catalyst (derived from the calcination of chicken eggshell and impregnated with KNO3 and NaNO3) was studied. Higher yield of biodiesel was obtained at methanol/oil mole ratio of (9–10) and CaO catalyst concentration of (2.0–3.0) wt/wt% Oil, for the three forms of catalyst used. Also, higher yield of biodiesel was obtained when CaO with impregnated KNO3 was used, followed by the operation involving CaO with impregnated NaNO3. At optimum conditions of methanol/oil mole ratio of 9 and catalyst concentration of 2.4 wt/wt% Oil, the yields of biodiesel obtained were 90% (for unimpregnated catalyst), 92% (using CaO impregnated with NaNO3) and 95% (using CaO impregnated with KNO3). The higher biodiesel yield obtained for CaO impregnated with KNO3 (compared to the yield from CaO impregnated with NaNO3) could be traced to a more reactive nature of potassium and arrangement of electrons of both potassium and sodium. The results of the tests and analysis on biodiesel properties reveal that quality biodiesel were produced from the three forms of catalyst used. This is because, each of the values of the properties considered falls within the ASTM standard.

In the present work, a novel continuous flow system (CFS) is developed for the preconcentration and determination of Cr (VI) usingPseudomonas aeruginosastatic biomass immobilized onto an effective and low-cost solid support of powdered eggshells. A mini glass column packed with the immobilized biosorbent is incorporated in a CFS for the preconcentration and determination of Cr (VI) from aqueous solutions. The method is based on preconcentration, washing and elution steps followed by colorimetric detection with 1,5-diphenyl carbazide in sulphuric acid. The effects of several variables such as pH, retention time, flow rate, eluent concentration and loaded volume are studied. Under optimal conditions, the CFS method has a linear range between 10 and 100 μg L-1and a detection limit of 6.25 μg L-1for the determination of Cr (VI). The sampling frequency is 10 samples per hour with a preconcentration time of 5 mins. Furthermore, after washing with a 0.1 M buffer (pH 3.0), the activity of the biosorbent is regenerated and remained comparable for more than 200 cycles. Scanning electron microscopy reveals a successful immobilization of biomass on eggshells powder and precipitation of Cr (VI) on the bacterial cell surface. The proposed method proves highly sensitive and could be suitable for the determination of Cr (VI) at an ultra-trace level.

Heterogeneous catalysis has an advantage of easy separation of the catalyst after biodiesel is produced. CaO is known to be an efficient heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production. Taking into account that CaO is a key component of eggshells, the effectiveness of eggshells as a heterogeneous catalyst for rapeseed oil transesterification with methanol was investigated and optimal conditions of biodiesel production were determined applying RSM methodology. The influence of three independent variables on ester content was analyzed and a quadratic model was created. It was determined that this model is statistically significant. The optimum transesterification conditions when eggshells are used as a heterogeneous catalyst, and the process temperature of 64 °C, were determined as: the methanol-to-oil molar ratio 10.93:1; the catalyst amount 6.80 wt%; the reaction duration 9.48 h. The ester yield of 97.79 wt% was obtained under these conditions.

Calcium phosphate materials such as hydroxyapatite (HA) or tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) are highly attractive due to their multitude of applications in bone replacement as well as their environmental and ecological credentials. In this research, quail, hen, duck, and pigeon eggshells were used as a calcium source to obtain calcium phosphate materials via the environmentally friendly wet synthesis. Using the eggshells with the organic membrane, the biphasic calcium phosphate materials composed mainly of HA were obtained. The second mineral phase was β-TCP in the case of using quail, hen, and pigeon eggshells and octacalcium phosphate (OCP) in the case of duck eggshells. The HA content in the obtained materials depended on the amount of membrane in the eggshells and decreased in the order of pigeon, duck, hen, and quail eggshells. The eggshell membrane removal from the eggshells caused the reduced content of HA and the presence of the more soluble β-TCP or OCP phase in the obtained materials. The calcium ions release profile in the PBS buffer indicates the potential biomedical application of these materials.

One of the major challenges in sustainable waste management in the agri-food industry following the “zero waste” model is the application of the circular economy strategy, including the development of innovative waste utilization techniques. The conversion of agri-food waste into carriers for the immobilization of enzymes is one such technique. Replacing chemical catalysts with immobilized enzymes (i.e., immobilized/heterogeneous biocatalysts) could help reduce the energy efficiency and environmental sustainability problems of existing chemically catalysed processes. On the other hand, the economics of the process strongly depend on the price of the immobilized enzyme. The conversion of agricultural and food wastes into low-cost enzyme carriers could lead to the development of immobilized enzymes with desirable operating characteristics and subsequently lower the price of immobilized enzymes for use in biocatalytic production. In this context, this review provides insight into the possibilities of reusing food industry wastes, namely, eggshells, coffee grounds, and brown onion skins, as carriers for lipase immobilization.

Eggshell membrane is a kind of cheap, abundant resources with great potential utilization value. A variety of active ingredients in it can be used as raw materials for medicine, light industry and other industries. At present, soluble protein, collagen, keratin, sialic acid, hyaluronic acid and antimicrobial protein have been successfully extracted from eggshell membrane and exploited in various fields. This study aimed to separate the eggshell membrane for fully exploiting the potential utilization value of the eggshell, and reduce the amount of waste discharged, which is conducive to protecting the ecological environment on which we depend. In order to reduce energy consumption of eggshell membrane separation, separate eggshell membranes from eggshells by flash evaporation was investigated. The flash separation conditions were optimized considering three independent variables at three different levels by response surface methodology. The results showed that the processing parameters of separating eggshell membranes and eggshells with flash evaporation were 1.0 Mpa pressure, 45% moisture content, and 5 mm eggshells’ particle size. Under these conditions, the separation rate was 69.16%. Therefore, flash separation can be a promising approach for separating eggshells and eggshell membranes.

One of the main challenges of the agro-food industry sustainable waste management by “zero- waste” model is the application of the circular management strategy, including development of innovative waste transformation techniques. Agro- food waste transformation into carriers for enzyme immobilization clearly represent one of such techniques, while replacement of chemical catalysts with immobilized enzymes might solve the issues of energy efficiency and environmental acceptability. On the other hand, process economic cost-effectiveness is highly dependent on the immobilized enzyme price. Whether the agro-food waste transformation could result with cost effective enzyme carriers for lipase immobilization, and subsequent development of immobilized lipases of desirable operational properties for use in the biocatalytic production, is the question this project aiming to answer. In this respect, carriers of desirable operational properties and high immobilization capacity will be prepared from selected waste: eggshells, spent coffee grounds and brown onion skin followed by subsequent immobilization of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Burkholderia cepacia lipases using various immobilization techniques. Biochemical and operational properties of free and immobilized lipases will be used for the selection of developed immobilized lipases of the greatest efficiency, which will be tested for operational functionality in the selected reactions of acidolysis, hydrolysis and transesterification. The final proof will be confirmed by industrial scale techno-economic analysis simulation, as well as life cycle analysis.

Unlike other wastes from the agri-food industry (straw, corn, cob, stalks, seeds, husks) widely used in biorefineries as feedstock for the production of high-value products (chemicals, biofuels and bioenergy), eggshells, spent coffee grounds, and brown onion skins have not yet found a suitable place in sustainable production, but are mainly landfilled burdening the environment. This paper aims to point out the great potential of eggshells, spent coffee grounds, and brown onion skins as secondary raw materials in sustainable development, with minimal production of waste streams.

In this study, calcium phosphate materials were obtained via a simple, eco-friendly wet synthesis method using hen eggshells as a calcium source. It was shown that Zn ions were successfully incorporated into hydroxyapatite (HA). The obtained ceramic composition depends on the zinc content. When doped with 10 mol % of Zn, in addition to HA and Zn-doped HA, DCPD (dicalcium phosphate dihydrate) appeared and its content increased with the increase in Zn concentration. All doped HA materials exhibited antimicrobial activity against S. aureus and E. coli. Nevertheless, fabricated samples significantly decreased preosteoblast (MC3T3-E1 Subclone 4) viability in vitro, exerting a cytotoxic effect which probably resulted from their high ionic reactivity.

Eggshells are a potentially polluting industrial waste that are disposed of as landfill which has proven to be hazardous to the environment. The usage of chicken eggshells as a biofiller for polymer matrix composites instead of its disposal as landfill has proven advantageous in various studies. On the other hand, using eggshells as a filler material to replace inorganic calcium carbonate usage would be another environment friendly act. The present study is focused on studying the effects of eggshell filler addition and post-curing on polymer composites which could be utilised for domestic applications. Herein, uncarbonised and carbonised eggshell filler material were processed from waste eggshells. Hybridisation of the carbonised and uncarbonised eggshell filler was carried out. All three variants of eggshell fillers (10 wt.%) were used in the fabrication of composites. A hand lay-up technique was employed in the fabrication of unfilled composites along with three variants of filled composites, namely, uncarbonised, carbonised, and hybrid eggshell filled composites. The fabricated and cured composites were further subjected to post-curing at a temperature of 60 °C for a period of 2 h. All four variants of post-cured composites were then subjected to mechanical testing according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards. The tests revealed that all three variants of filled composites possess better mechanical properties in comparison with unfilled composites. Further, in comparison with unfilled composites, the carbonised eggshell filled composites showcased 42% and 49% improvement in flexural and tensile properties, respectively. The modes of failure of the specimens were observed and tabulated. SEM imaging revealed that the eggshell filler contributed to the strengths of the composites by means of arresting and deviating cracks. It was also observed that the post-cured specimens displayed improved properties when compared with our previous studies on non-post-cured specimens. In summary, the study showcased the benefits of eggshell filler addition and the post-curing of polymer composites.

In this study, zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO) and nanohydroxyapatite (NHAP) were prepared in the presence of date palm pits extract (DPPE) and eggshells, respectively. Another four nanocomposites were prepared from ZnO and NHAP in different ratios (ZP13, ZP14, ZP15, and ZP16). DPPE and all nanomaterials were characterized using GC-MS, zeta potentials, particle size distributions, XRD, TEM, EDX, FTIR, and pHPZC. The characterization techniques confirmed the good distribution of ZnO nanoparticles on the surface of NHAP in the prepared composites. Particles were found to be in the size range of 42.3–66.1 nm. The DPPE analysis confirmed the presence of various natural chemical compounds which act as capping agents for nanoparticles. All the prepared samples were applied in the adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of methylene blue under different conditions. ZP14 exhibited the maximum adsorption capacity (596.1 mg/g) at pH 8, with 1.8 g/L as the adsorbent dosage, after 24 h of shaking time, and the static adsorption kinetic process followed a PSO kinetic model. The photocatalytic activity of ZP14 reached 91% after 100 min of illumination at a lower MB concentration (20 mg/L), at pH 8, using 1.5 g/L as the photocatalyst dosage, at 25 °C. The photocatalytic degradation of MB obeyed the Langmuir–Hinshelwood first-order kinetic model, and the photocatalyst reusability exhibited a slight loss in activity (~4%) after five cycles of application.

Ovim se diplomskim radom htio proizvesti praškasti kalcijev klorid iz ljuske jaja primjenom kiselinske obrade ljuske jaja 5 % kloridnom kiselinom u šaržnom reaktoru volumena 15 L te slijednom proizvodnjom praškastog kalcijeva klorida primjenom sušenja raspršivanjem. Pronađeno je da se proces cjelokupnog otapanja ljuske jaja uz 100 %-tni prinos na kalcijevu kloridu postiže tijekom 3 h i 30 minuta. Daljnjom obradom dobivenih otopina koja je uključivala neutralizaciju i flokulaciju te ugušćivanje postignuto je uklanjanje dijela organske tvari prisut-ne u ljusci jaja, čime su otopine kalcijeva klorida dodatno pročišćene. Primjenom postupka sušenja raspršivanjem ugušćenih otopina kalcijeva klorida pri optimalnim uvjetima (protok pumpe 5 %; protok zraka 30 L/min; temperatura sušenja 210 °C) dobivena je praškasta sol bezvodnog kalcijeva klorida visokog stupnja čistoće i zadovoljavajuće zdravstvene ispravnosti, pri čemu je prinos iznosio 88 % na masu vlažne ljuske jaja, odnosno 102 % na suhu tvar ljuske jaja. The possibility of the production of calcium chloride from eggshell waste in 15 L batch reactor, followed by spry drying of obtained calcium chloride solution was examined. In this respect eggshells were exposed to 5% hy-drochloric acid with complete transformation of eggshell calcium carbonate to calcium chloride (100% yield) during 3 h 30 min. Further treatment of calcium chloride solution including neutralization and flocculation followed by evaporation to the 1/10 of volume yielded partially purified calcium chloride solution with reduced amount of organic matter. Spry drying of such prepared solution at optimal conditions (pump flow 5%; air flow 30 L / min; drying temperature 210 °C) yielded anhydrous calcium chloride of high purity and satisfactory mi-crobiological safety. Production yield of calcium chloride was 88% per wet weight of eggshell waste, or 102% per dry matter of eggshell waste.

Complex and at times extreme environments have pushed many bird species to develop unique eggshell surface properties to protect the embryo from external threats. Because microbes are usually transmitted into eggs by moisture, some species have evolved hydrophobic shell surfaces that resist water absorption, while also regulating heat loss and the exchange of gases. Here, we investigate the relationship between the wettability of eggshells from 441 bird species and their life-history traits. We measured the initial contact angle between sessile water droplets and the shell surface, and how far the droplet spread. Using phylogenetic comparative methods, we show that body mass, annual temperature and eggshell maculation primarily explained variance in water contact angle across eggshells. Species nesting in warm climates were more likely to exhibit highly hydrophobic eggshells than those nesting in cold climates, potentially to reduce microbial colonization. In non-passerines, immaculate eggs were found to have more hydrophobic surfaces than maculate eggshells. Droplets spread more quickly on eggshells incubated in open nests compared to domed nests, likely to decrease heat transfer from the egg. Here, we identify clear adaptations of eggshell wettability across a diverse range of nesting environments, driven by the need to retain heat and prevent microbial adhesion.

Cilj je ovog diplomskog rada bio ispitati utjecaj tri različita puferska sustava, natrij fosfatnog, Tris-HCl i Britton-Robinsonova, pri tri različite pH vrijednosti (6, 7 i 8) tijekom 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 i 24 sata na kemijsku stabilnost i inertnost ljuske jaja kao potencijalnog nosača za imobilizaciju enzima. Otpuštanje kalcija iz ljuske jaja praćeno je kompleksometrijskom titracijom. Rezultati su pokazali da se ljuska jaja pokazuje nepogodnom kao nosač za imobilizaciju enzima sa stanovišta kemijske stabilnosti i inertnosti budući da dolazi do otapanja sastavnog kalcijeva karbonata u sva tri puferska sustava. Pri tome se najnepovoljnijim pokazao Tris-HCl pufer čijim se djelovanjem tijekom 24 sata u otopinu otpustilo i do 4 % kalcija od ukupnog kalcija u kalcijevu karbonatu ljuske jaja. S druge strane, natrijev fosfatni pufer i Britton-Robinsonov pufer pokazali su podjednak učinak na otpuštanje kalcija iz kalcijeva karbonata ljuske jaja pri čemu je udio izdvojenog kalcija iz ljuske jaja tijekom 24 sata iznosio manje od 0,2 %. Uz navedeno, ustanovljeno je da primjena pufera niže pH vrijednosti u načelu dovodi do veće količine otopljenog kalcijeva karbonata ljuske jaja. Shodno tome može se zaključiti da ljuska jaja ne predstavlja pogodan nosač za imobilizaciju enzima. The present study investigated the effect of three buffer systems (sodium phosphate, Tris-HCl and Britton-Robinson buffer) of three different pH values (6, 7 and 8) during 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 24 hours, on the chemical stability and insolubility of eggshells as potential carrier for enzyme immobilization. The release of calcium from eggshells was monitored by complexometric titration. The obtained results showed that eggshells are unsuitable as a carrier for enzyme immobilization due to their chemical instability and solubility in buffer systems, as the calcium carbonate of eggshells dissolves. Tris-HCl buffer was the least favorable, up to 4 % of the calcium from eggshell calcium carbonate within 24 hours. The dissolution of eggshell calcium carbonate in sodium phosphate and Britton-Robinson buffers was much lower, where a release of up to 0.2 % of the calcium was observed within 24 hours. Generally, the greatest release of calcium was observed at the lowest pH. Based on the above mentioned, it can be concluded that eggshells are not suitable carriers for the immobilization of enzymes.

Objective: This review focuses on the in vitro degradation of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite for analyzing the weight loss of hydroxyapatite when applied in the human body. Cytotoxicity tests were used to observe cell growth and morphological effects. A systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to observe the weight loss and viable cells of hydroxyapatite when used for implants. Method: Based on the Population, Intervention, Comparison, and Outcome (PICO) strategy, the articles used for literature review were published in English on SCOPUS, PubMed, and Google Scholar from 1 January 2012 to 22 May 2021. Data regarding existing experiments in the literature articles the in vitro degradation and cytotoxicity testing of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite determined the biocompatibility of the materials. A meta-analysis was conducted to calculate the mean difference between the solutions and soaking times used for degradation and the stem cells used for cytotoxicity. Results: From 231 relevant studies, 71 were chosen for full-text analysis, out of which 33 articles met the inclusion criteria for degradation and cytotoxicity analysis. A manual search of the field of study resulted in three additional articles. Thus, 36 articles were included in this systematic review. Significance: The aim of this study was to highlight the importance of the biocompatibility of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite. The weight loss and viability cells of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite showed optimum results for viable cells requirements above 70%, and there is a weight loss of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite for a material implant. The meta-analysis indicated significant differences in the weight loss of eggshell-based hydroxyapatite materials with different soaking times and solutions used. The various kinds of stem cells for incubation of cultured cells in contact with a device, either directly or through diffusions with various kinds of stem cells from animals and humans, yielded viability cells above 70%.

Hydroxyapatite (HA) has been widely used in biomedical applications. HA is prepared from natural sources of eggshell. The obtained HA is composited with TiO2 using the hydrothermal method at a temperature of 230 °C. The structure and morphology of HA-TiO2 composites are characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Meanwhile, its antibacterial activity was tested on Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli bacteria. The formation of the HA-TiO2 composite is evidenced by typical peaks on the XRD pattern for HA and TiO2. The FTIR spectrum shows that no bond formed between TiO2 and HA which indicates the formation of composites. The smallest crystallite size and the highest specific surface area were obtained from the composite with the composition of HA-TiO2 30:70. In addition, the composition of the composite also shows the smallest particle size distribution. Therefore, the presence of TiO2 plays a significant role in determining the HA properties formed. Furthermore, the HA-TiO2 composite showed good antibacterial activity using disk diffusion and optical density (OD) methods. These results indicate that the synergistic combination of HA from eggshell with TiO2 has favorable properties for antibacterial activity.

Syngas is a valuable entity for downstream liquid fuel production and chemical industries. The efficient production of syngas via catalytic partial oxidation of methane (CPOM) is an important process. In this study, partial oxidation of methane (POM) was carried out using CaO decorated TiO2 catalysts. The catalysts were synthesized employing the sol-gel method, while the decoration of TiO2 with CaO was achieved in an aqueous solution by wetness impregnation method. The prepared catalysts were characterized by employing XRD, Raman, TG-DTG, and SEM-EDX for structural and morphological analysis. On testing for POM, at 750 °C the catalysts demonstrate excellent CH4 conversion of 83.6 and 79.5% for 2% and 3% CaO loaded TiO2, respectively. While the average H2/CO ratio for both 2% and 3% CaO loaded TiO2, 2.25 and 2.28, respectively, remained slightly above the theoretical value (H2/CO = 2.0) of POM. The improved POM performance is attributed to the optimally loaded CaO on the TiO2 surface that promotes the reaction where TiO2 support ensure less agglomerated particles, resulting into a fine distribution of the active catalytic sites.

Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) was produced from waste cooking oil (WCO) utilizing eggshells derived solid base catalyst. Eggshells derived multi modal CaO (MM-CaO) also provides a cost-effective way for the preparation of green fuel. The nano-scaled MM-CaO was prepared using ball milling followed by calcination at 800 °C for 2 h form eggshells powder. The characterization of calcined powder was executed by XRD, EDX, SEM and FTIR techniques. Diffractogram of MM-CaO showed cubic crystal structure and presence of calcium, carbon and oxygen was confirmed by EDX. The morphology of MM-CaO was revealed by SEM having bandgap energy (3.02 eV) which declared MM-CaO as photoactive in solar range. Catalytic transesterification process furnished 75.2% yield, whereas in photocatalytic process, 86.8% yield was obtained at optimum conditions (temperature 50 °C, reaction time 180 min and 1.5 g catalyst dose). The FAME formation was monitored by GC and FTIR analysis. Physiochemical properties of produced biodiesel were also determined and equated with standards. Results depicted that MM-CaO is highly efficient for conversion of WCO to biodiesel.

Mercury pollution is a global issue due to atmospheric transport and its bioaccumulation by organisms, resulting in several adverse effects on wildlife. Migratory shorebirds use several wetlands at different latitudes where mercury pollution is likely to differ. Little is currently known about mercury levels in shorebirds in tropical regions. In this study, we assessed mercury levels in freshly grown feathers of several shorebirds species wintering in two important wetlands of East Atlantic Flyway: Bijagós Archipelago (tropical; Calidris alba, Calidris canutus, Charadrius hiaticula, Tringa totanus, Actitis hypoleucos, Arenaria interpres, Calidris ferruginea and Pluvialis squatarola) and Tagus Estuary (temperate; Calidris alba, Calidris canutus, Charadrius hiaticula, Tringa totanus, Calidris alpina and Limosa limosa). We also assess mercury levels of breeding species, by analysing eggshells of Charadrius alexandrinus and Himantopus himantopus, collected in saltpans of the Ria de Aveiro and of the Tagus Estuary, and in the faeces of the last species collected mostly throughout the non-breeding season. Mercury levels in feathers and eggshells varied significantly among species and wetlands. The results showed that, in general, shorebirds wintering in Tagus Estuary had higher mercury concentrations (2.106±0.681 – 9.918±3.499 ppm) than those from Bijagós Archipelago (0.932±0.369 – 2.773±0.784 ppm), suggesting that mercury exposure is higher in this temperate wetland. Charadrius alexandrinus eggshells had higher concentrations in both portuguese wetlands (0.034±0.006 e 0.037±0.006 ppm) than Himantopus himantopus ones (0.018±0.004 e 0.009±0.002 ppm). The Himantopus himantopus faeces contained detectable mercury but the mean concentrations (0.040±0.003 – 0.085±0.025 ppm) did not vary over the season. The differences observed in this study were likely caused by spatial differences in mercury pollution between wetlands and by interspecific differences on trophic habits of species. Overall, mean mercury levels in feather were below the toxicity threshold effect level (5ppm), with two notable exceptions: Tringa totanus and Calidris alba from Tagus Estuary. A poluição por mercúrio é um problema global devido ao transporte atmosférico e á sua bioacumulação pelos organismos, resultando em efeitos adversos na vida selvagem. As aves limícolas migratórias exploram diversas zonas húmidas em diferentes latitudes onde a poluição por mercúrio pode ser distinta. Pouco se sabe acerca dos níveis de mercúrio nas aves limícolas em regiões tropicais. Neste estudo determinaram-se os níveis de mercúrio em penas recém desenvolvidas de aves limícolas invernantes em duas importantes zonas húmidas integradas na Rota Migratória Este Atlântico: Arquipélago dos Bijagós (tropical; Calidris alba, Calidris canutus, Charadrius hiaticula, Tringa totanus, Actitis hypoleucos, Arenaria interpres, Calidris ferrugínea and Pluvialis squatarola) e Estuário do Tejo (temperado; Calidris alba, Calidris canutus, Charadrius hiaticula, Tringa totanus, Calidris alpina and Limosa limosa). Avaliaram-se também os níveis de mercúrio nas cascas de ovos de Charadrius alexandrinus e Himantopus himantopus, nidificantes nas salinas da Ria de Aveiro e do Estuário do Tejo, e nas fezes da última espécie referida recolhidas maioritariamente fora da época de nidificação. Os níveis de mercúrio nas penas e nas cascas de ovos variaram significativamente entre espécies e entre zonas húmidas. Os resultados mostraram que de uma forma geral, as aves limícolas invernantes no Estuário do Tejo apresentaram concentrações de mercúrio mais elevadas (2.106±0.681 – 9.918±3.499 ppm) do que as do Arquipélago dos Bijagós (0.932±0.369 – 2.773±0.784 ppm), sugerindo que a exposição é maior nessa zona húmida temperada. As cascas de ovos de Charadrius alexandrinus apresentaram concentrações mais elevadas de mercúrio, em ambas as zonas húmidas portuguesas (0.034±0.006 e 0.037±0.006 ppm), do que as de Himantopus himantopus (0.018±0.004 e 0.009±0.002 ppm). As fezes de Himantopus himantopus continham mercúrio detetável, mas as concentrações médias (0.040±0.003 – 0.085±0.025 ppm) não variaram ao longo dá época. As variações observadas neste estudo foram provavelmente causadas por diferenças espaciais na poluição por mercúrio entre as zonas húmidas estudadas e também por diferenças interespecíficas nos hábitos tróficos das espécies. As concentrações de mercúrio nas penas estiveram genericamente abaixo do nível de efeito do limiar de toxicidade (5ppm), com duas exceções assinaláveis: Tringa totanus e Calidris alba do Estuário do Tejo. Mestrado em Ecologia Aplicada

In the present study, Calcium oxide (CaO) obtained from eggshells has been used as a heterogeneous catalyst for biodiesel production from highly viscous non-edible rubber seed oil (RSO). Characterization of synthesized catalyst was done with the help of scanning electron microscope equipped with Energy dispersive spectrometry (SEM-EDS), X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Response surface methodology (RSM) with central composite design (CCD) was used to optimize the process parameters and 1H-NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance) spectroscopy analysis was performed to find the conversion of RSO to biodiesel. A conversion of 99.7% of RSO to biodiesel was obtained at 12:1 methanol to oil molar ratio, 4 (wt%) of catalyst, and 3 hour reaction time with a quadratic regression model of R2 of value 0.9566 was obtained. The composition of prepared biodiesel is estimated with the help of Gas Chromatogram-Mass Spectroscopy (GC-MS) analysis. Artificial Neural Network (ANN) with Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm was also trained to predict biodiesel conversion and the value of R2 obtained was 0.9976. It was observed that predicted conversion values from ANN were better when compared to prediction using RSM.

Lower levels of calcium in adults increase the risk for osteoporosis, and in children, low calcium levels can impact their potential adult height. The study objective was to analyze the bioavailability and physicochemical properties of a calcium preparation based on chicken eggs. The base calcium preparation was enriched with one of a variety of biologically active substances, inter alia, vitamin D3, vitamin K, lysine, lactose, magnesium chloride and inulin. The newly developed calcium preparations were subjected to structural analysis using X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy, and the hydrodynamic diameter for the molecules was determined using the dynamic light scattering method and their zeta potential. To determine the optimum storage conditions of calcium preparations, their hygroscopicity and bulk density were determined. The calcium preparations were also added to selected food products, such as apple juice with mango, fruit dessert (jelly) and beef meatballs. The enriched food products were subjected to sensory analysis. The study demonstrated the significant influence of additives to calcium preparation in terms of its hygroscopicity and morphology. It was found that all products with the addition of analyzed preparations were characterized by high sensory desirability. The results presented in the study comprise the basis for the development of new food products, enriched with calcium.

The agro-food industry generates a vast amount of residues (wastes) every year due to its own constant growth as a number of population is in increasing. Food loss and industry food waste has become an issue of great public concern. Among many types of food wastes eggshells, spent coffee grounds and brown onion skins stand out by their low reusability. Most of these wastes end up in the environment, which is a devastating fact since, according to literature-available data on chemical composition represent high-value material that can be used as secondary feedstock. The eggshells is rich in calcium, while spent coffee grounds and brown onion skins have high content of cellulose, hemicellulose, and valuable bioactive components. The aim of this work was to evaluate the chemical composition of these agro-industrial wastes and point out their possible utilization in vary industries for production of different value added products and eventually as a potential candidates for biorafinery concept.

This research aims to develop the La2O3/CaO catalyst derived from eggshells by physical mixing and impregnation methods at various La contents. The synthesized catalyst was characterized using several techniques. The catalyst activity was tested via transesterification. It was found that La2O3/CaO obtained from physical mixing with the La content of 5%mol gave the maximum FAME yield (92.3%) due to the synergistic effect indicated by dual BrOnsted and Lewis basic sites with the highest basicity and surface area. La2O3/CaO obtained from the impregnation method gave the lower FAME yield due to the lower total basicity and BET surface area.

Brown laying hens, after the 70th wk of life, tend to increase the number of unsellable eggs produced due to a decrease in eggshell quality. Mortality due to prolapses and osteoporosis also increases after 65 to 70 wk of age making it difficult to reach the global industry goal of 500 eggs produced per hen in one laying cycle. Management of dietary calcium (Ca) and vitamin D3 (Vit D3) can influence both livability and eggshell quality. The industry´s nutritional data shows an increasing level of Ca in brown laying hens diets, because can increase productivity performance, nevertheless, negative impact of high Ca levels on digestibility and absorption of amino acids, fat, phosphorus (P) and microminerals potentially develop a long term problems for the bird. Additionally, levels of the active form of Vit D3: 1,25 dihydroxycholecalciferol (1,25(OH)2D3) decrease in layers (70th wk) and it has an important role in Ca metabolism because participated in: Ca transcellular absorption in the gut, Ca bone resorption and Ca in eggshell deposition. New strategies for Ca metabolic problems in older laying hens must be study and applied in the field, to decreasing the currently used of paracellular absorption in the gut (which needs more Ca) and increase the use Vit D3 metabolites like 1α hydroxycholecalciferol (1α(OH)D3) which has a similar bioefficiency as 1,25(OH)2D3 active form of Vit D3. The hypothesis of this research report is: that the concentrations of Ca in brown layer diets commercially used after 70 wk of age in Colombia are in excess and that the use of 1α(OH)D3 allows for lowering Ca concentrations in 10 even 20% in the diet without negatively impacting egg production, shell quality or mortality RESUMEN: Las gallinas ponedoras pardas, después de la semana 70 de vida, tienden a aumentar el número de huevos no vendibles producidos debido a una disminución en la calidad de la cáscara. La mortalidad por prolapsos y osteoporosis también aumenta después de las 65 a 70 semanas de edad, lo que dificulta alcanzar el objetivo de la industria mundial de producir 500 huevos por gallina en un ciclo de puesta. El manejo del calcio (Ca) y la vitamina D3 (Vit D3) en la dieta puede influir tanto en la habitabilidad como en la calidad de la cáscara del huevo. Los datos nutricionales de la industria muestran un nivel creciente de Ca en las dietas de las gallinas ponedoras pardas, porque puede aumentar el rendimiento de la productividad, sin embargo, se puede desarrollar un impacto negativo de los niveles altos de Ca en la digestibilidad y absorción de aminoácidos, grasas, fósforo (P) y microminerales. un problema a largo plazo para el ave. Además, los niveles de la forma activa de Vit D3: 1,25 dihidroxicolecalciferol (1,25 (OH) 2D3) disminuyen en las ponedoras (semana 70) y tiene un papel importante en el metabolismo del Ca porque participó en: La absorción transcelular de Ca en el intestino , Ca reabsorción ósea y Ca en la deposición de la cáscara de huevo. Se deben estudiar y aplicar en el campo nuevas estrategias para los problemas metabólicos del Ca en gallinas ponedoras mayores, para disminuir la absorción paracelular utilizada actualmente en el intestino (que necesita más Ca) y aumentar el uso de metabolitos de Vit D3 como 1α hidroxicolecalciferol (1α (OH ) D3) que tiene una bioeficiencia similar a la forma activa 1,25 (OH) 2D3 de Vit D3. La hipótesis de este informe de investigación es: que las concentraciones de Ca en las dietas de capa marrón utilizadas comercialmente después de las 70 semanas de edad en Colombia son excesivas y que el uso de 1α (OH) D3 permite disminuir las concentraciones de Ca en 10 incluso 20% en la dieta sin afectar negativamente la producción de huevos, la calidad de la cáscara o la mortalidad.

Egg consumption in Sweden is very high, which means a lot of egg shells are thrown out. For example the average swede consumes about 350 eggs every year. In this thesis I have investigated how eggshells can be applied in new areas as a resource, and I want to inspire the reader and encourage them to rethink what is called waste. Is it really waste or a possible resource? The work began with literature search, interviews and a survey to understand people's views on eggshells. I have concluded that not a lot of people know what eggshells are made of, and what they are used for. In a literature search I came across many scientific articles on eggshells. According to King’ori (2011) eggshells are used as fertilizers, used in medicine, cosmetic surgery, and dental care, calcium supplements, in the food industry and in crafts. When eggshell is thrown as food waste it creates problems in recycling stations, the eggshell is like sediment and lies at the bottom of tanks and pipes. The recycling staff have to perform additional work when cleaning tanks and pipes as eggshells are like sediment and lay at the bottom. The staff have to manually shoot out eggshells with many other useful materials that could have been digested and become biogas. This is an exploratory thesis where I investigate the material eggshell through a material-driven design process to find new sustainable uses. I follow the material-driven design process method by Karana et al.( 2015) plus my own added steps during the process. Material driven design process is a process where designers use a material to find the attributes of the material. These are then presented in new contexts or already existing contexts, this means that the material on the existing product can be replaced. This differs from traditional design, where the material is chosen based on wanted attributes. This report will give you an understanding of the material-driven design process-method and how I have carried out a material-driven design process, to develop different material properties of eggshells. The report ends with a concluding discussion and presents new eggshell-based materials that I have produced in the form of a demonstrator. It is a book which has two different materials, a hard material and a paper material which are combined and put together with a steel thread. I will also share my knowledge about eggshells and what potential it has in the future.

In this study, three coagulants (ferromagnetite (F), alum (A), and eggshells (E)) and their hybrids (FA, FE, and FEA) were investigated as possible cost-effective coagulants for the treatment of industrial wastewater. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) was used to characterize the morphological and elemental compositions of the coagulants. The effects of coagulant dosage (10&ndash, 60 mg/L) and settling time were investigated for the removal of turbidity, color, and total suspended solids. A jar tester (JTL6) operating at conditions of 150 rpm for 2 min (rapid mixing) and 30 rpm for 15 min (slow mixing) was employed. Results from the characterized supernatant showed about 80% removal of the contaminants. The prospects of F were proven to be the most effective as compared to the binary (FA &gt, FE) and the ternary hybridized (FEA) coagulants. At an optimum dosage and settling time of 20 mg/L and 30 min, respectively, the treatability performance of F was clearly proven to be viable for wastewater treatment.

Naresuan University Journal: Science and Technology, 29, 4, 13-21

International audience; In this work, the feasibility to elaborate a membrane support for water treatment from Cameroonian clays, coconut husks and eggshells was assessed. Twenty-five plastic formulations with different percentage of raw materials were tested and consolidated by thermal treatment to get the membrane supports. Mercury porosimetry allowed to select five supports potentially eligible for water filtration since their porosities were higher than 50%. Mechanical resistance and water absorption studies then allowed to choose the best ceramic membrane support S1510 (made from clays 75%, coconut husks 15% and eggshells 10% after sintering at 900 °C). EDX, XRD, TGA/DSC, FTIR and SEM characterizations techniques were used to characterize the raw materials and selected membrane support. The selected support has 52% of porosity, a mean pore diameter of 0.08 μm and a water permeability of 14,013 L/h/m2/bar. The ability of the support to retain E. coli bacteria present in a contaminated water was finally assessed. Retention tests showed 90% of E. coli removal, making this membrane support interesting for microfiltration purpose.

A necessidade do desenvolvimento de métodos de tratamentos eficazes e economicamente viáveis para a remoção de poluentes da água é constante, assim como a valorização de resíduos com potencial agregado, como a casca de ovo galináceo, aplicada como fonte alternativa de cálcio em muitas áreas do conhecimento. Neste estudo, este resíduo foi utilizado na síntese do titanato de cálcio, que foi aplicado na fotocatálise heterogênea, na degradação do composto triclosan, poluente comumente encontrado em águas superficiais, organismos aquáticos, sedimentos, e até no leite materno. As cascas de ovos foram coletadas no Restaurante da Universidade Tecnológica Federal do Paraná, Câmpus Apucarana, sendo as mesmas limpas e trituradas para posterior síntese do CaTiO3, via reação em estado sólido através de tratamento térmico. Os materiais sintetizados foram caracterizados através das técnicas de DRX e MEV, a fim de observar as características morfológicas apresentadas. Realizaram-se os ensaios de fotocatálise heterogênea com os materiais sintetizados com objetivo de degradar o poluente triclosan em dois reatores fotoquímicos. Os resultados foram acompanhados através da leitura em espectrofotômetro UV-Vis e CG-MS. Os dados demonstraram excelentes resultados da fotodegradação do poluente, apresentando 94,13% de degradação com 120 minutos de reação. Conclui-se que o resíduo pode ser utilizado como fonte alternativa de cálcio para síntese do CaTiO3 e posteriormente aplicado na fotodegradação do triclosan. The need to develop effective and economically viable and efficient treatment methods for removing pollutants from water is constant, as well as the valorization of residues with added potential, such as chicken eggshells, applied as an alternative source of calcium in different areas of knowledge. In this study, this residue has been used for the synthesis of calcium titanate, and its subsequent application in heterogeneous photocatalysis, over the triclosan compound, already found in surface water, aquatic organisms, sediments, and even in breast milk. The egg shells were collected from the Restaurant of the Federal Technological University of Paraná, Câmpus Apucarana, and they were cleaned and crushed for later synthesis of CaTiO3 via solid state reaction through heat treatment. The synthesized materials were characterized using XRD and SEM techniques, in order to observe the developed morphological characteristics. Heterogeneous photocatalysis tests were carried out with the synthesized materials in order to degrade the pollutant triclosan in two photochemical reactors. The results were verified by reading on a UV-Vis spectrophotometer and GCMS. The data demonstrated excellent results on pollutant photodegradation, presenting 94.13% of degradation with 120 minutes of reaction. It is concluded that the residue is extremely viable to be used as an alternative source of calcium for the synthesis of CaTiO3 and later applied in the photodegradation of triclosan.

Using the hen eggshells (biowaste) as a source of calcium and an environmentally friendly approach, the nanopowder composed of 74% of hydroxyapatite (HA) and 26% of β–tricalcium phosphate (β-TCP) was obtained. Due to the maximum reduction of the stages associated with the use of chemicals and energy, this method can be considered as economically and environmentally friendly. A well-developed surface area and the negative zeta potential at pH above 3.5 indicate good adsorption properties of this material. The obtained material shows high adsorption capacity towards Cu2+ ions, i.e. 105.4 mg/g at pH 5. Good fit of the Langmuir adsorption model and the pseudo-second-order kinetic model may indicate chemical adsorption probably due to the electrostatic interactions between the Cu2+ cations and the negatively charged phosphate and hydroxyl groups on the material surface.

The aim of this study was to reduce the concentration of phosphorus (P) from wastewater through adsorption in eggshells and Posidonia oceanica. The rejected water from anaerobic digester in WWTP and leached water from dewatered anaerobic sludge were tested as a Phosphorous source. The adsorbent materials were pre-treated by calcination at 900 °C and 500 °C for eggshells and seagrass, respectively. For the extraction of phosphorous from anaerobic dewater sludge, H2SO4 and HNO3 were examined and HNO3 showed better performance than H2SO4. The isothermal Freundlich model was proven the most representative to the adsorption of P in the aforementioned biowaste. Results indicated the superiority of treated Posidonia oceanica compares to eggshells in P adsorption. The adsorption yield values were 80,2% for P adsorption from rejected water and 91,2% for adsorption in the extracted solution from anaerobic dewatered sludge. In addition, the presence of NO3-, NO2-, NH4+ and the chemical oxygen demand (COD) was additionally studied. Results showed no negative effect of NO3- and NH4+ to phosphorus adsorption. The COD analysis showed slight reduction of organic compounds in the solution after the exposure to treated seagrass. This study points out that treated Posidonia oceanica, which is in abundance in the Mediterranean Sea, has a high potential as a phosphorus-adsorbing material from wastewater. Further experiments, can be done to examine the fertilize potential of the final product (treated Posidonia oceanica after exposure to wastewater) Σκοπός της μελέτης αυτής αποτέλεσε η μείωση συγκέντρωσης φωσφόρου σε λύματα από σταθμό επεξεργασίας λυμάτων και η ανάκτησή του μέσω προσρόφησης σε απόβλητα, σε βέλτιστες συνθήκες, με έμμεσο στόχο την μείωση των αποβλήτων, μείωση εμφάνισης ευτροφισμού, άρα και μείωση της ρύπανσης. Τα απόβλητα αυτά, είναι κελύφη αυγών και θαλάσσια φύκη. Τα λύματα που χρησιμοποιούνται, προέρχονται από δευτεροβάθμια επεξεργασία και αποτελούν το απορριφθέν υγρό από αναερόβια χώνευση και την αφυδατωμένη αναερόβια λάσπη. Έγινε προεπεξεργασία των προσροφητικών υλικών με πυρόλυση στους 900 και 500 °C για κελύφη αυγών και φύκη, αντίστοιχα. Μέσω της διαδικασίας προσρόφησης, ο φώσφορος που υπάρχει στα λύματα δεσμεύεται στα προσροφητικά υλικά και αυτό προάγει τη δημιουργία ενός νέου προϊόντος με προστιθέμενη αξία, καθώς το προϊόν έχει ποσότητα φωσφόρου αρκετή για να χρησιμοποιηθεί ως λίπασμα ή ως εδαφοβελτιωτικό. Οι μετρήσεις απορρόφησης φωσφόρου στα λύματα, πραγματοποιήθηκαν φασματοφωτομετρικά. Για την εκχύλιση φωσφόρου από το στερεό απόβλητο έγινε χρήση οξέων H2SO4 και HNO3 και ακολούθως προσρόφηση στο προσροφητικό υλικό. Το μοντέλο που δείχνει πιο αντιπροσωπευτικό ως προς το προσροφητικό υλικό και τους μηχανισμούς προσρόφησης είναι το μοντέλο ισόθερμης Freundlich. Τα αποτελέσματα έδειξαν ότι τα απόβλητα επεξεργασμένα θαλάσσια φύκη Posidonia οceanica αποτελούν καλύτερο προσροφητικό υλικό φωσφόρου από λύματα σε σχέση με τα επεξεργασμένα κελύφη αυγών. Η απόδοση προσρόφησης από τα πειράματα διεξαγωγής ανήλθε το 80,2% για προσρόφηση φωσφόρου στο διάλυμα με απορριφθέν υγρό από αναερόβια χώνευση και στο 91,2% για προσρόφηση στο διάλυμα με αφυδατωμένη αναερόβια λάσπη. Επίσης, η ισόθερμη καμπύλη Freundlich για τα φύκη, έχει τον υψηλότερο συντελεστή συσχέτισης R2 με τιμή 0,9888. Επιπρόσθετα, έγινε η μελέτη παρουσίας ιόντων NO3- NO2- NH4+ καθώς και του χημικά απαιτούμενου οξυγόνου (COD) και διαπιστώθηκε η θετική επίδραση των αμμωνιακών και νιτρικών ιόντων στη προσρόφηση φωσφόρου ενώ η ανάλυση COD έδειξε τη μείωση οργανικού φορτίου στο διάλυμα μετά τη προσθήκη προσροφητή. Τα θαλάσσια φύκη Posidonia οceanica, τα οποία υπάρχουν σε αφθονία στη Μεσόγειο Θάλασσα και κάθε χρόνο μαζεύεται τεράστια ποσότητα νεκρής ύλης τους στις παραλίες της Κύπρου, αποτελούν υποσχόμενο πλέον προσροφητικό υλικό φωσφόρου. Μια περιβαλλοντικά φιλική μέθοδος ανάκτησης φωσφόρου από λύματα, έχει αποδειχθεί στη παρούσα μελέτη, για παραγωγή χρήσιμου προϊόντος από επεξεργασμένα κελύφη αυγών και θαλάσσια φύκη Posidonia οceanica. Συμπερασματικά, αξίζει να αναφερθεί ότι επέκταση της μελέτης αυτής μπορεί να αποτελέσει αφορμή για περαιτέρω έρευνα όσο αφορά τυχόν επιδράσεις στην προσρόφηση αλλά και το κόστος υλικών, έτσι ώστε να μπορεί να γίνει η εφαρμογή της. Γιώργος Μαγγανάρης, Νικόλαος Τζωρτζάκης Completed

In the present work, waste eggshells were used as a precursor for the synthesis of aragonite crystals through the wet carbonation method. Cadmium (Cd2+) and lead (Pb2+) were removed by the synthesized aragonite from synthetic wastewater. The influence of initial solution pH, contact time, Cd2+ and Pb2+ concentration, and sorbent dosage were evaluated. The major sorption was observed in the first 100 mins and 360 mins for Pb2+and Cd2+ respectively reaching sorption equilibrium at 720 mins (12 hr). The sorption capacity toward Pb2+ was much higher than toward Cd2+. Both heavy metals displayed high sorption capacities at initial pH 6. The pseudo-second-order kinetic model fits well with the experimental data with a higher correlation coefficient R2. Two isotherm models were also evaluated for the best fit with the experimental data obtained. Langmuir isotherm best fits the sorption of the metals on aragonite synthesized from eggshells. X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) results of sorbent after sorption showed that the mechanism of sorption was dominated by surface precipitation. Therefore, aragonite crystals synthesized from waste eggshells can be a potential substitute source for the removal of Cd2+ and Pb2+ from contaminated water.

В современной пищевой промышленности все большую набирает популярность радиационная обработка. Для контроля за качеством облучаемых продуктов и оценки поглощенных доз может быть использована ЭПР-спектрометрия, как быстрый и высокоточный метод. В настоящей работе проведен литературный обзор ЭПР-спектров пищевой продукции растительного и животного происхождения и построение ЭПР-сигнала яичной скорлупы. Radiation treatment is becoming increasingly popular in the modern food industry. EPR spectrometry can be used to monitor the quality of irradiated products and for estimation absorbed doses as a fast and highly accurate method. In this paper, we conducted a literature review of the EPR spectra of food products of plant and animal origin and constructed the EPR signal of eggshells.

In this study, it is proposed that pumpkin seed hulls and eggshells that are household wastes are low-cost materials to remove the Reactive Black 5 from water media. Through a number of experiments, the influences of the contact time, adsorption quantity, temperature, and pH of the solution were studied. Characterization of pumpkin seed hulls and eggshells was done by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy. Adsorption of the experimental data well fitted with both the models called Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm. The maximum experimental capacities of adsorption related to pumpkin seed hulls and eggshells were 9.18 and 18.46 mg g -1 , respectively. The optimum conditions were determined as adsorbent amount = 0.5 g L -1 , pH = 6, and contact time = 15 min for the eggshells adsorption process and adsorbent dosage = 1 g L -1 , pH = 2, and contact time = 30 min for the pumpkin seed hulls adsorption system. In addition, pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, and intraparticle diffusion kinetics were used to study the adsorbing dynamics of Reactive Black 5 onto pumpkin seed hulls and eggshells. In this study, it was observed that the pseudo-second-order kinetic was appropriate. Calculation of the thermodynamic parameters, such as changes in the free energy, enthalpy, and entropy of adsorption, was performed. According to the thermodynamic parameters, these processes were less spontaneous, practicable, and exothermic. To remove the dye from aqueous solutions, the pumpkin seed hulls and eggshells can be used as an alternative cheap adsorbent. © 2018, Islamic Azad University (IAU).

The aim of this study is to fabricate synthetic wollastonite from chicken eggshells (CES) and rice husk ash (RHA) through an economical solid-state route. Wollastonite was formulated with a stoichiometric amount of calcined eggshells (~99% CaO) and heat-treated RHA (~93% SiO2) as ingredients and calcined at 1000, 1100, 1150 and 1200°C for 120 min. The XRD spectrum revealed single-phase para-wollastonite (monoclinic, P21/a) after annealing at 1100°C and 1200°C with calcined powder contents comprising mainly a phase of pseudo-wollastonite (anorthic, C-1). For dielectric measurement, only the para- and pseudo-wollastonite pressed powder was sintered at 1100 and 1200°C for 240 min. The obtained results showed a stable, low dielectric constant (ε׳) of about 4.5 to 6, losses (tanδ) of about 0.0026 to 0.00361 and resistivity of around 6–9 × 108 (Ώ-cm) at 100 kHz. These are highly promising characteristics which suggest that waste-derived synthetic wollastonite may be useable as an ingredient in electrical porcelain applications.

15th International Conference on Environmental Science and Technology (CEST) -- AUG 31-SEP 02, 2017 -- Rhodes, GREECE, WOS: 000448131800012, Eggshell powder (ESP) is a cheap, adsorbent material used for removing different heavy metals from water by applying various adsorption methods. In batch adsorption experiments, the potential of ESP for the removal of the cadmium(II) (Cd2+) ion from aqueous solution was investigated. A batch study was utilized as a function of the initial concentration, the ESP amount, the contact time, and the pH of the aqueous solution. Freundlich and Langmuir's linear equations were used to investigate adsorption isotherms. The characterization studies of ESP samples were done using a scanning electron microscope and a Fourier transform infrared spectrometer. The highest Cd2+ removal efficiency was found at pH 5.0, an initial ESP dosage of 3.5 g, a temperature at 20 degrees C, a shaking speed at 250 rpm, and a contact time of 60 min. The maximum removal efficiencies coming from the ESP were between 65% and 96% for Cd2+ under optimum conditions. The adsorption data were fitted to the Langmuir isotherm. The adsorption capacity and the affinity of the ESP were examined for Cd2+. The Langmuir constants and separation factor (R-L) values indicate that the Cd2+ was favorably adsorbed onto the ESP. The maximum adsorption capacities obtained from the Langmuir model for Cd2+ were 2.221 mg/g of the ESP. The findings imply that the ESP could be used as an inexpensive, sustainable, and effective adsorbent for Cd2+ removal from different aqueous solutions., Global Network Environm Sci & Technol

In this paper, the effect of the carbonization temperature on the mechanical properties, density, wear and corrosion resistance of AA 6063 reinforced with eggshells was investigated. The selected fabrication route for this investigation was stir casting while the weight fraction of the eggshells was kept constant at 5 wt.%. The carbonization temperature was varied at 900, 1000, 1100, and 1200 °C. The microstructure revealed that the eggshells were fairly uniformly dispersed on the individual grains and along the grain boundaries of the base metal. It was also shown that the presence of agglomeration increased with increasing carbonization temperature. The densities of the eggshell-reinforced AMCs were lower than that of the base metal. The analysis of the microhardness showed an improvement of 40.79, 22.93, 25.70, and 29.43% for the 900, 1000, 1100, and 1200 °C carbonized eggshell samples, respectively. The compressive strength studies showed that the addition of carbonized eggshells improved the compressive strength of the composites compared to the base metal. The tribology studies showed that the wear resistance improved for the 900 and 1200 °C samples, while the electrochemical studies revealed that the corrosion resistance improved for the 900 and 1000 °C samples only.

The egg capsules of five systellognathan stoneflies species representing the genus Isoperla (Plecoptera, Perlodidae) have been investigated using light and electron microscopes (SEM and TEM). We consider the structural modifications of egg coverings (egg capsules, eggshells) like: a shape of a capsule, presence of structures fixing an egg to the substratum under water, intrachorionic aeropylar system facilitating gas exchange as a factor adapting an egg/embryo to the environment. The structures protecting eggs against desiccation during a female flight before oviposition into water as well as against the dangers of external mechanical injury caused by turbulences in rapid water currents of mountain streams are described and discussed. The ground plan of the egg capsule in arctoperlarian stoneflies is also discussed.

Eggshells are good bioindicators of environmental contamination, and therefore, the concentrations of 17 trace elements in 87 eggshells of black-headed gulls, Chroicocephalus ridibundus, were determined in five breeding colonies in an area dominated by farmland in northern Poland. The intra-clutch variability in the eggshell concentrations of heavy metals and other elements was also investigated, and the concentrations of the elements showed the following pattern: Ca > Mg > Sr > Fe > Zn > Al > Cr > Se > Mn > Cu > Pb > As > Ni > Mo = V > Sc > Cd. The concentrations of Fe, Al, and Mn decreased with the order in which the eggs were laid, but Sr concentrations increased. In contrast, the concentration of Cu significantly increased with the laying date. The concentrations of all elements significantly differed among the studied colonies; the highest concentration of eight elements was found in the eggshells from the Kusowo colony, which may have resulted from the intensive use of fertilizers, manure, and slurry in the surrounding agricultural region. The concentrations of Mg, Sr, and Zn in the eggshells from Skoki Duże were higher than those of the other studied colonies, which may have occurred because the gulls were nesting in a functioning gravel pit; soil and the parent rock are natural reservoirs of these elements. The observed element levels indicate that the environment where the black-headed gull eggs were formed, i.e., primarily near the breeding colonies, remains in a relatively unpolluted state, which was reflected by the low levels of Cd, Ni, and Pb and the lack of measurable levels of Hg. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s11356-017-8635-z) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.