Search

Bioterorizam definiramo kao namjernu upotrebu virusa, bakterija, gljivica ili toksina koja dovodi ljude do bolesti ili smrti. Biološko oružje je kroz povijest često korišteno zbog svoje smrtonosnosti no danas se nastoji iskorijeniti zbog česte uporabe zaraznih bolesti koje mogu naštetiti ne samo ciljanoj osobi, već cijeloj populaciji. Zaraza agensima pridonosi pojavi epidemije i značajnog povećanog morbiditeta i mortaliteta. Važnu ulogu imaju medicinski djelatnici kao direktni pružatelji zdravstvene skrbi provođenjem mjera prevencije te je bitno njihovo educiranje za rano prepoznavanje bolesti i pravovremeno tretiranje i liječenje bolesnika. Stigmatizacija i diskriminacija ljudi koji su povezani sa zaraznom bolešću mogu postati barijera kod pristupa u zdravstvenoj skrbi i kod provođenja i usvajanja zdravih oblika ponašanja. To pridonosi zdravstvenim problemima u kontroli zaraznih bolesti tijekom izbijanja neke od zaraznih bolesti. Medicinske sestre su prve osobe koje reagiraju kod bioterorističkih događaja i ako su educirane za bioterorizam su i spremnije provoditi zdravstvenu njegu zaraženih pacijenata. U Hrvatskoj je usvojen plan pripravnosti na nacionalnoj razini od strane Vlade Republike Hrvatske. Nepoznate i nove bolesti se stalno pojavljuju i predstavljaju prijetnju i stanovnicima naše zemlje i okolnim državama. Hrvatski zavod za javno zdravstvo ima nadzor kod zaraznih bolesti te se neprekidno poboljšava i prilagođava novim prijetnjama. Kroz edukacije javnosti i medicinskog osoblja o važnostima i rizicima te preventivnim mjerama u svrhu smanjenja širenja zaraznih bolesti. Cilj ovog rada je objasniti pojam bioterorizma, objasniti koja vrsta virusa, bakterija, gljivica ili toksina se može koristiti u bioterorizmu i kako se prenose, objasniti važnost i ulogu zdravstvenih djelatnika u prevenciji, prepoznavanju simptoma i pripremljenosti ako dođe do bioterorističkog napada. Tijekom ovog rada su istražena i prikazana znanja i mišljenja 200 medicinskih sestara i tehničara s područja Republike Hrvatske o antraksu, eboli i kugi te njihovo širenje i prijenos, iskustvo s edukacijama i prevencijom u zdravstvenoj skrbi empirijskim istraživanjem. Dobivenim rezultatima utvrđuje se veće znanje kod visokoobrazovanih sudionika, time i veći strah od zaraznih bolesti i veća želja za educiranošću. Potrebno je usvojiti znanstveno utemeljene mjere koje su dokazane kao učinkovite u smanjenju širenja bolesti da zaštitimo zajednicu. We define bioterrorism as the intentional use of viruses, bacteria, fungi, or toxins to cause illness or death in humans. Throughout history, biological weapons have often been used due to their lethality, but today efforts are being made to eradicate them due to the frequent use of infectious diseases that can harm not only the targeted person, but the entire population. Infection with agents contributes to the occurrence of epidemics and significantly increased morbidity and mortality. Medical professionals play an important role as direct providers of health care by implementing prevention measures, and therefore it is important that they are educated for early recognition of diseases and timely treatment and treatment of patients. Stigmatization and discrimination of people who are associated with an infectious disease become a barrier in access to health care and in the implementation and adoption of health care and in the implementation and adoption of healthy behaviors. This contributes to health problems in the control of infectious diseases during outbreaks of some of the infectious diseases. Nurses are the first responders to bioterrorism events and if they are educated in bioterrorism, they are more prepaid to provide healthcare to infected patients. In Croatia, the preparedness plan at the national level was adopted by the Government of the Republic of Croatia. Unknown and new diseases are constantly appearing and pose a threat to the inhabitants of our country and the surrounding countries. The Croatian Institute of Public Health supervises infectious diseases and continuously improves and adapts to new threats. Through education of the public and medical staff on the importance and risks and preventive measures to reduce the spread of infectious diseases. The aim of this research is to explain the concept of bioterrorism, to explain what type of viruses, bacteria, fungi or toxins can be used in bioterrorism and how they are transmitted, to explain the importance and role of health workers in prevention, recognition of symptoms and preparedness if a bioterrorist attack occurs. During this research the knowledge and opinions of 200 health workers from Republic Croatia about anthrax, ebola and plague they spread and transmission, experience with education and prevention in health care were investigated and presented through empirical research. The results show that highly educated respondents have greater knowledge and greater fear of infectious disease and they want to be educated in the future. If is necessary to adopt science-based measures that have been proven to be effective in reducing the spread of disease to protect the community.

Bacterial cells often suffer a fitness cost after conjugative plasmids’ entry because these cells replicate slower than plasmid-free cells. Compensatory mutations may appear after tens of or a few hundred generations, reducing or eliminating this cost. A previous work based on a mathematical model and computer simulations has shown that plasmid-bearing cells already adapted to the plasmid may gain a fitness advantage when plasmids transfer into neighboring plasmid-free cells because these cells are still unadapted to the plasmid. These slow-growing transconjugants use fewer resources, which can benefit donor cells. However, opportunities for compensatory mutations in transconjugants increase if these cells become numerous (through replication or conjugation). Moreover, transconjugants also gain an advantage when transferring the plasmid, but the original donors may be too distant from conjugation events to gain an advantage. To understand which consequence prevails, we performed further computer simulations allowing versus banning transfer from transconjugants. The advantage to donors is higher if transconjugants do not transfer plasmids, mainly when donors are rare and when the plasmid transfer rate (from donors) is high. These results show that conjugative plasmids are efficient biological weapons even if the transconjugant cells are poor plasmid donors. After some time, conjugative plasmids gain other host-benefit genes, such as virulence and drug-resistance.

PRIF Spotlight, 2023/03, In the wake of Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, chemical and biological weapons have once again attracted international attention due to disinformation efforts on the part of Russian officials. International forums which oversee the ban on these weapons are being used to accuse Ukraine and its allies of violating their legal obligations. Many of Russia’s accusations regarding chemical weapons resemble the patterns of deception observed in the past, while disinformation on biological weapons is displaying somewhat novel characteristics. Yet, there are tangible ways of counteracting such disinformation, thereby protecting the ban on chemical and biological weapons.

Rapidly developing life sciences produce many exciting and useful innovations, for example in the fight against disease. However, with such powerful advancements also comes the possibility of military misuse. There is therefore an urgent need to strengthen the Biological Weapons Convention. The results of the Ninth Review Conference of this Convention may make this possible., CSS Analyses in Security Policy, 321, ISSN:2296-0244

The study of microbes' sources can aid in the investigation of bioterrorism, biocrimes, and cases of disease outbreaks. Microbial Forensics is a new discipline within the field of forensic science. As bacteria have been used as biological weapons for ages, anthrax letter attacks were very popular in 2001 and posed a serious threat to the general public. Even though there aren't many examples of this kind, it's still important to catch the offender. In this subject, forensic science and microbiology are combined to serve the criminal justice system. Microbial forensics is a new field that examines evidence from bioterrorism, biocrimes, and the intentional or accidental release of biological agents or poisons for attributional purposes. Microbe investigation is similar to forensic science, but in order to maintain the viability of the microorganisms, collection, preservation, and transportation must be different. To determine the source of the causative agent, it also employs cutting edge methods including molecular signatures, new DNA fingerprinting techniques, and other hyphenated methods. In addition to assisting the medical community's specialists, this field also aids judges and juries in their deliberations. Microbial forensics has to advance more in order to handle the issues posed by bioterrorism assaults.

This article provides an Asia-Pacific perspective on biological weapons and their relevance to nuclear deterrence in the pandemic era. The entire class of biological weapons is banned by international law; however, biological weapons are generally less costly and less technically challenging to develop than nuclear weapons. Conversely, nuclear weapons are openly possessed by multiple countries in the Asia-Pacific despite their corresponding cost and technical complexity. These two types of weapons of mass destruction – biological and nuclear – do not exist in isolation but in a multifactorial geopolitical environment where the threat and control of one impacts that of the other. A third factor that holds the potential to influence this dynamic is the increasing likelihood of natural outbreaks and pandemics. This paper explores potential intersections of biological and nuclear weapons in the pandemic context. First, it describes the threat of biological weapons, including history, threat assessment methodology, and specific threats in the Asia-Pacific region. Next, it reviews options for biological weapons control. Finally, it discusses nuclear deterrence and escalation in the context of both natural and deliberate biological events. It concludes with a summary of key points and recommendations for regional security and stability.

ZusammenfassungDie Covid19-Pandemie ist höchstwahrscheinlich auf einen natürlichen Krankheitsausbruch zurückzuführen. Trotzdem können Anschuldigungen, sie sei durch die absichtliche oder fahrlässige Freisetzung des neuartigen Corona-Virus herbeigeführt worden, bestehende Konflikte und Rivalitäten verstärken. Besitz und Einsatz biologischer Waffen sind völkerrechtlich verboten. Mangelnde Transparenz, fehlende Kontrollen und legitime biologische Forschungen mit hohem Missbrauchspotenzial lassen aber Raum für Desinformation, Fehlwahrnehmungen und Verdächtigungen, wie sie auch am Beispiel der Covid19-Pandemie zu finden sind. Bessere Verifikations- und Untersuchungsmöglichkeiten für das Biowaffenverbot, klarere Regeln für den Umgang mit Verstößen dagegen sowie größere Transparenz im Bereich der sicherheitsrelevanten biologischen Forschung könnten helfen, mögliche Biowaffeneinsätze zu verhindern und negative politische Dynamiken bei ungewöhnlichen Krankheitsausbrüchen einzuhegen. Hierfür müsste unter anderem das Biowaffen-Übereinkommen gestärkt und das Zusammenspiel von biologischer Abrüstung, Biosicherheit und globaler Gesundheit deutlicher fokussiert werden. Eine klare Arbeitsteilung und die Nutzung von Synergien, z. B. in der Gesundheitsvorsorge und im Umgang mit wissenschaftlichen und technologischen Entwicklungen, kämen sowohl der Pandemievorsorge als auch der biologischen Abrüstung zugute.

投稿論文, Refereed Article, On November 25, 1969, United States President Richard Nixon issued National Security Decision Memorandum 35, which declared that the United States would renounce its offensive biological warfare programs and first use of chemical weapons. Why did the Nixon administration decide to unilaterally restrict chemical and biological weapons? Previous works have stressed the normative pressure and reputational costs of the Vietnam War. However, given the fact that biological weapons had not been used in the war, the difference in the treatment of chemicals and biologicals remains unclear. To address this problem, this article focuses on the role of nuclear weapons in the chemical and biological disarmament. For the Nixon administration, chemical weapons had utility in terms of complementing the nuclear deterrence as the “middle-level option.” Biological weapons offered options on the same strategic level as nuclear weapons and thus were regarded as redundant. The findings of this article suggest it is important to consider the linkage between policies on Weapons of Mass Destruction, which has not often been a subject of attention in disarmament literature.

Why has Russia been able to develop and produce Sputnik V while Central and Eastern European (CEE) countries that are members of the European Union have only played a marginal role in global supply chains for the production of vaccines against COVID-19? We argue that this capacity results from efforts by Russia’s national security state and entrepreneurs to turn a Soviet advantage in the development of biological weapons into a contemporary public health advantage in vaccine and drug development. CEE countries have lacked Russia’s historical legacy of and contemporary drive for security motivated statecraft. Nor have they massively invested – as for example Cuba has – into their public health systems and in potential synergies between such systems and biotech firms.

The thesis focuses on weapons of mass destruction. The goal was to analyze knowledge about chemical and biological weapons among selected components of the integrated rescue system in the South Bohemian Region. The theoretical part is divided into several parts. First part deals with the characteristics of chemical weapons, their history, the use of chemical weapons during the First World War in the interwar period, but also modern history. The second part deals with the characteristics and distribution of biological weapons, their history, the main representatives of combat biological agents are described here, e.g. anthrax, smallpox, plague, cholera, tularemia and others. The next chapter describes the warfare use and testing of biological weapons and the definition of SARS and COVID-19. The last part deals with international regulations regarding weapons of mass destruction, such as the Geneva Protocol (1925), the Chemical Weapons Convention (1993), or the Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons (2017). The research part presents the results of a questionnaire survey among 470 respondents who were members of the Fire Rescue Service of the South Bohemian Region, the Police of the Czech Republic, the Army of the Czech Republic and employees of the Medical Rescue Service of the South Bohemian Region. The results of the questionnaire survey were evaluated using the methods of descriptive and mathematical statistics. On the basis of the conducted questionnaire survey, it is possible to state that the respondents' knowledge exceeded the set 60 %. The level of knowledge of members of the Fire Rescue Service of the South Bohemian Region is comparable to the level of knowledge of the respondents of other components of the integrated rescue system.

Afetler geçmişten günümüze tarihin her döneminde yaşanmıştır. 21. yüzyıldan itibaren özellikle nüfusun hızla artması ve teknolojinin gelişmesi ile birlikte küresel çapta doğal ve insan (teknolojik) kaynaklı afetlerin sayısı da geçmişten günümüze kadar artarak devam etmiştir. İnsanlığın ihtiyaçları doğrultusunda yaptığı faaliyetler, doğal ve insan kaynaklı afetlerin artmasına neden olmuştur. KBRN ajanları, verdikleri zararlar ile toplumlar üzerinde derin izler bırakan olaylar olup hava, su ve toprak yolu ile çevreye yayılarak ekosistemde yol açtıkları tahribatın yanı sıra insan sağlığı üzerinde uzun vadeli zararlara neden olmaktadır. Özellikle savaş ve terör olaylarında KBRN ajanlarının potansiyel tehlikelerinden korunmak için her geçen gün KBRN olaylarına karşı alınacak tedbirler ve bilinmesi gereken güncel bilgiler afet yönetiminin önemini artırmaktadır. KBRN kaynaklı zararlar meydana geldiğinde günlük yaşamı olumsuz etkileyeceğinden afet yönetimi içerisinde değerlendirilmektedir. Bu maddeler için afet öncesinde, esnasında ve sonrasında yapılması gereken çalışmalar, canlıların yaşamlarını ve çevreyi korumada oldukça önemlidir. KBRN olayının başladığı andan itibaren yapılacak olan tüm müdahale faaliyetleri etkin bir planlama ile mümkündür. Bu nedenle ülkemiz ve dünya ülkeleri, yaşamış oldukları acı deneyimlerden yola çıkarak kendi afet yönetim sistemlerini oluşturmuştur. Dolayısıyla alınacak tedbirler bölgeden bölgeye farklılık göstermektedir. KBRN olaylarına müdahale edebilmesi beklenen ve istenen ilk ekipler, kamu kurumları ve paydaşlarıdır. KBRN tehlikesi içeren ve oldukça fazla yaşanan bu olaylar, çok kurumlu bir müdahale gerektirmektedir. Bu çalışmada herhangi bir KBRN ajanından kaynaklanan tehlikelerle mücadelede yer alabilecek gerek ulusal gerekse uluslararası oluşturulmuş olan yapılanmalar ve faaliyetleri ile bu kapsamda oluşturulmuş mevzuatların gelişimi incelenmiştir. İncelenen literatür çalışmalarında; KBRN ve toksikolojik afetler ile ilgili oluşturulmuş yapılanmalar konusunda ulaşılan çalışmaların çoğunda genel olarak varılan sonuç; KBRN ajanları, bu maddelere maruz kalma, kontaminasyon ve KBRN olaylarına özel hazırlık ve müdahale gereksinimlerine vurgu yapılmaktadır. Ülkemizde ve dünya ülkelerinde kurumsal yapılanmalar ile ilgili çalışmalara çok az rastlanmakta ve çoğu çalışmada afet yönetimi sistemi ile ilgili çalışmalara ağırlık verildiği dikkat çekmektedir. Tez çalışmamızda olduğu gibi, adli tıp ve adli bilimler öncülüğünde alan çalışmaları yapılarak, uygulamalara ve literatürlere büyük katkı sunulacağını düşünmekteyiz. Disasters have occurred in every period of history from the past to the present. Since the 21st century, especially with the rapid in crease in population and the development of technology, the number of natural and human (technological) induced disasters on a global scale has continued to increase from the pastto the present day. His activities in accordance with theneeds of humanity have led to an increase in natural and human-caused disasters. CBRN agents are events that leave deep traces on societies, causing long-term damage to human health as well as the damage they cause to theeco system by spreading to the environment by air, water and soil. The measures to be taken and the up-to-date informations that need to be know nagainst the potential dangers of CBRN agents, especially in wars and terrorist incidents, are increasing he importance of disaster management day by day. It is evaluated in disaster management because it will negatively affect daily life when CBRN-induced damages occur. For these substances, the work that needs to be done before, during and after a disaster is very important in protecting the lives of living beings and the environment. All intervention activities that will be carried out from the moment the CBRN incident begins are possible with effective planning. For this reason, our country and the countries of the world have created the irown disaster management systems based on the bitter experiences they have experienced. Therefore, the measures to be taken vary from region to region. The first teams that are expected and requested to be able to intervene in CBRN event sare public institution sand their stake holders. These events, which contain a danger of CBRN and ocur quite a lot, require multi-institutional intervention. In this study, the structures and activities that have been established both nationally and internationally that may be involved in combating the dangers caused by any CBRN agent and the development of legislation created in this context have been examined. Inreviewed literary studies; in most of the studies on the structures created in relation to CBRN and toxicological disasters, the general conclusion was reached; theem phasis is placed on special preparation and response requirements for CBRN agents, exposure to these substances, contamination, and CBRN events. There are very few studies on institutional structures in our country and in the countries of the world, and it is worth noting that most studies focus on studies on the disaster management system. As in our thesis, we think that by conducting field studies under the leadership of forensic medicine and forensic sciences, a great contribution will be made to the practice and the literature.

Derek Parfit är kanske en av vår tids mest kända moralfilosofer. Parfit inleder sin första bok Reasons and Persons med att ställa frågan: vad har vi mest skäl att göra? Hans fråga berör vad som egentligen har betydelse, en fråga som han fortsätter att beröra i sin andra bok On What Matters. Filosofen Toby Ord argumenterar i sin bok The Precipice för att den utmaning som definierar vår tid, och bör ha en central prioritering, är utmaningen att skydda mänskligheten emot så kallade existentiella risker. En existentiell risk är en typ av risk som hotar att förstöra, eller förhindra, mänsklighetens långsiktiga potential. Ord menar att vi idag befinner oss vid en kritisk tidpunkt i mänsklighetens historia som kan vara helt avgörande för om det ens kommer existera en framtid för mänskligheten. Men om vi bör skydda mänskligheten emot existentiella risker, så kan en lämplig följdfråga vara i vilken ordning vi bör prioritera olika existentiella risker. Den svenske filosofen Nick Bostrom har liksom Ord länge förespråkat att existentiella risker bör tas på allvar. Han menar att preventiva åtgärder bör vidtas. I sin bok Superintelligens argumenterar Bostrom, både omfattande och väl, för att den existentiella risk som kan te sig som mest brådskande, och kanske allvarligast, är artificiell intelligens. Bostrom menar att vi har goda skäl att tro att utveckling av artificiell intelligens kan eskalera till den grad att mänsklighetens öde kan hamna bortom vår egen kontroll. Det han syftar på är att människan just nu är den dominerande agenten på jorden och därför innehar en stor kontroll, men att så inte alltid behöver vara fallet. Bostroms tes kunde te sig som okonventionell då den presenterades, men kan även te sig så idag vid en första anblick. Han har dock fått explicit medhåll av personer som Bill Gates, Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, Yuval Noah Harari och Max Tegmark, som antingen håller med eller resonerar i liknande banor. Även jag själv finner Bostroms antaganden välgrundade. Slutsatsen som många drar är därför att vi bör betrakta artificiell intelligens som en existentiell risk som ska prioriteras högt. Jag kommer dock i denna text att argumentera för tesen att vi inte bör betrakta artificiell intelligens som en existentiell risk. Tesen följer från en invändning som jag kommer att kalla för AI-paradoxen. Det tycks enligt invändningen som att artificiell intelligens inte kan leda till en existentiell katastrof givet vissa premisser som flera i debatten om artificiell intelligens tycks acceptera. Texten i uppsatsen är strukturerad på följande sätt. I avsnitt 2 kommer jag att återge det övergripande argumentet som cirkulerar i debatten om artificiell intelligens som ett hot. I avsnittet kommer jag också förklara några viktiga termer och begrepp. I avsnitt 3 börjar jag med att titta på den första premissen i argumentet, samt resonera om dess rimlighet. I avsnitt 4 går jag sedan vidare till den andra premissen i argumentet och gör samma sak med den. Väl i avsnitt 5 så väljer jag att presentera min egen idé som jag kallar för AI-paradoxen, vilket är en invändning mot argumentet. I avsnitt 6 diskuterar jag sedan AI-paradoxens implikationer. Avslutningsvis, i avsnitt 7, så ger jag en övergripande sammanfattning och en slutsats, samt några sista reflektioner. Derek Parfit is perhaps one of the most famous moral philosophers of our time. Parfit begins his first book Reasons and Persons by asking the question: what do we have most reason to do? His question touches upon what really matters, a question he continues to touch upon in his second book On What Matters. The philosopher Toby Ord argues in his book The Precipice that the challenge that defines our time, and should have a central priority, is the challenge of safeguarding humanity from so-called existential risks. An existential risk is a type of risk that threatens to destroy, or prevent, humanity’s longterm potential. Ord means that today we are at a critical time in the history of humanity that can be absolutely decisive for whether there will even exist a future for humanity. But if we are to safeguard humanity from existential risks, then an appropriate question may be in what order we should prioritize different existential risks. The Swedish philosopher Nick Bostrom, like Ord, has long advocated that existential risks should be taken seriously. He believes that preventive measures should be taken. In his book Superintelligence Bostrom argues, both extensively and well, that the existential risk that may seem most urgent, and perhaps most severe, is artificial intelligence. Bostrom believes that we have good reason to believe that the development of artificial intelligence can escalate to the point that the fate of humanity can end up beyond our own control. What he is referring to is that humans are currently the dominant agent on earth and therefore has great control, but that this does not always have to be the case. Bostrom's thesis may have seemed unconventional when it was presented, but it can also seem so today at first glance. However, he has been explicitly supported by people like Bill Gates, Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, Yuval Noah Harari and Max Tegmark, who either agree or reason similarly. I myself also find Bostrom's assumptions well-founded. The conclusion that many draw is therefore that we should regard artificial intelligence as an existential risk that should be given a high priority. However, in this text I will argue for the thesis that we should not regard artificial intelligence as an existential risk. The thesis follows from an objection of my own, which I call the AI ​​paradox. According to the objection, it seems that artificial intelligence cannot lead to an existential catastrophe given certain premises that many in the debate about artificial intelligence as a threat seem to accept. The text in the essay is structured as follows. In section 2 I will present the main argument circulating in the debate about artificial intelligence as a threat. In the section I will also explain some important terms and concepts. In section 3 I begin by looking at the first premise in the argument, and also reason about its plausibility. In section 4 I proceed to the second premise in the argument and examine it similarly. Once in section 5 I choose to present my own idea, which I call the AI ​​paradox, which is an objection to the argument. In section 6 I discuss the implications of the AI ​​paradox. Finally, in section 7, I give an overall summary and a conclusion, as well as some last reflections.

Derek Parfit är kanske en av vår tids mest kända moralfilosofer. Parfit inleder sin första bok Reasons and Persons med att ställa frågan: vad har vi mest skäl att göra? Hans fråga berör vad som egentligen har betydelse, en fråga som han fortsätter att beröra i sin andra bok On What Matters. Filosofen Toby Ord argumenterar i sin bok The Precipice för att den utmaning som definierar vår tid, och bör ha en central prioritering, är utmaningen att skydda mänskligheten emot så kallade existentiella risker. En existentiell risk är en typ av risk som hotar att förstöra, eller förhindra, mänsklighetens långsiktiga potential. Ord menar att vi idag befinner oss vid en kritisk tidpunkt i mänsklighetens historia som kan vara helt avgörande för om det ens kommer existera en framtid för mänskligheten. Men om vi bör skydda mänskligheten emot existentiella risker, så kan en lämplig följdfråga vara i vilken ordning vi bör prioritera olika existentiella risker. Den svenske filosofen Nick Bostrom har liksom Ord länge förespråkat att existentiella risker bör tas på allvar. Han menar att preventiva åtgärder bör vidtas. I sin bok Superintelligens argumenterar Bostrom, både omfattande och väl, för att den existentiella risk som kan te sig som mest brådskande, och kanske allvarligast, är artificiell intelligens. Bostrom menar att vi har goda skäl att tro att utveckling av artificiell intelligens kan eskalera till den grad att mänsklighetens öde kan hamna bortom vår egen kontroll. Det han syftar på är att människan just nu är den dominerande agenten på jorden och därför innehar en stor kontroll, men att så inte alltid behöver vara fallet. Bostroms tes kunde te sig som okonventionell då den presenterades, men kan även te sig så idag vid en första anblick. Han har dock fått explicit medhåll av personer som Bill Gates, Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, Yuval Noah Harari och Max Tegmark, som antingen håller med eller resonerar i liknande banor. Även jag själv finner Bostroms antaganden välgrundade. Slutsatsen som många drar är därför att vi bör betrakta artificiell intelligens som en existentiell risk som ska prioriteras högt. Jag kommer dock i denna text att argumentera för tesen att vi inte bör betrakta artificiell intelligens som en existentiell risk. Tesen följer från en invändning som jag kommer att kalla för AI-paradoxen. Det tycks enligt invändningen som att artificiell intelligens inte kan leda till en existentiell katastrof givet vissa premisser som flera i debatten om artificiell intelligens tycks acceptera. Texten i uppsatsen är strukturerad på följande sätt. I avsnitt 2 kommer jag att återge det övergripande argumentet som cirkulerar i debatten om artificiell intelligens som ett hot. I avsnittet kommer jag också förklara några viktiga termer och begrepp. I avsnitt 3 börjar jag med att titta på den första premissen i argumentet, samt resonera om dess rimlighet. I avsnitt 4 går jag sedan vidare till den andra premissen i argumentet och gör samma sak med den. Väl i avsnitt 5 så väljer jag att presentera min egen idé som jag kallar för AI-paradoxen, vilket är en invändning mot argumentet. I avsnitt 6 diskuterar jag sedan AI-paradoxens implikationer. Avslutningsvis, i avsnitt 7, så ger jag en övergripande sammanfattning och en slutsats, samt några sista reflektioner. Derek Parfit is perhaps one of the most famous moral philosophers of our time. Parfit begins his first book Reasons and Persons by asking the question: what do we have most reason to do? His question touches upon what really matters, a question he continues to touch upon in his second book On What Matters. The philosopher Toby Ord argues in his book The Precipice that the challenge that defines our time, and should have a central priority, is the challenge of safeguarding humanity from so-called existential risks. An existential risk is a type of risk that threatens to destroy, or prevent, humanity’s longterm potential. Ord means that today we are at a critical time in the history of humanity that can be absolutely decisive for whether there will even exist a future for humanity. But if we are to safeguard humanity from existential risks, then an appropriate question may be in what order we should prioritize different existential risks. The Swedish philosopher Nick Bostrom, like Ord, has long advocated that existential risks should be taken seriously. He believes that preventive measures should be taken. In his book Superintelligence Bostrom argues, both extensively and well, that the existential risk that may seem most urgent, and perhaps most severe, is artificial intelligence. Bostrom believes that we have good reason to believe that the development of artificial intelligence can escalate to the point that the fate of humanity can end up beyond our own control. What he is referring to is that humans are currently the dominant agent on earth and therefore has great control, but that this does not always have to be the case. Bostrom's thesis may have seemed unconventional when it was presented, but it can also seem so today at first glance. However, he has been explicitly supported by people like Bill Gates, Stephen Hawking, Elon Musk, Yuval Noah Harari and Max Tegmark, who either agree or reason similarly. I myself also find Bostrom's assumptions well-founded. The conclusion that many draw is therefore that we should regard artificial intelligence as an existential risk that should be given a high priority. However, in this text I will argue for the thesis that we should not regard artificial intelligence as an existential risk. The thesis follows from an objection of my own, which I call the AI ​​paradox. According to the objection, it seems that artificial intelligence cannot lead to an existential catastrophe given certain premises that many in the debate about artificial intelligence as a threat seem to accept. The text in the essay is structured as follows. In section 2 I will present the main argument circulating in the debate about artificial intelligence as a threat. In the section I will also explain some important terms and concepts. In section 3 I begin by looking at the first premise in the argument, and also reason about its plausibility. In section 4 I proceed to the second premise in the argument and examine it similarly. Once in section 5 I choose to present my own idea, which I call the AI ​​paradox, which is an objection to the argument. In section 6 I discuss the implications of the AI ​​paradox. Finally, in section 7, I give an overall summary and a conclusion, as well as some last reflections.

This thesis utilizes a combination of relevant newspaper articles, reports from United States government agencies, and policies to examine the history of biological warfare to bioterrorism within the United States. Through these sources, the relationship between public perception/values and political policy and law become more transparent. Over a century-long arc, this thesis explores the role of fear in determining bioterrorism policy from the creation of biological weapons through use as a domestic terrorism agent. The choice blindness to cultural problems within the societal system and their connections to domestic terrorism inhibits the justice system from functioning at a higher capacity. Through my examination of the 2001 anthrax attacks, it is revealed that this event, magnified by the 9/11 attack on the Twin Towers, had a significant impact on public perception of biological weapons and subsequently on bioterrorism policy and legal structures.

The high yield, cost-effectiveness and living nature of biological agents that Biological Threats of the American Occupation of the Quds Regime and Providing an Appropriate Solution to these Threats in Iran.cause dispersal and proliferation in the contaminated area and area are among the features that make countries more attractive to these agents. In this paper, we have tried to explain the threats and their consequences by using library resources in the first step of bioterrorism and in the next step to provide appropriate solutions in order to prepare for national threats and internal security . The statistical population includes all the available documents and has been studied in full. The purpose of this study is applied research and descriptive-analytical research method and systematic analysis. Therefore, defense against the potentially debilitating effects of an attack requires awareness of the epidemiological principles of biological warfare, and fuller awareness of all aspects of these weapons is needed to ensure the security of the nation.

The aim of this paper is to raise awareness of the danger represented by structural bioterrorism. There are presented as examples, three of the biological agents belonging to the three classes (A, B, C). As structural bioterrorism is a new concept, it has been tried to define it and what role it plays in the bioterrorism equation + state actions = Security.

This chapter will provide an overview of how “big data” and “big data” analytics can be brought to bear on the pressing biodefense challenges of: (1) threat awareness; and (2) surveillance and detection. The chapter will also discuss potential problems that can arise by relying exclusively on “big data” approaches, which have properties and limitations inherent in their composition that may not be initially recognized but which may lead to erroneous results. The chapter will conclude by discussing how multi-disciplinary teams of researchers using hybrid systems, involving “big data” and “small data,” could more effectively and accurately contribute to understanding biodefense problems.

Summary is included at the end of the dissertation.

Summary is included at the end of the dissertation.

Summary is included at the end of the dissertation.

Summary is included at the end of the dissertation.

In this article, a former chemical and biological chief inspector for the UN Special Commission on Iraq from 1996–1998 concludes that the UNSCOM experience was a successful full-scale experiment in disarmament that uncovered and destroyed the infrastructure of the Iraqi bioweapons program. The UNSCOM experience, however, also illustrated the limitations of inspection methods, especially when it comes to small-scale activities in a distrusted country. Special issue: The legacy of the UN Special Commission to disarm Iraq

Історія людства як біологічного виду та історія людини розумної в значній мірі пов’язана з патогенними біологічними агентами, які з доісторичних часів були причиною пандемій чи використовувались як зброя. Розвиток і удосконалення будь якої зброї тісно пов’язаний з розробкою нових технологій. Лікування пацієнтів з інфекційними захворюваннями, захист людей під час пандемій також тісно пов’язані з новими технологіями. Двадцять перше століття характерне бурхливим розвитком біотехнологій та генної інженерії, які можуть мати вирішальне значення у лікуванні багатьох хвороб та надати небезпечний поштовх розвитку нових видів біологічної зброї. Пандемія COVID-19 продемонструвала величезний вплив, який може мати на суспільство один біологічний патогенний агент, щодо природного походження якого експерти не дали остаточної однозначної відповіді. Небезпека розробки нових видів біологічної зброї та застосування її для війни, диверсій, терору, шантажу, отримання надприбутків чи в кримінальних злочинах зростає з розвитком біотехнологій. Знання про можливі шляхи розвитку біологічної зброї дозволяє вибудовувати систему біобезпеки та біозахисту в кожній країні зокрема та на планеті в цілому. Постіндустріальна епоха створює загрозу нових вірусів або хвороб, поява яких може бути спровокована сільськогосподарським чи промисловим освоєнням нових територій. А глобальні системи комунікації сприяють майже миттєвому поширенню небезпечних інфекцій. Останні досягнення в галузі біохімії, генетики та молекулярної біології зробили можливим створення живих організмів. Хоча ці розробки пропонують ефективні засоби для лікування хвороб, збільшення виробництва їжі та покращення якості життя багатьох людей, вони також можуть використовуватися державними та недержавними структурами для розробки нових видів біологічної зброї. Доступність фундаментальної біологічної науки, інформації про генну інженерію та біотехнології, модульний принцип досліджень, бази готових рішень, доступність матеріалів знижують рівень навичок, необхідний для проведення неконтрольованих досліджень біологічних патогенних агентів чи розробки біологічної зброї. В роботі проаналізовані загрози, пов’язані з можливістю застосування генної інженерії та сучасних біоінженерних технологій для розробки генетично модифікованих біологічних патогенних агентів, бінарної та інших нових видів біологічної зброї. The history of mankind as a species and the history of intelligent man is largely related to pathogenic biological agents that have been the cause of pandemics or used as weapons since prehistoric times. The development and improvement of any weapon is closely linked to the development of new technologies. The treatment of patients with infectious diseases and the protection of people during pandemics are also closely linked to new technologies. The twenty-first century is characterized by the rapid development of biotechnology and genetic engineering, which can be crucial in the treatment of many diseases and provide a dangerous impetus to the development of new biological weapons. The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the enormous impact that a single biological pathogen can have on society, the natural origin of which experts have not given a definitive answer. The danger of developing new types of biological weapons and using them for war, sabotage, terror, blackmail, profiting or criminal activity increases with the development of biotechnology. Knowledge of possible ways to develop biological weapons allows you to build a system of biosafety and biosecurity in each country in particular and on the planet as a whole. The post-industrial era poses a threat of new viruses or diseases, the emergence of which may be triggered by agricultural or industrial development of new territories. And global communication systems contribute to the almost instantaneous spread of dangerous infections. Recent advances in biochemistry, genetics and molecular biology have made it possible to create living organisms. Although these developments offer effective tools to treat disease, increase food production and improve the quality of life of many people, they can also be used by government and non-government agencies to develop new biological weapons. The availability of basic biological science, information on genetic engineering and biotechnology, the modular principle of research, the basis of ready-made solutions, the availability of materials reduce the level of skills required for uncontrolled research of biological pathogens or biological weapons development. The paper analyzes the threats associated with the possibility of using genetic engineering and modern bioengineering technologies for the development of genetically modified biological pathogens, binary and other new types of biological weapons.

64053643 SECURITISING BIOLOGY: BIOLOGICAL THREATS AND STATE PREPAREDNESS IN THE WAKE OF A PANDEMIC ABSTRACT The management of infectious diseases in the realm of public health has shown increasingly overlapping areas with biological warfare preparedness. While the acknowledgement of these common elements is not only frequent but also codified in an international treaty and subject to distinct regulations, research into how these two fields connect is scarce. Potential deliberate use of biological weapons typically leads to intense political mobilisation and ensuing dedication of financial resources. Contrarily, the management of health crises over the last decades has been severely flawed, and no country in the world is considered fully prepared to a pandemic, according to the Global Health Security Index. The current COVID-19 pandemic has recently been further proof of the inadequacy of state-level prevention and preparedness capabilities. This dissertation aims at bridging the existing conceptual gap and policy divide between biological warfare and infectious disease preparedness, and to analyse elements that can be mutually applicable and potentially beneficial. It will do so by establishing analytical equivalence between the securitisation of an artificial biothreat and a nature-borne infectious disease...

Throughout the history there are several examples in which biological agents have been used as weapons against humans and animals. Despite signing the Biological and Toxic Weapons Convention (BTWC) of 1972 that banned research, use, and production of BW, the Soviet Union continued to BW program that is currently uncertain whether Russia has continued during the post-Cold War era or not. This paper uses Western and Russian sources to describe the Soviet Union’s BW program and underlines our contention that BW continue to constitute a possible threat, as reminded by COVID-19.

International audience; This overview intends to give an overview of the year of disarmament, by mentioning: the disarmament crises (Syria, North Korea, Iran, etc.); The agreements ; the mechanism " ; the quality of diplomacy and the "debate" on disarmament; and, finally, the level of adequacy of disarmament in the context of international security. There are also appendices, a chronology and documents and an index; Le présent aperçu entend donner une vue d’ensemble de l’année du désarmement, en évoquant : les crises du désarmement (Syrie, Corée du Nord, Iran…) ; les accords ; le « mécanisme » ; la qualité de la diplomatie et du « débat » du désarmement ; et, enfin, le niveau d’adéquation du désarmement au contexte de sécurité internationale. S’y ajoutent des annexes, une chronologie et des documents et un index

У роботі розглянуто способи ураження населення, які можуть бути використані в якості біотероризму. Наведено заходи біологічної безпеки в Україні. The paper deals with ways to defeat the population that can be used as bioterrorism. Biosecurity measures in Ukraine are given.

Biological terrorism is the reality of today. It is understood as the deliberate use by individuals, terrorist groups or organizations, separate structures of state bodies of biological weapons of destruction ofpeople, animals and plants in order to destroy or disable people, causing great economic, social, political, demographic and environmental losses to the country and the world community , imposing a certain line of behavior on international organizations, states, local governments in solving external and internal issues problem. The negative consequences of bioterrorism are revealed, three classes of biological agents, the main methods of combat use of biological weapons are analyzed., Биологический терроризм - реальность сегодняшнего дня. Под ним понимается умышленное применение отдельными лицами, террористическими группами или организациями, отдельными структурами государственных органов биологических средств поражения людей, животных и растений с целью уничтожения или вывода из строя людей, нанесения больших экономических, социальных, политических, демографических и экологических потерь стране и мировому сообществу, навязывания определенной линии поведения международным организациям, государствам, органам местного самоуправления в решении внешних и внутренних проблем. Раскрыты негативные последствия биотерроризма, проанализированы три класса биологи­ческих агентов, основные способы боевого применения биологического оружия., Постановка проблеми. Сучасний тероризм цинічний і багатоликий. Якщо на етапі зародження цього явища метою більшості терористичних актів, як правило, було знищення окремих індивідів, то сьогодні це масове знищення людей, підрив матеріального добробуту, руйнування культурних цінностей. В силу зростання матеріальної оснащеності і технічних можливостей терористи прагнуть використовувати у своїй злочинній діяльності сучасні інформаційні і кібертехнології, заволодіти зброєю масового ураження. Біологічна зброя в силу низки притаманних їй бойових і функціональних характеристик робить її дуже зручною для здійснення масштабного терористичного акту. Революція в галузі біотехнологій дозволяє створити біологічну зброю, що за вражаючими параметрами не поступається ядерної зброї і має при цьому гнучкість у застосуванні.Аналіз останніх досліджень та публікацій. Проблеми застосування терористами зброї масового ураження, і перш за все, біологічної зброї, постійно перебували в центрі уваги як західних (М. Армстронг, М. Варго, М. Вілкінсон, В. Гаррет, Л. Грей, К. Джонсон, Д. Донес, С. Енемарк, Л. Ідзіковський, В. Карус, М. Керріган, Коллінз, М. Кортепетер, Ф. Лентзос, П. Нолан, К. Ньюбі, М. Олшакер, М. Остер- холм, В. Пінто, Е. Райс, Т. Рендерс, А. Ту та ін.) так і українських дослідників (М. Ан- дрейчин, О. Бардін, М. Величко, М. Горлач, О. Глинська, В. Копча, А. Лапутіна, Радченко, А. Сердюк, Ю. Скалецький, К. Чередниченко та ін.). Але разом з тим, події навколо пандемії COVID-19 говорять про те, що проблема боротьби з біоло­гічним тероризмом - проблема нашого майбутнього.Формулювання цілей. Мета статті - розкрити сутність біологічного тероризму, його основні риси і наслідки.Виклад основного матеріалу. Історія людства багата на приклади використання людьми миш ’яку, цикути, сулеми та інших отруйних речовин проти собі подібних. Події осені 2001 р. в США, пов’язані з поширенням спор сибірської виразки за допомогою поштових відправлень, свідчать про те, що біотероризм з гіпотетичної загрози поступово в ХХІ ст. перетворюється в небезпеку реальну. Тому сьогодні необхідно мати досить чітке уявлення про таке явище, як біологічний тероризм, під яким слід розуміти умисне застосування окремими особами, терористичними групами чи організаціями, окремими структурами державних органів біологічних засобів ураження людей, тварин і рослин з метою знищення або виведення з ладу людей, нанесення значних економічних, соціальних, політичних, демографічних та екологічних втрат країні і світовій спільноті, нав’язування певної поведінки міжнародним організаціям, державам, органам місцевого самоврядування у вирішенні зовнішніх і внутрішніх проблем.Біологічний тероризм має цілу низку негативних наслідків: соціальні - масові захворювання людей з важким перебігом хвороби та високим ступенем летальних випадків, паніка, страх, нервово-психічні розлади, інвалідність, параліч волі, виснаження медичних ресурсів, висока смертність серед медичного персоналу, порушення роботи лікувальних установ, падіння життєвого рівня громадян; економічні - колапс економіки країни, захворювання і падіж продуктивних сільськогосподарських тварин, знищення врожаю культурних рослин, які є основним джерелом харчування населення, масовий голод, зростання числа біженців, розруха, дискредитація країни на світовому ринку як торгового партнера, надмірні матеріальні і фінансові витрати на проведення протиепідемічних, карантинних та інших заходів з ліквідації епідемії (пандемії), самопараліч транспортної системи; політичні - усунення або шантаж небажаних політичних лідерів, створення обстановки недовіри до керівництва країни, активізація діяльності політичної опозиції; демографічні - істотне скорочення чисельності населення; військові - приховане виведення з лав збройних сил військовослужбовців евентуального або реального супротивника без вступу в контакт з його збройними силами.Перелік потенційних агентів біологічної зброї, які можуть бути використані терористами, відповідно різних джерел, коливається від 10 до 50 найменувань. В якості критерію їх пріоритетності використовують вірулентність, стійкість у зовнішньому середовищі, можливість промислового виробництва із застосуванням відносно простих і дешевих технологій, відсутність засобів специфічноїпрофілак- тики і лікування. Проаналізовано три класи біологічних агентів, основні способи бойового застосування біологічної зброї: розпорошення біологічних рецептур для зараження приземного шару повітря частинками аерозолю - аерозольний спосіб; розсіювання в районі цілі штучно заражених біологічними засобами кровосисних переносників - трансмісивний спосіб; зараження біологічними засобами повітря і води в замкнутих просторах.Основними ознаками епідемії, обумовленої навмисним поширенням інфекційного агента, є: раптове виникнення масових випадків рідкісної або спорадичної інфекції; виявлення групових захворювань за межами ендемічного осередку; виникнення епідемії в нехарактерний для даної інфекції сезон; надзвичайно швидке поширення інфекції серед осіб, які зазнали на собі вплив біологічного агента; нетипова вікова характеристика хворих; масові зараження відомою інфекцією незвичайним для неї шляхом; короткий і приблизно однаковий інкубаційний період у більшості хворих; виділення у хворих і з об’єктів зовнішнього середовища штамів збудника зі зміненими антигенними і біохімічними характеристиками, з незвично високою вірулентністю і резистентних до антибіотиків; наявність у хворих людей клінічних ознак, які не властиві даної нозологічної формі; велика питома вагу важких випадків і летальних наслідків; неефективність лікування відомими препаратами.Висновки. Потенційна загроза біологічного тероризму в сучасних умовах має глобальний характер. Очевидно, що на чолі ефективних спільних заходів протидії цій загрозі повинна бути нормативно-правова база міжнародного рівня, що відповідає вимогам сучасності. Відзначаючи провідну роль Конвенції про заборону розробки, виробництва та накопичення запасів бактеріологічної (біологічної) і токсин- ної зброї та про їх знищення (1972) в розвитку її основних принципів і положень, нові міжнародні правові акти повинні забезпечувати прозорі і паритетні механізми взаємного інформування та контролю в галузі технологій подвійного призначення, генно-інженерних розробок з використанням патогенних біологічних агентів, біологічної безпеки харчових продуктів і сільськогосподарського виробництва, природно, з урахуванням конкретних питань економічної і національної безпеки держав. Без об ’єднання зусиль усіх країн в боротьбі з біотероризмом досягти успіху неможливо.

Biological terrorism is the reality of today. It is understood as the deliberate use by individuals, terrorist groups or organizations, separate structures of state bodies of biological weapons of destruction ofpeople, animals and plants in order to destroy or disable people, causing great economic, social, political, demographic and environmental losses to the country and the world community , imposing a certain line of behavior on international organizations, states, local governments in solving external and internal issues problem. The negative consequences of bioterrorism are revealed, three classes of biological agents, the main methods of combat use of biological weapons are analyzed.

The revolution in warfare has been marked by the constant development of strategies and technologies, where warring parties use their full potential, and the focus on achieving the ultimate goal is shifting from conventional military force to the use of a set of other measures and means.

Text on billboard: Skyes dngos kyi mtshon cha / Bod rang skyong ljongs mi dmangs mkha' zon gzhung don khang = 生物武器 / 西藏自治区人民防空办公室宣 = Sheng wu wu qi / Xizang zi zhi qu ren min fang kong ban gong shi xuan = Biological weapons / Tibet Autonomous Region People's Air Defense Office. TOP LEFT: mkha' dbyings nas 'phang = 空中投放 = kong zhong tou fang = [dropped from the sky]. TOP RIGHT: gnam gru nas gtong ba = 飞机布洒 = fei ji bu sa = [dispersed by airplanes]. MID RIGHT: me sgyogs rgyag pa = 火炮发射 = huo pao fa she = [artillery fire]. BOTTOM LEFT: 'bar 'drel dra 'phang ba = 炸弹施放 = zha dan shi fang = [released by explosive]. BOTTOM RIGHT: dgra bo'i gtor gshig = 敌特破坏 = di te po huai = [enemy destruction?]

Discusses terrorism, biological agents, chemical terrorism, how to develop emergency plans, how to create emergency supply kits, evacuation and shelter in place NP

Загрози, пов’язані зі зброєю масового знищення та засобами її доставки, зростають на фоні збільшення військових бюджетів і надмірного накопичення військових арсеналів. До того ж вони посилюються внаслідок стрімкого підвищення регіональної напруженості. У такому геополітичному контексті надзвичайно важливі заходи щодо зміцнення довіри між державами, насамперед у сфері контролю над озброєннями, нерозповсюдження та ліквідації зброї масового знищення. Відображенням стурбованості співтовариства держав у питанні формування міжнародно-правових основ для миру на планеті стало не тільки розуміння всеосяжного характеру міжнародної безпеки, а й пошук міжнародно-правових конструкцій, здатних відобразити цю особливість світопорядку і підтримувати його на рівні, що дає можливість для сталого розвитку. Ядерна зброя представляє унікальну загрозу існуванню людства, але при цьому міжнародно-правовий режим ядерного нерозповсюдження і роззброєння переживає небувалу кризу довіри. Північна Корея de facto вийшла з Договору про нерозповсюдження ядерної зброї, а Індія, Ізраїль і Пакистан ніколи не були його учасниками. Існують щонайменше серйозні питання щодо змісту мирної ядерної програми Ірану. Повсюдне зростання тероризму у поєднанні із загрозою придбання ядерної зброї терористами значно посилює небезпеку її застосування. Нерозповсюдження ядерної зброї та ядерне роззброєння нерозривно пов’язані одне з одним і для досягнення прогресу на одному фронті необхідно забезпечити просування і на іншому. Обидва ці завдання варто вирішувати комплексно та з належною оперативністю. Зазначене загострює проблему організації і здійснення контролю за знищенням і нерозповсюдженням ядерної зброї на підставі норм міжнародного права. Разом з тим, факти використання хімічної зброї у сучасних збройних конфліктах спонукають до переоцінки рівня ефективності існуючої офіційної системи перевірок наявності запасів хімікатів. А у випадку із біологічною зброєю запроваджене договірне регулювання взагалі не встановлює жодних «верифікаційних» механізмів. Метою роботи є системний і комплексний аналіз міжнародно-правових проблем теоретичного та практичного характеру у сфері контролю за ліквідацією і нерозповсюдженням зброї масового знищення: ядерної, хімічної та біологічної. Угрозы, связанные с оружием массового уничтожения и средствами его доставки, растут на фоне увеличения военных бюджетов и чрезмерного накопления военных арсеналов. К тому же они усиливаются вследствие резкого повышения региональной напряженности. В таком геополитическом контексте чрезвычайно важные меры по укреплению доверия между государствами, прежде всего в сфере контроля над вооружениями, нераспространения и ликвидации оружия массового уничтожения. Отражением обеспокоенности сообщества государств в вопросе формирования международно-правовых основ для мира на планете стало не только понимание всеобъемлющего характера международной безопасности, но и поиск международно-правовых конструкций, способных отразить эту особенность миропорядка и поддерживать его на уровне, дает возможность для устойчивого развития. Ядерное оружие представляет уникальную угрозу существованию человечества, но при этом международно-правовой режим ядерного нераспространения и разоружения переживает небывалый кризис доверия. Северная Корея de facto вышла из Договора о нераспространении ядерного оружия, а Индия, Израиль и Пакистан никогда не были его участниками. Существуют по меньшей мере серьезные вопросы относительно содержания мирной ядерной программы Ирана. Повсеместный рост терроризма в сочетании с угрозой приобретения ядерного оружия террористами значительно усиливает опасность ее применения. Нераспространения ядерного оружия и ядерное разоружение неразрывно связаны друг с другом и для достижения прогресса на одном фронте необходимо обеспечить продвижение и на другом. Обе эти задачи следует решать комплексно и с должной оперативностью. Указанное обостряет проблему организации и осуществления контроля за уничтожением и нераспространения ядерного оружия на основании норм международного права. Вместе с тем, факты использования химического оружия в современных вооруженных конфликтах побуждают к переоценке уровня эффективности существующей официальной системы проверок наличия запасов химикатов. А в случае с биологическим оружием введено договорное регулирование вообще не устанавливает никаких «верификационных» механизмов. Целью работы является системный и комплексный анализ международно-правовых проблем теоретического и практического характера в сфере контроля за ликвидацией и нераспространением оружия массового уничтожения: ядерного, химического и биологического. Threats to weapons of mass destruction and their means of delivery are growing as military budgets increase and military arsenals become overcrowded. In addition, they are exacerbated by the sharp rise in regional tensions. In such a geopolitical context, confidence-building measures between states are extremely important, especially in the areas of arms control, non-proliferation and the elimination of weapons of mass destruction. Nuclear weapons pose a unique threat to human existence, but the international legal regime of nuclear non-proliferation and disarmament is experiencing an unprecedented crisis of confidence. The widespread rise of terrorism, combined with the threat of terrorist acquisition of nuclear weapons, exacerbates the danger of its use. Nuclear non-proliferation and nuclear disarmament are inextricably linked, and progress on one front requires progress on the other. Thus, the above facts determine the relevance of the study. According to the topic of our work, we may set this purpose and tasks to achieve it. Well, the Aim is comprehensive analysis of theoretical and practical problems of control over the elimination and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction.

The bioterrorist attacks are very efficient and deadly because for a short period of time they cause massive civilian casualties, and achieve psychological fear and anxiety among the general population. In order to achieve their goals, some terrorist structures have members who possess good theoretical and practical knowledge as well as technical information from various scientific fields with regard to the most important features of the production and use of biological agents. The use of biological weapons in various deadly attacks committed by terrorist organizations for fulfilling their goals is the main subject of this paper. Firstly, we consider the characteristics of biological agents, including bacteria, viruses, and toxins that can be converted into biological weapons suitable for use in terrorist activities, and then we specifically pay attention to the tactical ways of their usage. Detailed research of their properties and tactics of storage, transportation, and use for terrorist purposes is necessary to evaluate the currently established measures for anti and counter-terrorism and propose more effective strategies to prevent future attacks using biological weapons.

Unlike nuclear and chemical weapons, biological weapons are means of mass destruction which is easily accessible. Open use of biological weapons in a military conflict is very unlikely, but it is more realistic in its application as a means of conducting subversive war and terrorism. Protection against the effects of biological weapons comes down primarily to the application of measures that are used in the prevention and treatment of contagious diseases. The authors of this paper neither diminished the role in the prevention of biological attacks of the appropriate security and intelligence services. The contents of this paper highlight issues of the challenge of recognizing biological attack, the methods of isolation and detection of harmful microorganisms by classical microbiological methods and their weakness, the agents altered resistance to existing antibiotics, and (im)possibilities for effective protection. The authors also present the prevailing scientific conflicting views on the horror of the possible use of genetically modified organisms and opposing soothing views indicating that such opportunities are premature. The analysis of capabilities for vaccination, as a specific defensive measure of protection in case of a biological attack, suggests that capacities are fairly limited. The methods of biological decontamination show that this is a delicate procedure.

An analytical review focuses on the issue of biological threats that exist in the world, the main sources of biological hazards and methods of indicating pathogenic infection. The article contains comparative characteristics of devices for biological reconnaissance and basic approaches that can be used during its modernization., Аналітичний огляд присвячений розгляду питання біологічної загрози, яка існує в світі, основним джерелам біологічної небезпеки та методам індикації патогенного зараження. Наведена порівняльна характеристика приладів біологічної розвідки та основні підходи, які можуть бути використані у їх модернізації.

We report for the first time the efficient use of accelerated solvent extraction (ASE) for extraction of ricin to analytical purposes, followed by the combined use of sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE), Matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS), and MALDI-TOF MS/MS method. That has provided a fast and unambiguous method of ricin identification for in real cases of forensic investigation of suspected samples. Additionally, MALDI-TOF MS was applied to characterize the presence and the toxic activity of ricin in irradiated samples. Samples containing ricin were subjected to ASE, irradiated with different dosages of gamma radiation, and analyzed by MALDI-TOF MS/MS for verification of the intact protein signal. For identification purposes, samples were previously subjected to SDS-PAGE, for purification and separation of the chains, followed by digestion with trypsin, and analysis by MALDI-TOF MS/MS. The results were confirmed by verification of the amino acid sequences of some selected peptides by MALDI-TOF MS/MS. The samples residual toxic activity was evaluated through incubation with a DNA substrate, to simulate the attack by ricin, followed by MALDI-TOF MS/MS analyses.

Cilj ovog rada je prikazati posebnosti jedne vrste terorizma-bioterorizam, u ovom slučaju, potencijalno uzrokovanog virusom ebole, te širenje spoznaja o istom. O fenomenu terorizma, u Republici Hrvatskoj nema mnogo podataka, za razliku od nekih razvijenijih zemalja. U radu su navedena biološka oružja i njihova klasifikacija, sažeto prikazani psihološki učinci i trendovi bioterorizma, detaljno opisane sve karakteristike virusa ebole, te naglašena važnost forenzičke mikrobiologije u slučaju bioterorizma. Nužna su dodatna istraživanja i edukacije kako bi se stvorio sveobuhvatan stav, s posebnim fokusom na sprječavanje i suzbijanje nasilnog ekstremizma koji vodi ka terorizmu, poštivajući pri tome ljudska prava. S obzirom na razvoj znanosti i tehnologije, realno je očekivati da će fenomen bioterorizma tek zaokupiti pažnju i interes kako stručnjaka, tako i šire javnosti. The aim of this paper is to present the characteristics of one type of terrorism-bioterrorism, in this case, potentially caused by the Ebola virus, and to spread the knowledge about it. There are not much informations about the phenomenon of terrorism in the Republic of Croatia, compare with some developed countries. The paper lists biological weapons and their classification, summarized psychological effects and trends of bioterrorism. Characteristics of the Ebola virus are described in detail, and emphasize the importance of forensic microbiology in the case of bioterrorism. Additional research and educations are necessary create a comprehensive attitude, with a particular focus on preventing and suppression violent extremism leading to terrorism, with respect of human rights. Considering development of science and technology, it is realistic to expect that the phenomenon of bioterrorism in the future will take the attention and interest of experts and the general population.

Biyolojik ve kimyasal silahları kanun dışı ilan eden sözleşmelerin 1972 ve 1993 yıllarında imzalanmasına rağmen, kullanımlarının tehdidi hala gündemdedir. Bunun bir örneği, bu silahların Suriye İç Savaşı'nda kullanımı mükerrer olaylarda görülmektedir. Bu silah türlerinin tarihi, savaş kurallarını düzenleyecek, insanlık dışı savaşın yütütülmesini yasaklayacak ve bu silahları kullanmakta suçlu bulunan insanlar, insan grupları ve ülkelere ceza getirecek organların oluşturulması girişimleriyle ayrılmaz bir şekilde bağlantılıdır. Bu tür organlar, II. Dünya Savaşı ardından düzenlenen uluslararası ceza mahkaemeleridir (Nürnberg, Tokyo ve Khabarovsk ceza mahkemeleri). Bunlar ise yukarıda belirtilen sözleşmelerin imzalanması için bir ivme idi.Bu çalışmada, uluslararasi hukukta kimyasal ve biyolojik silahların taşınmasına yönelik düzenlemeler analiz edilmiştir. Üç bölümden oluşan araştırmanın birinci bölümünde, hukuk ve savaş geleneklerini düzenleyen uluslararası organların kurulmasının yüzyıllar boyunca süren tarihi ele alınmış. Orta Çağ'dan XX. yüzyıla kadar, Bölgesel ve Ekümenik Konsiller döneminden 8 Mayıs 1945 tarihli Londra Anlaşması'na geçiş sürecinde uluslararası ceza mahkemelerinin oluşturmasıyla ilgili sıkıntılar üzerinde durulmuştur. İkinci bölümde XX. yüzyılın başında kimyasal ve biyolojik silahların icat edilmesi, gelişmesi ve kullanmasında suçlu olan Japon militaristleri üzerinde Khabarovsk savaş suçu duruşmalarının akışı ve sonuçları incelenmiştir. Araştırmanın son bölümünde ise ABD biyolojik savaşı ve kitle imha silahıyla gerçekleştirilen terör eylemleriyle ilgili bilgiler ele alınmıştır. Aynı zamanda bu kısımda, geçmişte Orta Doğu'da ve 2011 yılından itibaren başlayan Suriye İç Savaşı sırasında kullanıldığı kimyasal ve biyolojik silahların tarihi araştırılmıştır. Bunlara ek olarak, üçüncü bölümde bu silahların üretimi ve kullanımını yasaklayan uluslararası sözleşme ve örgütlere yer verilmiştir. Bu çalışmaya daha praktik niteliği getirmek için ise 'Kimyasal ve Biyolojik Silahların Tehdidi ve Silahsızlanma Seçenekleri' adlı bir mülakat analiz edilmiştir. Despite the fact that the agreements for declaring biological and chemical weapons illegally were signed in 1972 and 1993, the threat of their use is still on the agenda. One example for it is the use of these weapons in the Syrian Civil War. The history of these types of weapons is inextricably linked to attempts to establish organs that would impose war rules, prohibit the overthrow of the inhumane war and establish penalties for people who are guilty of using them. Such organs were created after the II. World War as International Criminal Courts (Nuremberg, Tokyo and Khabarovsk Criminal Courts). These were an impetus for signing the aforementioned agreements.In this research the regulations for the transport of chemical and biological weapons in international law were analyzed and in the first part of the three-part research the centuries-long history of the establishment of international bodies that regulate the traditions of law and war was addressed. The problems related to the creation of international criminal courts during the process of transition from the Middle Ages to the 20th century, from the period of Regional and Ecumenical Councils to the Treaty of London on May 8, 1945. In the second part, the development and use of chemical and biological weapons at the beginning of the 20th century and the flow and results of Khabarovsk war crimes trials on Japanese militarists who were guilty of the invention were examined. In the last part of the research, information about US biological warfare and terrorist acts carried out by the weapon of mass destruction were discussed. At the same time, the history of chemical and biological weapons used during the Syrian Civil War, which began in 2011 in the Middle East and has been analyzed in this section. In addition, in the third chapter, the international agreements and organizations that prohibit the production and use of these weapons are included. In this research a questionnaire called 'Threats of Chemical and Biological Weapons and Nonproliferation Options' was analyzed to bring more practical qualities to this investigation. 123

[Resumen] El papel de la Microbiología ha sido fundamental en el desarrollo de armamento de tipo biológico. En este sentido, la evolución de los armamentos biológicos, tanto con fines bélicos como terroristas, ha ido notablemente ligado al estudio de los microorganismos, si bien otros factores también son determinantes en el fenómeno. El presente estudio se plantea como una revisión bibliográfica en la que se valora el papel de la Microbiología en la evolución del armamento biológico a lo largo de la historia y su dirección futura. El uso de armas biológicas está prohibido por considerarse inhumano y de alto riesgo, teniendo un potencial claramente superior al de armas de cualquier otro tipo. Son muchos los microorganismos que se pueden utilizar para el desarrollo de este armamento, aunque solo unos pocos los que cumplen todos los requisitos que los hacen ideales. Estos son los estudiados en esta revisión, con los que se han llevado a cabo un mayor número ataques en los últimos años, bajo un contexto bioterrorista, así como a lo largo de la historia. Como defensa ante estos ataques, se definen actuaciones para la prevención, la preparación de armas y ataques por parte de las organizaciones, y la reacción a dichos ataques, basadas en la mejora de la gestión médica. Para esto, muchos gobiernos han desarrollado importantes inversiones, ante una posible amenaza. Las posibilidades reales de un ataque de este tipo no son muy altas. Por un lado, el relativamente sencillo acceso de gobiernos y grupos terroristas a estas armas facilitaría su desarrollo. Por otro lado, sin embargo, el ataque sería mucho más difícil, debido al complejo manejo de los microorganismos y al crecimiento exponencial de la ciencia en cuanto a la defensa frente al bioterrorismo [Resumo] O papel da Microbioloxía foi fundamental no desenvolvemento de armas biolóxicas. Neste sentido, a evolución dos armamentos biolóxicos, tanto con fins bélicos coma terroristas, estivo ligada notablemente ao estudo de microorganismos, aínda que outros factores tamén son determinantes no fenómeno. O presente estudo preséntase coma unha revisión bibliográfica na que se valora o papel da Microbioloxía na evolución do armamento biolóxico ao longo da historia e a súa dirección futura. O uso das armas biolóxicas está prohibido por ser consideradas inhumanas e de alto risco, tendo un potencial claramente superior ao das armas de calquera outro tipo. Hai moitos microorganismos que se poden usar para o desenvolvemento deste armamento, aínda que poucos cumpren todos os requisitos que os fan ideais. Istos son os estudados nesta revisión, cos que se realizaron un maior número de ataques nos últimos anos, nun contexto bioterrorista, así coma ao longo da historia Como defensa contra estes ataques, defínense accións para a prevención, preparación de armas e ataques de organizacións e a reacción ante tales ataques, baseada na mellora da xestión médica. Para iso, moitos gobernos desenvolveron importantes investimentos, ante unha posible ameaza. As posibilidades reais dun ataque non son moi elevadas. Por un lado, o acceso relativamente sinxelo de gobernos e grupos terroristas a estas armas facilitaría o seu desenvolvemento. Non obstante, o ataque sería moito máis difícil, debido a complexa xestión dos microorganismos e ao crecemento exponencial da ciencia en termos de defensa contra o bioterrorismo [Abstract] The role of Microbiology has been fundamental in the development of biological weapons. In this sense, the evolution of biological armaments, both for war and terrorist purposes, has been linked to the study of microorganisms, although other factors are important for the phenomenon. The present study is a review in that shows the role of Microbiology in the evolution of biological armament throughout history and its future direction. The use of biological weapons is banned as considered inhuman and of high risk, having a potential clearly superior to any other type of weapon. There are many microorganisms that can be used for the development of this armament, although few meet all the requirements that make them ideal. Those are studied in this review with which a greater number of attacks have been carried out in recent years, under a bioterrorist context, as well as throughout history. As a defence against these attacks, actions taken are focused on the prevention, preparation of weapons and attacks by organizations, and on the reaction to such attacks, based on the improvement of medical management. For this, many governments have developed significant investments, trying to be ready in case of a possible threat. The real chances of an attack are not very high. On the one hand, the relatively simple access of governments and terrorist groups to these weapons would facilitate their development. However, the attack would be much more difficult, due to the hard handling of microorganisms and the exponential growth of science in terms of defence against bioterrorism. Traballo fin de grao (UDC.CIE). Bioloxía. Curso

YÖK Tez No: 546799 KBRN olayları kazaen veya kasten tehlikeli kimyasal, biyolojik, radyoaktif, nükleer ajanların salınması ile oluşan ve olumsuz etkiler bırakan olaylardır. KBRN olaylarında ilk andan itibaren zarar azaltma faaliyetlerinde bulunarak olayın olumsuz etkilerinin büyümesini engelleyecek ekipler ilk müdahale ekipleridir. Olay yerinde bulunabilecek tehlikeli KBRN maddeleri ilk müdahale ekiplerini risk altında bırakabilmektedir. Bu kapsamda çalışmanın amacı KBRN olaylarında ilk müdahalede görev alan bazı ekiplerin olay yerindeki tehlikelere karşı risk algılarını ölçmek ve olay öncesi hazırlık ile ilgili tutumları arasındaki ilişkiyi değerlendirmektir. Çalışma Adana ilinde KBRN olaylarına müdahalede yer alma potansiyeli olan kurtarma, tespit, arındırma, jandarma ve itfaiye çalışanlarından anket doldurmayı kabul eden 140 kişi üzerinde yapılmıştır. Veri toplama aracı olarak KBRN tehlikelerine yönelik risk algısı ve hazırlılık ölçeği oluşturulmuştur. Verilerin analizleri SPSS 22 paket programı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Aritmetik ortalama, yüzde, standart sapma ve frekans dağılımı değerleri verilmiştir. Ortalamaları karşılaştırmak amacıyla Tek Yönlü Varyans Analizi, Kruskal-Wallis Testi ve Bağımsız Örneklem T-Testi kullanılmıştır. İlişkilerin incelenmesi için ise Basit Doğrusal Korelasyon Analizi kullanılmıştır. Çalışma sonucunda katılımcıların KBRN olay yeri tehlikeleri risk algı düzeyleri (4,09) ve KBRN olaylarına hazırlılık düzeylerinin (3,71) puan ortalaması ile yüksek düzeyde olduğu saptanmıştır. Katılımcıların KBRN olay yeri tehlike risk algı düzeyleri ile hazırlık düzeyleri arasında, anlamlı düzeyde pozitif yönde doğrusal bir ilişki olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Anahtar Kelimeler: KBRN Olayları, İlk Müdahale Ekipleri, Risk Algısı, Hazırlık CBRN events are accidental or deliberately occurring by the release of dangerous chemical, biological, radioactive, nuclear agents and negative effects. The first responders are the teams that will prevent the growth of the negative effects of the incident by performing harm reduction activities from the first moment of the CBRN events. Hazardous CBRN substances that may be present at the scene may put their first responders at risk. The aim of this study is to measure the risk perceptions of some teams involved in the first intervention in CBRN events against the hazards at the scene and to evaluate the relationship between their attitudes towards pre-event preparation. The study was carried out on 140 people who have accepted to take part in the intervention in Adana province, rescue, detection, decontamination, gendarmerie and fire brigade workers. As a data collection tool, risk perception and preparedness scale for CBRN hazards has been established. Data were analyzed with SPSS 22 package program. Arithmetic mean, percentage, standard deviation and frequency distribution values are given. One way ANOVA, Kruskal-Wallis Test and Independent Sample T-Test were used to compare the means. In order to investigate the relations, Simple Linear Correlation Analysis was used. At the end of the study, the level of risk perception of CBRN incident hazards of participants (4,09) and preparedness levels for CBRN events (3,71) was found to be high with mean score. It was found that there was a statistically significant positive correlation between CBRN crime risk perception levels and preparedness levels. Keywords: CBRN Events, First Responders, Risk Perception, Preparedness

Tarih boyunca biyolojik ajanlar askerlere ve sivillere karşı kullanılmıştır. Sağlık çalışanları da biyolojik ajanlardan etkilenmektedir. Bu bağlamda sağlık çalışanlarının bilgi ve algı düzeyleri önem kazanmaktadır. Çalışmamızın amacı Bayburt ili 112 çalışanları ve Bayburt Devlet Hastanesinde çalışan hemşirelerin biyoterörizm bilgi düzeylerini ortaya çıkarıp, çıkan sonuçlara göre çözüm ve öneriler üretmektir. Bu araştırma kesitsel bir araştırmadır. Literatür taraması yapılarak biyoterörizm konusunda bir ölçek geliştirilmiştir. Ölçek geliştirirken uzman görüşü alınmıştır. Ölçeğin güvenirliği yüksek (Cronbach's Alpha değeri=0,892) tespit edilmiştir. Evrenimizi 204 sağlık personeli oluşturmuştur. Basit rastgele örnekleme yöntemi ile seçilen 115 sağlık çalışanına ölçek uygulanmış ve sonuçlar bilgisayarda SPSS 22 programı ile analiz edilmiştir. İstatistiksel analizlerde student's t testi ve ki-kare testi kullanılmıştır. Araştırma grubundaki sağlık personelinin %42,6'sı erkek, %57,4'ü kadındır. Araştırma grubundaki sağlık personelinin sadece %22,6'sının biyolojik ajana maruz kalmış hastaya müdahale ettiği ortaya çıkmıştır. Kırsalda çalışan sağlık personelinin, kentsel bölgede çalışan sağlık personeline göre daha fazla biyolojik ajana maruz kalan hastaya müdahale ettiği tespit edilmiştir. Biyoterörizm bilgi düzeyi ortalaması 3,01±0,43 bulunmuştur. Afet veya acil durum planının varlığı %50'nin altında, sağlık personelinin planı inceleme durumunun çok az, planda biyoterörizme yer verilme durumunun çok az, afet tatbikatına katılım oranının az, tatbikatın biyoterörizmi içerme oranının çok az olduğu bulunmuştur. Afet ve acil durum planlarının tüm istasyon ve hastanelere yapılması, yapıldıktan sonra plan hakkında eğitim verilmesi ve planın biyoterörizm konusunu içermesi gerekmektedir. Ayrıca afet eğitimleri biyoterörizm içermelidir.Anahtar Kelimeler: Biyoterörizm, Bilgi Düzeyi, Sağlık Çalışanı Throughout history, biological agents have been used against soldiers and civilians. Health workers are also affected by biological agents. In this context, knowledge and perception levels of health workers gain importance. The aim of this study was to determine the level of bioterrorism knowledge of 112 employees and nurses working in Bayburt State Hospital and to produce solutions and suggestions according to the results. This is a cross-sectional study. This is a cross - sectional study. A scale on bioterrorism was developed by literature review. Expert opinion was taken when developing the scale. The reliability of the scale was high (Cronbach's Alpha value = 0.892). The universe is composed of 204 health personnel. The scale was applied to 115 health care workers selected by simple random sampling method and the results were analyzed with SPSS 22 program on computer. Student's t test and chi-square test were used for statistical analysis. 42.6% of the health personnel in the research group were male and 57.4% were female. It was found that only 22.6% of the health personnel in the research group intervened in the patients exposed to the biological agent. It was found that rural health personnel intervened in patients exposed to more biological agents than health personnel working in urban areas. The average level of knowledge of bioterrorism was found to be 3.01 ± 0.43. Presence of a disaster or emergency plan was found to be below 50%, the status of the health personnel to examine the plan was very low, the status of bioterrorism in the plan was very low, the rate of participation in disaster drill was low, and the rate of drill bioterrorism was low. Disaster and emergency plans should be made to all stations and hospitals, after the training should be provided about the plan and the plan should include bioterrorism. Disaster training should also include bioterrorism.Keywords: Bioterrorism, Knowledge Level, Health Personnel 116

The aim of this diploma thesis was "To Analyse the awareness of the population in the area of South Bohemia region in context of emergencies in case of using weapons of mass destruction". In the theoretical part of the thesis the issue of the weapons of mass destruction is described from the description of particular groups to some historical consequences, to their arrangement or detailed description of the main types of weapons, and their harmful effects on a human body. As the issue is really wide, the main text is focused on the basic specification for easier understanding. Not many details are presented, but the most important information and some sidelights were given the priority. The target of the thesis was not to prepare a detailed and broad description, but on the other hand the comprehensive view of the studied issue, so a reader can obtain clear and brief analysis of the topic. For the practical part of the thesis the quantitative research and the method of a survey for obtaining data were chosen and done from January to March 2019. The questionnaire consists of four parts. Each part is specifically orientated. In the introductory part of the questionnaire there are three initial questions given to divide the responders according to their gender, age and education. After that there is the part A, which consists of ten questions, and it is aimed at the public awareness about the issue of public safety. The other parts B, C and D have five questions each, and they are aimed at the particular weapons of mass destruction - chemical, biological and nuclear weapons. The main goal of the survey was to find the level of the public awareness in South Bohemia region. The obtained data show that the correct answers reached approx. 55 %, but the range of all particular correct answers was from 30 % up to 83 %. These results show that there is potential room for improvement of the public awareness by simple and well-arranged brochures, by creating professional web-sides or groups for modern society that can use social network such as Facebook or Instagram. The diploma thesis can be also used as an educational material.

RESUMEN: En un análisis de Derecho comparado, se distinguen dos modelos para la regulación penal de conductas relacionadas con la utilización de ingeniería genética y con técnicas de reproducción asistida: España y diversos Estados de Latinoamérica, como México, Honduras o Colombia, entre otros, introducen estos delitos en el Código penal; en tanto que otros Estados europeos (Alemania, Italia) o norteamericanos (EEUU, Canadá) los incorporan a leyes especiales, con penas más graves que los Estados que optan por el modelo codificado. Aunque los delitos en concreto son distintos, prácticamente todos tipifican delitos de alteración del genotipo y muchos contienen delitos de clonación o de la producción de armas biológicas con técnicas de ingeniería genética, en tanto que otras figuras delictivas gozan de menor predicamento. El análisis de las distintas opciones legislativas y políticocriminales ayuda a analizar críticamente y a sugerir posibles modalidades típicas alternativas a la legislación penal española, en concreto, a los arts. 159 y 160 CP. ABSTRACT: Two models of criminal regulation of crimes related to the use of genetic engineering and assisted reproduction techniques are distinguished in a comparative law analysis: Spain and several Latin American States (Mexico, Honduras or Colombia, among others) introduce these crimes in the Penal Code. Some European States (Germany, Italy) or North Americans (USA, Canada) incorporate them into special laws. It is observed that there are more crimes and with greater penalties in the special laws. Practically in all these states, the alteration of the genotype is a crime, as well as cloning or manufacturing biological weapons with techniques of genetic engineering. But there are no more similarities. The analysis of the different legislative and political-criminal options allows a critical review of Spanish criminal legislation. Finally, alternatives to articles 159 and 160 of the Spanish criminal code are suggested. El presente trabajo se enmarca en el Proyecto de Investigación I+D+I DER2016-77228-P.

The article issued theoretical and practice problems of combating terrorism in current conditions, in particular, analyzes the concept of bio-terrorism as a form of terrorism, we investigate its nature, characteristics, and also referred to the major directions of countering.

European approaches to the proliferation of nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons-the so-called weapons of mass destruction (WMD)-have undergone a profound transformation during the last few decades. This chapter will trace the varying European policy responses to WMD proliferation over time and examine how European security doctrines have evolved more recently in this area. It will focus on processes of doctrinal convergence and divergence both in the three major powers in Europe-France, Germany, and the United Kingdom-and in other European states with a significant non-proliferation policy of their own, especially Austria, Ireland, and Sweden. In this context, it will also take into consideration the influence of relevant international organizations such as the North Atlantic Treaty Organization and the European Union.

The objective of the current thesis will be to address the threat of bioterrorism, which essentially is the use of biological weapons by a violent non-state actor, ΑΚΑ a terrorist group. The academic community is at odds with the political elite in assessing the risk of biothreat. The academic community relies on empirical data, or lack thereof, to classify the threat as “low risk” but “high impact”, meaning that it is considered unlikely to happen, but if it does happen the consequences will be disastrous and far-reaching. That is not the case with policy-makers all over the world, who in the past year have augmented spending earmarked for the fight against the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction (WMD), which include biological weapons, and civil protection. This difference of opinions stems from the responsibility to protect the public. Governments cannot simply ignore the risk of biological terrorism, because it ranks low on probability. The odds of a terror attack coming from the skies were also astronomically high, but three civilian aircrafts were hijacked and kickstarted the “War on Terror”, which continues to this day. In a shifting and uncertain volatile environment, where the enemy is fighting with an ever-changing and evolving arsenal, decision-makers simply do not have the luxury to ignore threats to national and international security. This thesis attempts to support the idea that the risk is real and present, looming over unprepared societies, which may be hit without prior notice by something far more deadly and terrifying than anything in a conventional arsenal. The first part will attempt to explain the science behind biological weapons: what kind of technical know-how is required and what kind of equipment is needed to succeed in the creation of such weapons. The second part will present the historical aspect of state-run biological programs from the earliest recorded uses all the way to the 21st century. The third part will assess the risk of a terrorist organization acquiring weaponized pathogens, examining both previous incidents and theories developed on the matter. The fourth part, will address all the systemic vulnerabilities that were identified throughout the thesis, by laying out a detailed policy proposal that covers the national emergency response system, all efforts by the international community to deal effectively –to a certain extent- with the issue, along with the fundamental 1972 Convention, and intelligence services.

The article is devoted to the Harbin Museum of detachment 731, built on the site of a secret military facility of the Japanese army, and its influence on the formation of the national consciousness of the Chinese people. The author analyzes the main methods of submitting material about this historical event, the exhibits and videos demonstrated in the exhibition halls in order to prove that the museum is a platform for implementing the national-unifying policy of the Chinese authorities. It contributes to the formation of a negative attitude of the Chinese people not only to Japanese militarism, but also to the Japanese nation. Статья посвящена харбинскому музею отряда 731, построенному на месте секретного военного объекта японской армии, и его влиянию на формирование национального самосознания китайского народа. Автор анализирует основные способы подачи материала о данном историческом событии, а также представ ленные в экспозиции предметы и видеоматериалы и доказывает, что музей является платформой для реализации национально-объединительной политики китайских властей и способствует формированию негативного отношения китайцев не только к японскому милитаризму, но и к японской нации.

LEGAL ASPECTS OF WEAPONS OF MASS DESTRUCTION, ABSTRAKT V ANGLICKÉM JAZYCE The aim of this rigorosum thesis is to create an overview of weapons of mass destruction (including their development and history, combat deployment and their subsequent effect on the international community), to evaluate their status and combat deployment on the basis of custom or international agreements and to further critically evaluate the newest regulation of weapons of mass destruction (i.e. development from the latter half of the 20thcentury), its effectiveness as well as possibilities of further development. In general terms, this thesis deals with international law, only briefly touching legislation on the national level. The first chapter consists of a brief introduction. The second chapter includes a list of basic terminology, e.g. definitions for weapons of mass destruction, biological, chemical and nuclear weapons, international law, law of war, law of customs, international agreements, forbidden means of combat and prohibited ways of conducting armed conflicts. The third chapter deals with the development of chemical weapons from their early history all the way to current regulation. The fourth chapter contains information on chemical weapons beginning with their first development and their original ("absent")...

This incident illustrates how, within a framework of religious fanaticism, the use of biological weapons could appear to be acceptable., A little-known effort to conduct biological warfare occurred during the 17th century. The incident transpired during the Venetian–Ottoman War, when the city of Candia (now Heraklion, Greece) was under siege by the Ottomans (1648–1669). The data we describe, obtained from the Archives of the Venetian State, are related to an operation organized by the Venetian Intelligence Services, which aimed at lifting the siege by infecting the Ottoman soldiers with plague by attacking them with a liquid made from the spleens and buboes of plague victims. Although the plan was perfectly organized, and the deadly mixture was ready to use, the attack was ultimately never carried out. The conception and the detailed cynical planning of the attack on Candia illustrate a dangerous way of thinking about the use of biological weapons and the absence of reservations when potential users, within their religious framework, cast their enemies as undeserving of humanitarian consideration.