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The financial aspects of crime have become increasingly complex in recent years due to rapid advances in technology and the globalization of the financial services industry, and accounting information can be used to support and stimulate financial crime. The importance of this paper starts precisely from the position of the professional accountant, in the sense that the front on which he acts allows him to position himself at the forefront of the fight against criminal acts, such as money laundering and terrorist financing. Regarding the money laundering phenomenon, it refers to the process of transferring money in order to disguise illegal practices, and terrorist financing concerns the situations of facilitating the financing of terrorist acts, these acts often having similar transactional characteristics, mainly related to concealment.

This study projected the theme: ‘Remote Causes of Restiveness in the Niger Delta Area of Southern Nigeria: An Empirical Analyses of the Impact of Criminal Activities along the Water Ways on the Economy in the Niger Delta Area’. The aim of the study is pointedly to investigate into the remote causes of criminal activities along the water ways in the Niger Delta area through the specific objectives of ascertaining the relationship between the dimensions of Criminal Activities along the Niger Delta area and the measures of Poor Economy, and how the moderating variables positively influenced and the suppressor variables negatively influenced the relationship between Criminal Activities and Poor Economy. By the doctrine of agreement reality, Rivers State, Bayelsa State and Delta State were the areas covered by this study. A population of 4130 persons, made up of the boat operators, the inland waterways officials and the passengers was the parameter for this study. A sample size of 897 persons, determined by the use of Krejcie and Morgan (1970) sample determination table was used as the information base. A cross-sectional design method was used to extract primary information from the research respondents, using a questionnaire. Scientific Package for Social Sciences (Version 25) and EViews 10 were used to do the univariate and bivariate analyses and the assumption testing to ascertain that the instrument used for this study was valid and reliable; the constructs (variables) were scientifically suitable to achieve the study objectives to avoid type 1, type 2 and type 3 errors. The objective findings of this study were that: there was a significant relationship between criminal activities along the water ways and Poor Economy in the Niger Delta area; Desire, Opportunity and Target positive influencers, while Duty of Care and Employment were negative influencers in the relationship between criminal activities and poor economy in the Niger Delta area. There were also a number of serendipitous findings from this study. The conclusion from this study was that government’s negligence of providing duty of care and employment are the root causes of restiveness in the Niger Delta area. Recommendations, based on the objective and serendipitous findings were proposed.

This paper focuses on the criminal activities which have been identified as hindering and crippling the tourism industry at uMhlathuze Local Municipality in the KwaZulu-Natal Province, South Africa. The main aim of the study was to establish if any mechanisms are in place to curb crime and enhance the safety of tourists within the study area. A structured questionnaire survey and face-to-face interviews were used to collect data. The study used a convenience sampling method to select 124 participants, from different parts of the study area. The results indicate that even though there are some mechanisms in place criminal activities continue occurring in and around uMhlathuze Local Municipality. Some of these criminal activities are not reported to the local authorities and are not known by the community members and thus downplayed. This study recommends that organizations such as Tourism KwaZulu-Natal that are responsible for marketing and promoting tourism, together with uMhlathuze Local Municipality tourism support officers should bring some safety measures and crime tourism awareness by organizing workshops and seminars related to tourist’s safety and security at different towns and villages of the local municipality, targeting youths.

Acts of terrorism often result in fatalities, but the impact of terrorism is not limited to loss of lives. Terrorism acts can disturb or suspend the peace process; they cause, lengthen, or deepen conflicts and escalate violence. In addition, terrorism has an effect on the economy of the state, given that combatting of terrorism requires significant temporal and financial resources.The threat posed by international terrorism not only constitutes one of the biggest challenges that the world and Europe in particular is currently facing, but also affects the security and economic interests of the Latvian nationals. In addition, terrorism-related crimes threaten the security of not only separate states, but that of the entire international community as well.In the view of the author, the relevance of the topic is illustrated by the fact that 23 May 2018, saw the Criminal Act of Latvia being complemented by a new (IX1) section on “Crimes Related to Terrorism”, thereby underscoring the preparedness of Latvia to adjust its legislative framework in order to avert possible threats of terrorism. The new version of the law sees terrorism, financing of terrorism, invitation to terrorism and terrorism threats, recruitment and training of persons for terrorism, travelling for terrorism purposes, and justification of terrorism classified as criminal offences.Author has chosen the topic of terrorism with the aim of exploring the definition of terrorism and its depiction in international and Latvian law, as well as analysing the criminal liability for terrorism prescribed by the Latvian law and determining the issues associated with the classification of terrorism.The paper consists of introduction, three chapters, and conclusion. In the first chapter, the definition of terrorism is considered. The second chapter is devoted to the analysis of criminal liability for terrorism under the Latvian law, and the third chapter – to the issues associated with the classification of terrorism. Finally, conclusions with respect to the threats posed by terrorism to the European Union and Latvia are drawn.

This article reviews the new evidence offered by Jorge Luis García, James J. Heckman and Anna L. Ziff's paper entitled "Early Childhood Education and Crime." The paper showcased the impact of crime reduction from high-quality intensive early childhood programs. Its distinct advantage from other similar research attempts is it's long-term follow-up. The data collected were evaluated by randomized controlled trials, and this present article is interested in reviewing the results using a descriptive qualitative method. It is found, proportionally, more women than men reduce their criminal activities after participating in this program. Gender influences the experiences, giving a difference because the home environment of disadvantaged families that are mainly benefited by this program is typically worse for girls. This program of educating children with the particular purpose of shaping their morality and understanding of good and bad gives a suitable scope for better improvement by the program. For both sexes, the effect of treatment is greater for disadvantaged children, as measured by the education given by their mothers.

Outlaw motorcycle gangs (OMCGs) are often reported to be disproportionately involved in crime. Debate continues about the relationship between the organisational structure of these groups and the extent and types of criminal activities undertaken by group members. A systematic review of the existing literature was conducted to examine the organisational structures that underpin the criminal activity of OMCGs. The available empirical research, though scant, supports the notion that, at least in some clubs or chapters, the structure of OMCGs facilitates criminal activities by individuals or small cliques, sometimes in collaboration with non-members. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Central banks and governments all over the world are increasingly exploring digital versions of fiat money, known as retail Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs). Most initiatives rely on Distributed Ledger Technologies and are presented as alternatives to physical cash. Consequently, anonymity-related regulatory questions have naturally started to arise in terms of Anti-Money Laundering and Counter-Terrorist Financing compliance. Against this backdrop, this paper provides a techno-legal taxonomy of approaches to balance privacy and transparency in CBDCs without thwarting accountability, but it also underlines cross-sectoral impacts. The contribution heeds regulation-by-design as its core methodological foundation, with Privacy-Enhancing Technologies as the relevant use case. Thus, it highlights that not only technology aids legal purposes, but also that some regulatory requirements ought to be designed into technology for one to reach agreed-upon results and/or standards. ispartof: IEEE Transactions On Network and Service Management vol:19 issue:2 pages:1776-1788 status: Published online

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The mainly goal of money laundering is to carry out more and more illegal economic transactions or activities to produce individual or groups gains and then to legitimate them. Money laundering converts illicit source of money generated by criminal activities in order to hide the connection between money and their original illegal activities. This is one of money laundering side. The second side implies corruption. While money laundering is a passing channel for illicit funds due to its criminal origin source, such funds may derive from corruption offences. All corruption’s forms represent the most important illicit funds branches for money laundering process. Corrupt people methods used to exploit the national and international financial system reflect the relationship between those two criminal activities. Criminals achieve their personal interests by hiding their corruption proceeds and transfer these gains to official economies. Corruption spread in any society entails money laundering spread, and the converse, too. There is a quite “indecent” relationship between money laundering and corruption. This paper tries to identify the multiple connections between the two phenomenons showing the negative impacts these criminal behaviours are having on the national and international economy. We conclude by highlighting the necessity of a multidisciplinary approach in order to fight against money laundering and corruption by integrating these problem frameworks at national level. International community must focus their resources on money laundering and corruption risks areas and maximize their response impact.

Urbanization has created numerous social problems, among which is crime that became a common phenomenon to all urban areas in both developed and developing nations. Recent unimaginable levels of the world urbanization coincides with rise in urban crimes in many parts of the world, as the rate of unemployment had been on the increase and coupled with increased poverty among the urban poor. Nature of crime is not uniform but varies from one geographical region to another. In some areas, property crime is more common while in others, crime on person (violent) is prevalent. Crime is not being plagued by a singular factor anywhere it occurred, there are variant factors that influence criminal activities. However, key factors that persuade criminal behaviours of potential offenders includes: unemployment, poverty, bad governance and weaknesses in law enforcement or crime-control agencies. These four key factors were discussed in this paper with hope of bringing out nature of urban crimes that bedevilled properties and people safety for taking management and prevention measures.

In this paper, the author is pointing out the activities of the border police in the Republic of Macedonia, mostly to reveal the criminal activities at the Macedonian borders in the period of 2012. Namely, the author analyzes data related to the illegal crossing of the state border, illegal stay of foreign citizens in the Republic of Macedonia, reject entering of foreign citizens into the Republic of Macedonia, foreigners who request asylum in the Republic of Macedonia, number of persons that are using false documents, etc.

El lavado de activos usualmente es una transgresión que proviene de otros crímenes como el narcotráfico, el tráfico de personas, la extorsión, el secuestro o el enriquecimiento ilícito. Aunque se suele cometer en cualquier lugar o momento, se ha evidenciado cierta facilidad en las fronteras y especialmente en aquellas donde existe un flujo constante de personas, mercancías y divisas, como en la frontera colombo-brasilera, afectando de igual manera tanto a brasileros como a colombianos. El presente ensayo hace un análisis de la situación que compete al lavado de activos como consecuencia de la alta criminalidad en la frontera colombo-brasilera en lo que podría denominarse un área sin ley. Money laundering is usually a transgression that comes from other crimes such as drug trafficking , extortion , kidnapping and illicit enrichment. Although usually make at any place or time , it has shown some ease at borders and especially in those where there is a constant flow of people, and currencies , as in the Colombian- Brazilian border , affecting equally both Brazilians as Colombians . This essay makes an analysis of the situation that concerns money laundering as a result of high crime in the Colombian- Brazilian border in what could be called a lawless area . Pregrado

Festivals and ceremonies are part and parcel of African culture, usually in all its pump, merriment and pageantry. However, with the increasing wave of criminal activities in Nigeria especially in Edo state, festivals and ceremonies are being redefined and conceptualized in practice. Only recently a new festival ‘Festival of Curses’ was brought to the fore in combating crime in Edo state. The study therefore seeks to explain the festival as a traditional mechanism in crime control, the nature of the festival, the factors that led to its emergence in the 21st century, the level of acceptance and its impact in reducing criminal activities in the State. The study employed principally secondary literature and in-depth interviews among a cross section of the Bini. Major findings revealed that immediately after the festival of curses, a lot of criminals in the state besieged the Bini Monarch’s Palace to confess their atrocities; and pleaded for forgiveness. There was an overwhelming acceptance of the festival irrespective of the people’s religious affiliations to Christianity and Islam as a result of the potency and sudden drop in crime during the period. The study concludes that the festival should be taken as a mechanism of crime control and policing in Nigeria.

V diplomski nalogi smo predstavili podrobnejši potek ilegalne trgovine s prepovedanimi drogami v Sloveniji. Opisali smo pomen in vlogo organiziranega kriminala in ljudi, ki delujejo v tej nezakoniti dejavnosti. Organizirani kriminal sodi med najnevarnejšo obliko kriminalitete, saj je zaradi narave svojega delovanja vse težje preganjan, nemalokrat tudi zato, ker deluje v »sivem polju« oziroma na robu dovoljenega. Organizirani kriminal zajema večje število posameznikov, ki delujejo v hierarhičnih strukturah, kar kaže na podjetniško organiziranost. Pridobitev čim večjega dobička in nadzor organizacije pa sta glavna cilja nezakonitega delovanja. Ključne dejavnosti organizirane kriminalitete zajemajo predvsem trgovino s prepovedanimi drogami. Kriminalne skupine z namenom zaslužka vse večjih količin denarja uporabljajo različne metode tihotapljenja prepovedanih drog po vsem svetu, pri tem pa so vse naprednejše in agresivnejše. Slovenija se je s svojim ekonomskim sistemom in z osamosvojitvijo znašla v položaju, ko je postala izredno ranljiva pri delovanju teh kriminalnih združb. S svojim geografskim položajem na križišču transkontinentalnih poti predstavlja vlogo ene od najpomembnejših tranzitnih držav. Tihotapljenja v Slovenijo in na Zahod potekajo po tako imenovani »balkanski poti«, ki pelje skozi Slovenijo in predstavlja ključno pot tihotapcev v tem delu sveta. V Sloveniji je predvsem policija tisti represivni organ, ki se najintenzivnejše operativno ukvarja z odkrivanjem tihotapljenja in preprečevanja preprodajanja prepovedanih drog. Nalogi policije sta identifikacija in razbitje ključnih organizacij preprodajalcev s poudarkom na preprečevanju dobave različnih prepovedanih drog odjemalcem. Policijska aktivnost je zato usmerjena v odkrivanje mrež preprodajalcev in tihotapcev prepovedanih drog. In the thesis we presented a thorough review of illegal trade with illicit drugs in Slovenia. We described the importance and role of organized crime and people, who participate in this illegal activity. Organized crime is one of the most dangerous forms of crime, since it is increasingly harder to prosecute due to the nature of its operations, often even since it operates within the so called “grey area” or on the edge of the allowable. Organized crime involves a large number of individuals, who operate in hierarchical structures, reflecting a business organization. Obtaining the highest possible profit and control of the organization are the two main goals of illegal operations. The key-activities of organized crime include particularly the illicit drug trade. In order to obtain the most profit criminal groups use different methods of illicit drug smuggling across the world, being increasingly progressive and aggressive. Slovenia with its economic system and independence found itself in the position, where it became extremely vulnerable to the operations of criminal groups. With its geographic position on the intersection of transcontinental routes, it has the role of one of the most important transit countries. Smuggling to Slovenia and to the West take place over the so called Balkan route, which runs through Slovenia and presents the crucial route of smugglers in this part of the world. In Slovenia, particularly the Police are that repressive authority, which intensively operatively engages in uncovering smuggling and preventing illicit drug trafficking. The tasks of the police are identification and breaking of crucial drug trafficking organizations with emphasis on preventing the supply of different illicit drugs to customers. The police operations are therefore directed into uncovering the network of traffickers and smugglers of illicit drugs.

Violent crime has emerged as a growing development challenge, affecting large segments of societies, and taking a severe toll on economic development. In many high crime environments, weak institutions, fiscal constraints, and political resistance have undermined the effectiveness of development programs and threatened their sustainability. The World Bank has begun to confront this challenge. The country of Honduras is the most violent in the world as measured by its homicide rate, which reached 90.4 per 100,000 inhabitants in 2012. This report presents the findings of a study of crime dynamics and prevention practices focused around a comparison of nine neighborhoods in three of the most violent cities in Honduras: La Ceiba, El Progreso, and Choloma. The research revealed that although the transnational drug trade, economic downturn, and political crisis have deepened the country’s vulnerability, some neighborhoods have successfully prevented crime. Drawing from extensive qualitative research in these neighborhoods, the study identified practices that communities pursue to prevent violence through collective responses. It also examined the characteristics of communities, societal factors, and institutional context that have enabled or constrained these responses. The research points to measures that can be built upon, scaled up, and tested through future research and programming to strengthen community-based crime prevention. It illustrates how deep examination of the dynamics of insecurity - and the ways communities manage it - can inform efforts to improve public safety in violence-prone countries.

The many authors in the book analyse three forms of organised crime: the illegal market of cocaine, the illegal market of a tobacco products and VAT fraud. The aim of the study is to examine the sources, mechanisms and approaches behind the financing of organised crime, through collecting and analysing empirical data in order to enable more effective investigations of organised crime and money laundering. Furthermore, the report also tries to scrutinise the possible interlocking relations between criminal structures and businesses and legitimate financial institutions ; to examine cash flows in criminal enterprises and the costs and profits of doing illegal business.

Trafficking is an emerging concern in West Africa that is gaining increasing attention from the international community. This paper examines the relationship between trafficking and fragility in the region through a meta-analysis of existing knowledge and data on the subject. Given the scope of this paper, we will not attempt to provide any primary empirical or qualitative analysis, but instead focus on offering a comprehensive, unbiased overview of the recent policy and academic literature on the subject, which we hope will assist development practitioners working in the region and help the World Bank identify possible programmatic responses. The authors start this paper by defining trafficking to frame our analysis, and then provide an overview of the trafficking economy across the region. Next, authors outline the potential channels between trafficking and fragility, discussing the actors involved (organized criminal groups, rebels, local or national level politicians, the military, and civilians) and their relevance to specific countries. Finally, the authors present our suggestions on possible policy and programmatic responses, based on identifying both regional and external dimensions to the problems.

This paper studies the sharp increase in violence experienced in Mexico after 2006, known as The War on Drugs, and its effects on human capital accumulation. The upsurge in violence is expected to have direct effects on individuals schooling decisions, but not indirect effects, because there was no severe destruction of infrastructure. The fact that the marked increases in violence were concentrated in some municipalities (and not in others) allows for implementation of a fixed-effects methodology to study the effects of violence on educational outcomes. Different from several recent studies that have found significant negative effects of violence on economic outcomes in Mexico, the paper finds evidence that this is not the case, at least for human capital accumulation. The paper uses several sources of data on homicides and educational outcomes and shows that, at most, there are very small effects on total enrollment. These small effects may be driven by some students being displaced from high-violence municipalities to low-violence municipalities; but the education decisions of individuals do not seem to be highly impacted. The analysis discards the possibility that the effects on enrollment of young adults appear small because of a counteracting effect from ex-workers returning to school. The results stand in contrast with recent evidence of the negative effects of violence on short-term economic growth, since minimal to 0 effects on human capital accumulation today should have little to no adverse effects on long-term growth outcomes in Mexico.

Bu çalışma, organize suç kavramının orijininden başlayarak, organize suç olgusunun kısa tarihçesi, terminolojisindeki farklılıklar ve teoriler, küreselleşme sürecinde mafya ve organize suç örgütlerinin değişimini ve eylemlerini kapsamaktadır. Literatürdeki belirsizlikler ve farklılıklar sebebi ile konjonktürel hareket eden ve sürekliliği olmayan örgüt yapıları kapsam dışı tutulmuştur. Bu çalışmanın amacı, küreselleşme ve artan ekonomik bağımsızlığın cesaretlendirdiği ve avantajlar sağladığı organize suç örgütlerinin yapısal ve işlevsel anlamda analizini yapmaktır. Sürekli gelişen iletişim ve bilgi teknolojileri, ülke sınırlarının gittikçe belirsizleşmesi, artan ulaşım imkanları, insan, mal ve hizmetlerin artan mobilitesi ve küresel ekonominin ortaya çıkışı suçun yerelden küresele hareket etmesini sağlamıştır. Bu yüzden modern dünyada organize suç yapısı, küreselleşme kavramından ayrı olarak anlaşılamaz. Özellikle ontolojik ve epistemolojik bağlamda organize suç kavramının tanımındaki farklılıklar göz önüne alınarak değişik idari, siyasal, kültürel ve ekonomik yapıya sahip ülkelere (İtalya, Rusya, Çin, Kolombiya, Japonya ve Türkiye) ait organize suç örgütlerinin karşılaştırılması yapılarak bu alanda literatüre farklı ve özgün bir çalışma sunmak amaçlanmaktadır. Bu karşılaştırma sadece değişik suç gruplarının şemalarını ortaya koyarak belirli ülkelerdeki organize suç örgütlerini değerlendirme değil, aynı zamanda benzer suç gruplarının eylemlerini karşılaştırma imkânı da sağlamaktadır. Modern dünyaya ayak uyduran ya da uydurmaya çalışan organize suç örgütlerinin, antik çağdan günümüze kadar yapısal, işlevsel ve kültürel anlamdaki değişimleri, organize suçla mücadele çalışmalarında dikkate alınması gereken bir süreçtir. Çalışmanın aynı zamanda bu değişim sürecini de yansıtacağı düşünülmektedir.Çalışmanın varsayımı, küreselleşme bağlamında organize suç örgütlerinin modern çağın iletişim, kolay ulaşım, internet gibi nimetlerinden optimum düzeyde faydalanarak, -legal veya illegal- ulusaşırı hızlı meta ve hizmet transferi sağlama yoluyla sermaye ve menfaat edindiği, diğer sosyal varlıklar gibi mafya örgütlerinin de geleneksel karakteristiklerini terk ederek, adeta özel sektör kuruluşu gibi değişime hızla ayak uydurarak kapitalist dünya sistemine eklemlendiği (ekonomi-politiği irdelenecek kadar) hatta kurumlaştığı; bu değişimin eylemleri de kapsadığı ve ülkelerin modernleşme süreçleri ile idari, ekonomik, sosyal ve kültürel durumlarına bağlantılı olarak farklılıklar içerdiği savı üzerinedir. Anahtar Sözcükler: Organize suç, Organize Suç Örgütleri, Mafya, Suç Grupları, Küreselleşme, Suç Faaliyetleri Starting with the origin of `organized crime' concept, this study includes the short history of the phenomenon of organized crime, differences in its terminology and theories, change and criminal activities of organized groups and mafia in the globalization process. Because of indefiniteness and differences in literature, the groups which are temporarily and act conjunctural are left out of the scope. This study's purpose is to analyze organized crime groups which have been encouraged and promoted in all parts of the world due to globalizetion and growing economic interdependence. Improved communications and information technologies, increased blurring of national borders, greater mobility of people, goods and services across countries, and the emergence of a globalized economy have moved crime further away from its domestic base. The nature of organized crime in the contemporary world then cannot be understood separately from the concept of globalization. Especially taking into consideration the differencies on definion of the organized crime concept in ontological and epistemological context, it is aimed to add a different and geniune study by comparing organized crime groups different countries (Italy, Russia, China, Colombia, Japan and Turkey) which have different administrative, politic, cultural and economic structure. The structural, functional and cultural change of organized criminal groups from antiquity to present to keep up with or to make efforts to conform the modern world is a necessary period for fight against organized crime. This study addresses this period of change. The study's thesis is that in the context of globalization organized crime groups are obtaining capital or profit via transnational fast transfer of goods and service by using the advantages of modern age such as communication, rapid transport and internet; just like other social entities mafia groups are leaving their traditional characteristics, comforming themselves to changing process and are included in capitalist world system, and furthermore being institutionalized; this changing process also includes criminal activities and it is differentiatied according to modernization period of and administrative, cultural, economic and social situation of countries. Keywords: Organized crime, organized crime groups, mafia, crime groups, globalization, criminal activities 233

The Bachelor´s thesis named "The change of the drug scene in the Czech Republic after entering the Schengen area" is a theoretical work regarding the drug criminal acitvities. The first part is dedicated to clarification of terms, structuring the criminal activities connected with drugs, national minorities in the Czech Republic which are involved in this criminal activities and transport ways for drug smuggling. Then there follow the sub-chapters about the represive authorities of the Czech Republic, European Union and in more details about the Schengen area. The last topic of the first chapter is concentrated on important organizations acting in the fight against drugs. The aim of this thesis was to bring this isme closer to readers in the most easy way, that is why the neccessary quotation from the law is done from secondary literature quite often, and that is easier for understanding. The aim of this thesis is to find out how much the drug scene have changed in the Czech Republic during the four years of membership in the Schengen Agreement. The analysis was done for 8 years, that is for four years before the enter and for four years after the enter into the Schengen area. I concentrated on finding out which kinds of drugs are now appearing at the black market of the Czech Republic, which national minorities are involved the most into the drug criminal activities in the territory of the Czech Republic and on how much the number of arrested foreigners rose in connection with drug criminal activities in comparison with the previous four years period. The analysis was done on the basis of the annual reports of the National Anti-drug Unit of the Czech Police. These annual reports contain also the results of the Customs Administration, Customs Drug Enforcement Unit, and thanks to this fact the analysed sample is relevant. Thanks to the analysis there was found an extrem growth of the number of foreign offenders - their number doubled in comparison with the period before entering the Schengen area. The biggest number of arrested foreign offenders are of Vietnamese and Slovakian nationality. The most surprising result was the growth of number of arrested offenders of Nigerian nationality. Also in the field of seized drugs there has been a change. While in the case of extasy the seized amount rapidly lowered, the cannabis and metamphetamine (pervitin in Czech) rapidly rose. The other analysed drugs are keeping the same place on the territory of the Czech Republic and the difference of individual years in the seized amount is not high. The issue of drug criminal activities commited by foreigners is more and more live and current topic. The issue of the drug kriminality commited by the foreigners is more and more achal topis and the entrance into the Schengen area has a big influence on increasing amonut of foreigners in the Czech Republic. Apart from that another important feature is in the growth of number of foreigners in the Czech Republic also the asylum politics of the state. It is possible to use this thesis as the source of information for broad lay public or for the purpose of education and training.

The eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is poised on the edge of a machete blade. Despite the achievement of considerable peace-building successes throughout much of this central African state in recent years, the current activities of armed groups and the Congolese armed forces in North Kivu, South Kivu, and Ituri, have the potential to further destabilize the eastern provinces, and possibly even neighboring countries. Former combatants are prominent in the security and stability equation in the eastern DRC. The reason is that if this section of society has not been effectively disarmed, demobilized and reintegrated into civilian life, then they have the potential to return to arms. In this region, over 100,000 ex-combatants have been demobilized over the past decade in successive waves of disarmament, demobilization and reintegration (DDR) interventions. Assessments and speculation about the reintegration of ex-combatants in North Kivu, South Kivu and Ituri have suggested that these individuals have become marginalized, and their reintegration into civilian society is precarious, thus making them vulnerable to further recruitment by armed groups. Some reports have even suggested that numerous former fighters have remilitarized in the mining areas in order to access mineral wealth. Consequently, research on the socio-economic reintegration of ex-combatants in the eastern DRC was undertaken by the Institute for Security Studies (ISS), and funded by the Transitional Demobilization and Reintegration Program (TDRP) of the World Bank. North Kivu, South Kivu and Ituri were the three geographical areas of focus, given the volatility and potential pivotal role of these areas in promoting and consolidating peace in the eastern DRC. The specific objectives of the research were to: 1) assess the processes of the socio-economic reintegration of former combatants into civilian life; 2) analyze the causes and dynamics of the current security situation (or lack thereof) in the three areas, and the implications for current and future DDR processes; and 3) evaluate the extent to which demobilized former combatants have been re-recruited into armed groups, including motivating and resilience factors. The research took place between February and September 2011, with the findings and analysis being presented in this report.

This paper examines the relationship between narcotics trafficking and violence in Central America. The first part of the paper addresses particular questions posed for the 2011 World Development Report and examines several competing hypothesis on the drivers of crime in Central America. A key finding is that areas exposed to intense narcotics trafficking in Central America suffer from higher homicide rates. Drug trafficking has corrupted state institutions, which have been overwhelmed by the resources deployed by trafficking organizations. The second part of the paper reviews the reasons drug trafficking and anti trafficking enforcement are associated with violence in general and consider policy options.

Strengthening the rule of law is widely regarded among traditional donors, multilateral institutions, and a growing number of middle income and fragile states as a necessary precondition for sustainable peace, poverty alleviation, and development. Crime and violence deter investment and lower employment, undermine social institutions, and divert resources through direct and indirect costs, all of which hinder development. It is likely to disproportionately affect poor and marginalized populations by limiting access to basic services. The formal criminal justice system is seen in many environments as failing to deliver justice. Most states experiencing fragility do not have the capacity to effectively prevent crime, enforce laws, or peacefully resolve disputes across the whole of their territories. There is another powerful deterrent for communities to seek redress through state criminal justice institutions: they are frequently a primary instrument for the government and elites to maintain power and control through the perpetration of injustice. The informal system, however, is alone insufficient to handle the pressing justice requirements of fragile states, not least for preventing and responding to inter-communal conflict, to serious organized and cross-border crime, and to public corruption and other 'white collar' crime.

Straipsnyje analizuojama 20 lietuviškų baudžiamosios teisės terminų, nusakančių nusikalstamas veikas, ir jų atitikmenys anglų ir norvegų kalbomis. Lietuviški terminai išrinkti iš Lietuvos Respublikos Baudžiamojo kodekso. Jų atitikmenų ieškota Jungtinės Karalystės Parlamento įstatymuose, apibrėžiančiuose nusikalstamas veikas, Norvegijos Karalystės Baudžiamosios teisės įstatymuose ir teisės terminų žodynuose. Visos trys šalys, kuriose vartojami tiriami terminai, turi skirtingas teisės sistemas ir savitas terminų kūrimo tradicijas. Tyrimu siekiama atskleisti, kaip kuriami baudžiamosios teisės terminai minėtose teisės sistemose, kas, autorių nuomone, gali suteikti idėjų ir naudingos informacijos lietuvių terminijos kūrėjams, sudarant naujus ar koreguojant jau vartojamus terminus. Siekiant šio tikslo, terminai analizuojami keliais požiūriais – tiriama vientisinių ir sudėtinių terminų formalioji sandara, šaltiniai, sudedamųjų komponentų semantika ir ekspresyvumo laipsnis. Straipsnio pabaigoje pateikiami apibendrinimai, bandant įžvelgti dėsningumus, būdingus tiriamųjų kalbų baudžiamosios teisės terminijai. vaizdą 4) All three languages possess terms made of figurative words which expressively connect the crimes with day-to-day activities and historic events. Most of such terms are found English. The offered insights on the different nature of the criminal law terms are believed to be valuable in considering the principles of term-formation and teaching/learning/translating legal Lithuanian, English and Norwegian The article provides a comparative analysis of criminal law terms denoting criminal activities in the Lithuanian, English and Norwegian languages and discusses the principles of term-formation used in the languages under investigation. The research findings lead to the following conclusions: 1) Criminal activities in the investigated languages are denoted by one-word and multi-word terms. In Lithuanian, most one-word terms are verbal derivatives, in English – verbal derivatives or root-nouns, while in Norwegian, one-word terms are mostly compounds. The number of words constituting the multi-word terms is different in these languages as well. Short terms (consisting of 1-3 words) prevail in English and Norwegian, whereas in Lithuanian, alongside with the short terms, long and complicated phrases (consisting of 6 and more words) are used as names of criminal activities. 2) The investigated terms have different origin. Most Lithuanian terms are made of inheritances; in English and Norwegian, however, a considerable number of terms is made of borrowings from French (in English) and German (in Norwegian). 3) Though the analyzed terms denote the same or similar criminal activities, the semantics of the constitutive components of the Lithuanian, English and Norwegian counterparts is often different. This proves that the terms reflect not only the nature of the activity, but also the attitude to the activity in different societies

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