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Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels, called "biofuels," to help meet transportation fuel needs. The two most common types of biofuels in use today are ethanol and biodiesel, both of which represent the first generation of biofuel technology. Biodiesel is a liquid fuel produced from renewable sources, such as new and used vegetable oils and animal fats and is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleumbased diesel fuel. Biodiesel is nontoxic and biodegradable and is produced by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking grease. Here, In this paper we discussed about some methods and applications of biofuels.

Unlike other renewable energy sources, biomass can be converted directly into liquid fuels, called "biofuels," to help meet transportation fuel needs. The two most common types of biofuels in use today are ethanol and biodiesel, both of which represent the first generation of biofuel technology. Biodiesel is a liquid fuel produced from renewable sources, such as new and used vegetable oils and animal fats and is a cleaner-burning replacement for petroleumbased diesel fuel. Biodiesel is nontoxic and biodegradable and is produced by combining alcohol with vegetable oil, animal fat, or recycled cooking grease. Here, In this paper we discussed about some methods and applications of biofuels.

Proceedings of the first International Conference on Advanced Trends in Renewable Energy conducted by the Centre for Renewable Energy, Nehru Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India on 13 and 14 October 2022.

In this study, the usability of essential oils as fuel additives in internal combustion diesel engines was investigated.Salvia candidissiman was preferred as essential oil raw material due to its oil efficiency.The essential oil of salvia candidissima plant biomass was obtained by hydro distillation method.The essential oil obtained was then converted into biofuel by transesterification reaction.Biofuel is added to diesel fuel at a rate of 10% by volume and is named [SB-10].DF] and [SB-10] fuels were tested in a variable compression ratio diesel engine at fixed 1550 rpm.Results: It showed that the [SB-10] fuel produced 2.46 Nm more torque and 4.29 HP more power than DF fuel. When looking at the combustion data, 4.99% in the pressure values of the fuel [SB-10], 16.72% in gas temperatures, % in the rate of increase in pressure. 22.84 and 2.85% more in cumulative heat release values. Bu çalışmada, uçucu yağların içten yanmalı dizel motorlarında yakıt katkı maddesi olarak kullanılabilirliği araştırılmıştır. Uçucu yağ hammaddesi olarak, yağ verimliliğinden dolayı, salvia candidissimanı tercih edilirmiştir. salvia candidissima bitki biokütlesinin uçucu yağı hidro distilasyon yöntemi ile elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen uçucu yağ daha sonra transesterifikasyon reaksiyonu ile biyoyakıta dönüştürülmüştür. Biyo yakıt, dizel yakıtına hacimsel olarak % 10 oranında ilave edilmiştir ve [SB10] olarak isimlendirilmiştir. DF] ve [SB-10] yakıtları, sabit 1550 devrinde, değişken sıkıştırma oranına sahip bir dizel motorda test edilmiştir. Sonuçlar: [SB-10] yakıtının DF yakıtından 2.46 Nm daha fazla tork, 4.29 HP daha fazla güç ürettiğini göstermiştir. Yanma verilerine bakıldığında [SB-10] yakıtının basınç değerlerinde % 4,99, gaz sıcaklıklarında % 16.72C, basınç artış oranında % 22.84 ve kümülatif ısı salınım değerlerinde ise %2.85 daha fazla oluştuğu belirlenmiştir.

Introduction: Countries around the world are looking for an appropriate, stable, and affordable replacement for the natural energies. Therefore, the waste is considered as an available resource to produce energy, which by controlling, its effects on the environment could be minimized. Materials and Methods: To conduct this review article, the scientific data related to the topic were gathered from scientific databases such as Google Scholar, PubMed, Elsevier, Scopus, Springer, Magiran, and SID using waste to energy, Biogas, Incinerator, Landfill, and Pyrolysis as the keywords. In addition, 53 articles were used for this research (from 1993 until 2016). Results: The results indicated that from a technical point of view, according to Iran’s current environment and the properties of the produced waste, most methods mentioned in the study are applicable. However, the important issue is to choose the best technologies with the best functionality in Iran, based on the composition of the municipal solid waste, proved technologies, and the municipal solid waste management strategies. Conclusion: This study recommends construction of incineration plants with an appropriate location for processing municipal, household, and industrial hazardous wastes, as well as energy recovery. In addition, promoting application of household biogas reservoirs in villages and use of pyrolysis for some industries to converse industrial waste into fuel, are further suggested.

The aim of the work was investigation of the effect of the explosive autohydrolysis on lignocellulosic biomass (saving, switchgrass biomass) for consequent use as a substrate to produce biofuels such as butanol. Butanol-producing strains, switchgrass Panicum virgatum L. biomass and its components after autohydrolysis were used in study. The thermobaric pressure pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass was carried out using specially designed equipment. The effect of explosive autohydrolysis on lignocellulosic biomass for further use in producing biofuels using microbial conversion was studied. Components of lignocellulosic biomass were fractionated after undergoing thermobaric treatment. The possibility of using different raw material components after using explosive autohydrolysis processing to produce biobutanol was found. Products of switchgrass biomass autohydrolysis were shown to need further purification before fermentation from furfural formed by thermobaric pretreatment and inhibiting the growth of microorganisms. The ability of strains of the genus Clostridium to use cellulose as a substrate for fermentation was proved. It was found that using explosive autohydrolysis pretreatment to savings allowed boosting the butanol accumulation by 2 times.

Recently, a simple method for the extraction of lipids from wet biomass using liquefied dimethyl ether (DME) without drying, cell disruption, or heating was proposed. Here, the versatility of this method was evaluated for labyrinthula Aurantiochytrium limacinum (A. limacinum). The liquefied DME was passed through the extractor that filled by A. limacinum at different time intervals. The extraction of lipids from A. limacinum of moisture-rich microorganism was successfully achieved, the yield of lipid was 46.1 wt% of the dry weight of the sample. In comparison, the yields of lipid were 21.3 wt%, 43.6 wt% and 50.7 wt% when supercritical carbon dioxide (SCCO 2 ), hexane-Soxhlet and Bligh-Dyer (BD) extraction methods were applied as extractants, respectively. However, the drying and cell-disruption process were required in SCCO 2 , hexane-Soxhlet, and BD extraction methods.

In order to visualize the actual flow inside a diesel injection nozzle at high-pressure injection, a model nozzle which has nozzle hole diameter with real size was made of sapphire. Using the transparent nozzle and three kinds of fuel, the effects of the fuel properties on the internal flow in the nozzle hole were investigated. The spray characteristics were observed by high-speed shadowgraph photography under realistic conditions. As the result, the fuel which 90% distillation temperature and kinematic viscosity are low, amount of cavitation generation is increased. Therefore, the spray atomization and evaporation are promoted., Ⅲ.論文集

Idag pågår en omfattande omställning till förnyelsebara energikällor för att minska negativa effekter orsakade av växthusgaser. Sverige har som mål att vara fossilfritt 2045. Biojetbränsle, jetbränsle framställt från biomassa, är det enda rimliga förnyelsebara alternativet för flyget meddagens teknik. Sverige har goda tillgångar till potentiellt råmaterial för framställning av biojetbränsle från skogsbruket. Fem certifierade framställningsmetoder kartlades och analyserades genom litteraturstudier och intervjuer med experter inom såväl flyg som bränsle för att fastställa deras lämplighet för svensk biojetbränsleproduktion. Förutsättningar, möjligheter, utmaningar och drivkrafter kopplade till framställning av biojetbränsle identifierades. Framställningsmetoderna analyserades med hjälp aven Pugh-matris där framställningsmetoderna jämfördes mot varandra utifrån faktorer som bedömdes relevanta. Analysen indikerade att framställningsmetoderna Alcohol to Jet och Fischer-Tropsch var bäst lämpade för svenska förhållanden, mycket tack vare möjligheten att användaskogsråvara som råmaterial. Certifieringsprocesser och certifierade bränslen identifierades. Nya biojetbränslen måste genomgå en rigorös certifieringsprocess och uppfylla hårda krav för att kunna certifieras enligt standarden ASTM D7566. Certifieringsprocessen för biojetbränslen visade sig vara en internationellt gemensam process, som en koalition av motortillverkare, flygbolag, myndigheter med flera, beslutat skall vara standard för framtagandet av framtida biojetbränslen. Återstående arbete för att kvalificera försvarsmaktens flygplattformar för drift med biojetbränsle därav utreddes. Det konstaterades att tillverkarna av flygfarkoster och motorer avgör huruvida de är godkända för drift med biojetbränsle. Till följd av högre kostnader för framställning av jetbränsle från biomassa än från råolja är tydliga policys och långsiktiga styrmedel en grundläggande förutsättning för att framställning av biojetbränsle ska lyckas. Tillgång till tillräckliga mängder hållbart råmaterial samt effektiva försörjningskedjor är exempel på utmaningar. Möjligheterna för biojetbränsle visade sig exempelvis vara tillvaratagandet av skadad skog. There is an ongoing, extensive move towards renewable energy sources in order to reduce negative effects caused by greenhouse gases. Sweden aims to be completely fossil free by 2045. Bio jet fuel, jet fuel produced from biomass, is the only plausible renewable alternative for aviation with today's technology. Sweden has a good supply of potential feedstock for production of bio jet fuel from its forest industry. Five certified production routes were charted and analysed through literature studies and interviews with experts from the aviation and fuel field. Prerequisites, opportunities, challenges and drivers associated with bio jet fuel production were identified. The production routes were analysed with the help of a Pugh-matrix, they were compared to each other by factors that were deemed relevant. The analysis indicated that the routes Alcohol to Jet and Fischer Tropsch were most suitable for Swedish conditions, in large part due to the possibility of using forest products as feedstock. Certification processes and certified bio jet fuel were identified. New bio jet fuels have go through arigouros certification process and meet high set standards in order to be certified by the standard ASTM D7566. The certification process for bio jet fuels turned out to be an internationally agreed upon process that a coalition of OEM (Original Equipment Manufactures), airlines, authorities etc. agreed upon to be the standard for certification of future bio jet fuel. Which steps are required to approve aircraft in Sweden's armed forces for use with bio jet fuel were investigated. It was found that it is up to the OEM to decide if an aircraft is approved to run on bio jet fuel. Due to higher costs associated with production of jet fuel from biomass than from crude oil, clear policies and long term legislation are fundamental for success. Access too sufficient sustainable feedstock and effective supply chains are example of challenges that need to be addressed. The possibility of using damaged forest that would otherwise go to waste is one opportunity with bio jet fuel production.

This paper investigates online moisture measurement of biofuel employing a strip line cavity resonator at approximately 366 MHz, attached above and below the conveyor belt. An existing sensor design is modified for the factory assembly, and the correct operation has been tested prior to this paper with a small number of measurement points and collected reference samples (n = 67). The purpose is now to concentrate on the accuracy of the measurement and increase the number of measurement points (n = 367). The measurements were made in 5 different lots, and the thickness and moisture properties of the biomaterial mat were varied between minimum and maximum levels by adjusting the settings of the belt filter press that presses pulp slush into a mat. In order to further reduce inaccuracy, at the maximum one standard deviation was allowed from the average height of the equivalent water layer for each dataset, and consequently the number of samples was reduced to 235. A linear fit and a parabola fit were determined for thickness of the equivalent water layer vs. the relative resonant frequency shift: R2 = 0.82 and R2 = 0.78.

In recent years an active growth of renewable energy production in the world has been observed. The peculiarity of our country is the presence of a large number of natural energy resources which put Ukraine among the electricity exporting countries, on the one hand, and the availability of virtually all types of renewable energy production (solar energy, hydropower (large and small), wind, etc.), on the other one. So we made an analysis of possibilities of an introduction the renewal energy from 1% of total energy production we have now to a bigger number and proposes the steps to achieve this goal. Given the statistic and existing situation in energy market, the resource base for renewable energy sources and local fuels is large and sufficient for a significant increase in the energy efficiency and the reliability of Ukraine's energy supply, and can be the basis for the transition to clean energy for the future.

The increasing requirement of food neutral biofuels demands the detection of alternative sources. The use of non-arable land and waste water streams is widely discussed in this regard. A Cyanobacterium was isolated on the area of a possible algae production side near a water treatment plant in the arid desert region al-Wusta. It was identified as Cyanobacterium aponinum PB1 and is a possible lipid source. To determine its suitability of a production process using this organism, a set of laboratory experiments were performed. Its growth behavior was examined in regard to high temperatures and increasing NaCl concentrations. A productivity of 0.1 g L−1 per day was measured at an alga density below 0.75 g L−1. C. aponinum PB1 showed no sign of altered growth behavior in media containing 70 g L−1 NaCl or less. Detection of a negative effect of NaCl on the growth using Pulse-Amplitude-Modulation chlorophyll fluorescence analysis was not more sensitive than optical density measurement.

Biomass is a key resource in a society based on renewable energy, but is a limited resource and the use of biomass in one sector will influence its availability for other sectors. The global energy system is heavily dependent on fossil fuels, and the climate impacts of CO2 occur regardless of the source of emissions. As a result, the climatic effects of biomass use in an energy system depend largely on which biomass feedstock and bioenergy pathway is being used, and what type of fossil fuel pathway is being replaced. In this study, we evaluate the CO2 emissions and climate effects of woody biomass and fossil fuel use. We analyse the potential production of electricity, heat or transport distance when using one kWh of woody biomass and fossil energy system designed to provide the same service to society as the most energy efficient bioenergy systems. The fuel cycle inputs are included in the analyses and are based on different state-of-the art as well as emerging technologies for energy conversion. We quantify the primary energy use and annual CO2 emission of different bioenergy and fossil alternatives. We then calculate the cumulative CO2 emission and climate effects in terms of cumulative radiative forcing for the fossil and bioenergy systems. The results show that primary energy use, CO2 emission, and cumulative radiative forcing vary strongly between the studied alternatives. The use of bioelectricity and electric vehicles instead of biomotor fuel-based vehicles gives about twice the transport distance per unit of consumed woody biomass. Integrated energy systems that supply a package of energy services including electricity, heat and transport distance reduce the primary energy use and increase the climate benefits of woody biomass. The replacement of coal for heat and electricity production by the here studied woody biomass gives large climate benefits immediately.

Cardoon (Cynara cardunculus) is a herbaceous perennial plant in the vegetable, artichoke, wild or garden, which belongs to the Compositae family (Asteraceae Compositae-and more precisely Cynara species) and is grown specifically for the production of biomass (solid bio fuel as a pellet, or solid and liquid bio fuel, bio diesel). In this paper I have tried to highlight the profitability and economic efficiency of growing of this plant. Production capacity exceeding 2 tonnes dry matter/1000mp. The yield depends on climatic conditions, adequate soil moisture, soil nutrients, and range from 1 to 3 t/1000mp, dry. Cardoon seed contains on average 24% oil (category: 19-32%), with the same qualities as the sunflower. Quantity of seed production to 480 kgs/1000mp, while ordinary productivities range 70 to 330 kg/1000mp, always depending on the total biomass production. Growing cardooncan replace traditional crops, partly by ensuring a good profit for the farmer (double the wheat and rapeseed) and bio fuel production with high energy content. Solid bio fuels (pellets, briquettes, artichokes, etc.) can reach the enduser, at prices up to 30-40% lower than the price of oil. Because cardoon is a perennial plant which grows once every 10-12 years, and preparing the ground and sowing it will be carried out at intervals so large (this plant is harvested annually),it is remarkable cost reduction efficiency of growing this plant.In addition to the obvious environmental advantages by producing green energy, growing artichokes garden preserves the soil covered for the most part of the year, thereby minimizing the risk of soil erosion and limit the pollution of soil and groundwater with agrochemical products, especially in areas with intensive agriculture, because it does not require additional fertilization and/or with the use of chemical fertilizers or pesticides.

Nowadays the utilization of vegetable oils, particularly the palm oil, as fuel in the power plant, has made a significant development in the last few years. This vegetable oil can be used in particular in slow marine-derived diesel internal combustion engine (ICE), with an electric efficiency of about 40%. The efficiency is connected to the size of the power plant. Moreover, the considerable amount of the required vegetable oil to feed the system forces, especially in Italy, makes it necessary to import the fuel. This is the most critical element as the palm oil is subject to continuous variations in prices. Due to this variation it is difficult to stabilize a convenient fuel supply for a long period. The paper aims to evaluate and estimate the economic, technical and environmental feasibility of a 20 MW plant for the stationary power generation fed with palm oil, enlightening the system solution (technical constructive aspects) and the economic appraisal, on the basis of variations in oil prices. A comparison with a cogenerative power plant has been also carried out and, at last, the economic sensibility analysis based on the fuel cost and the European mechanisms of biomass incentives is performed.

Der Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, der Zwischenstaatliche Ausschuss f��r Klima��nderungen) zeichnet in seinem j��ngsten Synthesebericht ein d��steres Bild der kommenden Jahre, wenn die aktuellen Treibhausgas-Emissionswerte nicht reduziert werden. Die Hauptursache f��r die steigenden CO2 Emissionen fossiler Brennstoffe stellt der Verkehrssektor dar. Das Wachstum des Biokraftstoffsektors beruht auf dieser Pr��misse. Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) ist ein Raffinerieprozess, der zur Herstellung von Biokraftstoffen verwendet werden kann. Die Technische Universit��t Wien hat eine voll kontinuierliche FCC Pilotanlage mit einer kompakten Bauweise etabliert, die verwendet werden kann, um verschiedene Rohstoffe vergleichbar zum Industriema��tab zu verarbeiten. Die vorliegende Studie untersuchte das Cracken von Pflanzen��len. Das Ziel dieser Studie war einerseits das Cracken von Pflanzen��len bei niedrigen Temperaturen und andererseits der Vergleich der f��r Palm��l und Soja��l erhaltenen Produktspektren. Der erster Teil dieser Studie ist einzigartig, da das katalytische Cracken bei so niedrigen Temperaturen in der Pilotanlage noch nie durchgef��hrt wurde. Die Auswahl der beiden Pflanzen��le wurde von ihrer Struktur und ihrem Marktanteil beeinflusst. Palm��l besteht hauptsachlich aus ges��ttigten Fetts��uren (50%), Soja��l aus mehrfach unges��ttigten Fetts��uren (61%). Die zwei Pflanzen��le haben einen Marktanteil von etwa 65% der gesamten Pflanzen��l-Produktion. Die Verarbeitungstemperaturen lagen im Bereich von 430 bis 550��C. Der Grad der Unges��ttigtheit hatt einen signifikanten Einfluss auf das Produktspektrum. Bei einem h��heren Grad treten sekund��re Umwandlungsprozess verst��rkt auf. Beide ��le zeigten gute Gesamtkonversionsraten mit einer optimalen Benzin Ausbeute bei etwa 515��C. Das erhaltene Benzin ist qualitativ hochwertig mit Oktanzahlen (ROZ) von ca. 100 und ohne sauerstoffhaltige Verbindungen. Ebenso konnte auch ein hoher Anteil an den wirtschaftlich bedeutenden gasf��rmigen Olefinen erzielt werden. Zus��tzlich wurde der Anteil von Light Cycle Oil (LCO) bei niedrigen Temperaturen maximiert., The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its latest synthesis report paints a gloomy picture of the years ahead if the current greenhouse gas emission levels are not arrested. The major contributor to the rising emissions is fossil fuels with the transport sector being the major driver of spiralling C02 emissions. It is on this premise that the growth of the biofuels sector is thus based. Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) is a refinery process that can be employed to produce biofuels. Vienna University of Technology has established a fully continuous FCC pilot plant with a compact design that can be used to process various feedstocks at a comparable industrial level. This present study investigated the cracking of vegetable oils. The gist of this study was twofold: The first was the cracking of vegetable oils at low temperatures and second to compare the product spectrums obtained when palm oil and soybean oil are cracked. The former makes this study stand out since catalytic cracking at low temperatures has not been performed before in the pilot plant. Selection of the two vegetable oils was based on their structure and market share. Palm oil is composed majorly of saturated fatty acids (50%) whilst soybean oil of polyunsaturated fatty acids (61%). Together, the two vegetable oils command a market share of about 65% of the total vegetable oils production. The processing temperatures ranged from 430 - 550��C (Standard FCC). An effect of the unsaturation content on the product spectrum was observed with a higher unsaturation content increasing the effect of secondary transformations. Both oils showed good conversion yields with gasoline posting an optimum output at around 515��C. The gasoline also recorded high octane numbers (RON circa 100) with no oxygenates present. A substantial amount of economically viable olefin gases was also yielded. In addition Light Cycle Oil (LCO) was maximized at low temperatures.

According to different scenarios, the consumption of lignocellulosic raw material leading to competition is increasing for raw material for use in the board industry, the energy conversion industry, and the pulp and paper industry. The primary production of lignocellulosic raw material in some regions may therefore reach the limit of sustainability, and this means that the lignocellulosic raw material must be used more effective to reduce the risk of a shortage. The physical and chemical properties of the lignocellulosic raw material of selected species have therefore been surveyed and the raw material properties which are important for each of the three competitors have been defined. A comparison between the properties of the various lignocellulosicraw materials and the requirements of the competitors for their products shows which raw materials face a high competition and which raw materials may open new opportunities, and at the same time lower competition because of their extraordinary properties. The aim of the study is to characterise the lignocellulosic raw materials according to the three competing users and to showwhether these is high or low competition. This is done by studying the restrictions found in the literature in combination with a statistical analysis. This method leads to results showing that the highest competition is for the coniferous species, while the properties of monocotyledons differ greatly from the properties of wooden species resulting in low competition. Wood species grown in short rotation plantations show a high potential for all uses and not only for energy purposes. Godkänd; 2014; 20140728 (dicsan)

O objetivo da presente pesquisa foi avaliar a influência de três condições de cultivo (CC) no teor de óleo em sementes de sete cultivares de mamona (M). O experimento foi realizado na Universidade Estadual de Mato Grosso do Sul, Aquidauana-MS, nos anos agrícolas 2010/2011 e 2011/2012. Os tratamentos foram constituídos pela combinação de sete cultivares de mamona: BRS Energia, IAC-2028, IAC-Guarani, BRS Nordestina, BRS Paraguaçu, IAC-80 e IAC-226, submetidas a três CC: com o controle de plantas daninhas (CPD) e sem adubação de cobertura com nitrogênio (N); sem CPD e sem adubação de cobertura com N; e com CPD e adubação de cobertura com 80 kg ha-1 de N. O delineamento estatístico utilizado foi o de blocos ao acaso, em esquema fatorial, com quatro repetições, onde foram analisadas as interações entre MxCC. As CC avaliadas não influenciaram no teor de óleo, onde a interação MxCC não foi significativa. Contudo as cultivares BRS Nordestina, IAC-2028 e IAC-Guarani apresentaram os maiores teores, durante os dois anos agrícolas., Revista de Ciências Agrárias, vol. 36 n.º 3 (2013)

By 2030, the United States will consume over 300 million tons of forest and agricultural feedstocks for energy production. The supply chain necessary to provide unprecedented quantities of new “bioenergy crops,” however, is fraught with uncertainty. The vertically integrated model currently used by the nascent sector may have limited opportunity for expansion to meet renewable energy mandates. A hybrid structure is likely to emerge as the industry evolves, in which end-users closely cooperate with a large number of heterogeneous producers through long-term contracting rather than as direct owners or operators of biomass farms. This “vertically coordinated” industry model is dependent on a series of biomass supply contracts between end-user and farmer. The “take it or leave it” production contracts offered by end-users represent the archetypal cost- and risk-minimization perspectives common in the fossil fuel-based energy context (e.g., petroleum, coal). These initial offerings lack many of the considerations provided in agricultural-based contracting and are unlikely to engender the level of dedicated energy biomass cultivation needed to meet renewable energy mandates. In response, we propose an alternative Biomass Contract Framework, which incorporates three separate theoretical approaches to contract design with the objective of removing barriers to entry into the market. Incorporating a socioeconomic perspective into the more familiar risk- and cost-minimizing approaches found in contract theory literature will enhance producer ability to maintain existing social networks, while minimizing farmer disincentives to enter into production contracts for novel biomass crops. Our Framework also recognizes end-users’ needs to meet emerging environmental sustainability requirements, even perhaps facilitating “shed-level” coordination.

Termisk behandling av biomasse for produksjon av biodrivstoff og biokull antas å være en strategi med stort potensial som klimatiltak. Det er stort behov for kunnskap om kostnader ved slik produksjon og mulighet til utnyttelse av biokull og pyrolyseolje med tanke på størst mulig klimaeffekt. Denne rapporten er finansiert av Klima og forurensingsdirektoratet (Klif) og gir en oppdatering av kunnskapsstatus om lovende termiske prosesser som produserer 2.generasjons biodrivstoff.

Dagens transportsektor är beroende utav fossila drivmedel. Detta är problematiskt eftersom fossila bränslen är en ändlig resurs samtidigt som användningen utav dessa bidrar till den förstärkta växthuseffekten. Enligt EU:s klimatmål ska utsläppen av växthusgaser reduceras med 20 procent till år 2020. Handeln med utsläppsrätter, som flygsektorn inkluderas i från och med år 2012, har införts som ett styrmedel som skall verka för att företag ska minska sina utsläpp. Flygföretag kommer härigenom att ha ökade incitament att blanda in en viss procenthalt biojetbränsle i det fossila jetbränslet. Mycket forskning och utveckling pågår kring framtagandet av andra generationens biodrivmedel, till vilka algbaserat biodrivmedel räknas. Algbaserat biodrivmedel tros ha god framtidspotential då alger kan odlas på mark som ej är lämplig för matodling, har en hög tillväxttakt, högt oljeinnehåll samt förmågan att ta upp koldioxid från sin omgivning. Syftet med denna rapport var därmed att skapa en bred bild kring möjligheterna att med ekonomisk vinning producera algbaserat biodrivmedel för flyg i Sverige, vilken kan ligga till grund för vidare forskning på området. Målet var att utföra en lönsamhetsanalys för en produktionsprocess med lämpligt vald odlingsanläggning, algart, skördeteknik, vattenavskiljningsteknik samt teknik för vidare förädlingsprocesser. Detta efter att marknaden först, med hjälp av Porters femkraftsmodell, hade bedömts som lämplig att gå in på. Valen fattades med utgångspunkt i en litteraturstudie baserad på intervjuer, faktasökning i rapportdatabaser och i sökmotorer på Internet samt ett studiebesök på Käppala reningsverk. Valen kring produktionsanläggningen samt projektets uppskattade kostnader och intäkter motiverades i en fallstudie som sedan låg till grund för modellen. I modellen beräknades ett konkurrenskraftigt pris på biojetbränsle utifrån kostnaden för fossilt jetbränsle plus detta fossilbränsles relaterade utsläppsrättskostnad vid år 2020. Utifrån modellens huvudscenario uppskattades på så vis det konkurrenskraftiga priset år 2020 till 7,2 kronor per liter. För odling valdes öppna raceway-dammar i anslutning till ett reningsverk där det finns fri tillgång på näringsämnen och koldioxid. Algarten Chlorella Vulgaris valdes då den lämpar sig väl för denna odlingsanläggning. Produktionen beräknades uppnå en volym av 60 400 liter färdigt biojetbränsle per odlingssäsong (juni till september). Den årliga intäkten för huvudscenariot blev 455 100 kronor per år, medräknat det reningsverket antas betala för den koldioxidminskning algodlingen medför. Genom att alternera råoljepriset och utsläppsrättspriset togs fyra grundscenarion fram. Det utgicks ifrån att anläggningen tas i bruk år 2017 och en resultaträkning för en sjuårsperiod utfördes utifrån den årliga intäkten, framräknad grundinvestering och framräknade driftskostnader. Det årliga resultatet visade sig vara negativt eller strax över noll för samtliga fyra scenarion samt för huvudscenariot. Först vid ett försäljningspris på 10,8 kronor per liter blev projektet lönsamt med ett positivt nuvärde beräknat på sju år och en internränta på 15 procent. Återbetalningstiden beräknades till max fyra år. Huruvida ett premiumpris på 10,8 kronor per liter, flera kronor högre än det som ansågs vara konkurrenskraftigt, är möjligt att ta betalt för det algbaserade biojetbränslet är osäkert. Utifrån uppskattad kostnads- och intäktsbild är dock detta ett måste för att produktionen skall vara lönsam. I annat fall krävs externa förändringar såsom exempelvis kraftigt höjda råoljepriser, forskningsframsteg och effektiviseringar för framställningen av algbiodrivmedel eller att ytterligare politiska styrmedel gynnar biodrivmedel. Miljökostnader och miljövinster med en algbaserad biodrivmedelsproduktion samt förslag på ytterligare effektivisering av produktionen är vidare forskningsområden som denna rapport ämnar ligga till grund för. Today’s transportation sector is in a path dependency of the using of fossil fuel. This is problematic since there are limited oil sources in the world and since the use of fossil fuels increases the green house effects. According to EU’s climate goals the emissions of green house gases should be reduced by 20 percent by year 2020. The European emission trading system, which the airline industry will be a part of from 2012, raises the incentives for companies to lower their emissions. Airline companies will therefore be more likely to add a certain percentage of biofuels into their aircraft engines. A lot of research and development is currently being made about the second generation of biofuel. One raw material for a second generation biofuel is algae, which is believed to have great potential due to the fact that it can be cultured on marginal land, fast growth rate, high oil content and consumes carbon dioxide while growing. The aim with this report was to create a picture of the opportunities in Sweden to economically feasible produce algae biofuel for aircraft, from which continuous research can be made. The goal was to create an evaluation of whether it is profitable or not to have a production with carefully chosen growth facility, algae specie, harvest method, drying method and other refining steps. The market was first evaluated and found to be attractive, using the model of Porter’s five forces. Different decisions regarding the production was made based on interviews, information found in report databases and search engines online and based on the study visit at Käppala wastewater treatment plant. These decisions and the costs they are associated with were later used in the model. A competitive bio jet fuel price year 2020 is regarded to be the price on fossil jet fuel plus the cost for the related certificate of emission cost. In the model’s main scenario the competitive liter price year 2020 was calculated to be 7.2 Swedish kronor. The growth facility was designed as an open raceway pond integrated in a wastewater treatment plant, since the wastewater contains nutrition and carbon dioxide used in the algae photosynthesis. The algae specie chosen was Chlorella Vulgaris. The production will run every year from June to September and the produced volume is estimated 60 400 liters of bio jet fuel each production season. The yearly sales in the main scenario, including the money the wastewater treatment is paying for lowered carbon dioxide emissions, are estimated at 455 100 Swedish kronor. By altering the price of fossil fuel and of emission trading certificates four different scenarios were created. The production will begin in 2017 and the result was calculated for the first seven years based on the yearly income and the estimated start-up costs and running costs. The result turned out to be negative or just above zero for all four scenarios. The project was profitable at the price 10.8 Swedish kronor per liter with a positive net current value over seven years and internal rate of return at 15 percent. The payback time was calculated to be four years at the most. Whether or not it is possible to charge 10.8 Swedish kronor per liter is not certain. However, this is the price needed in order for the project to be profitable. Otherwise external changes are needed such as increased raw oil prices, successful research and development in the field of algae bio fuel production or increased political incentives in favor of bio fuels. Environmental costs and environmental gains with an algae fuel production as well as proposals for further efficiency are suggestions on further work that need to be done on this field.

The utilization of vegetable oils, and in particular the palm oil, as fuel in the power generation has had a remarkable development in the last few years. Generally the vegetable oil can be used with a particular marine-derived diesel ICE, with low rpm and an electric conversion efficiency of about 40%. The efficiency is strictly connected to the size of the plant. Moreover, the considerable amount of the required vegetable oil to feed the system forces to import the fuel. This is one of the most critical elements as the palm oil is subject to continuous and wide variations in prices. Due to this variation it is difficult to obtain a stable and convenient fuel supply over a long period of time. The present work is aimed at evaluating and estimating the economic, technical and environmental feasibility of a 20 MW plant for the stationary power generation fed with palm oil, enlightening the system solution (technical constructive aspects) and the economic appraisal, on the basis of variations in oil prices. Finally, the economic sensibility analysis based on the fuel cost and the European mechanisms of biomass incentives.

Energimyndigheten har från Regeringen blivit tilldelad 100 miljoner kronor att fördela som investeringsstöd för att främja en effektiv och utökad produktion, distribution samt användning av förnybara gaser såsom biogas. Myndigheten har samtidigt fått i uppdrag att utveckla en sektorsövergripande biogasstrategi och föreslå åtgärder som på kort och lång sikt kan bidra till ökad användning av biogas. Denna strategi ska också tjäna som ett underlag för fördelning av olika former av stöd inom sektorn. Syftet med detta examensarbete är att sammanställa information som kan bidra som underlag vid upprättandet av den sektorsövergripande biogasstrategin. Ett annat syfte är att bidra med underlag för Energimyndighetens bedömning av var ett investeringsstöd kan ge störst effekt för den fortsatta utvecklingen inom biogasområdet. Detta stöd avser den senaste, ovan nämnda, utlysning som Energimyndigheten gjort inom området. Examensrapporten innehåller bland annat en sammanställning av gjorda insatser inom forskningsområdet biogas de senaste åren, finansierat av framför allt Energimyndigheten, men även en inblick i vilka biogassatsningar som är gjorda av andra nationella aktörer. Ett antal personer från bland annat branschorganisationer har intervjuats för att ta del av deras syn på den framtida biogasmarknaden, vilka satsningar som bör göras och vilka hinder som har störst inverkan. Organisationerna är valda utifrån kriteriet att de ska representera olika delar av biogasbranschen och att olika synvinklar därigenom ska framkomma. Rapporten innehåller slutsatser som dragits av tidigare biogassatsningar hos Energimyndigheten och identifiering av biogasområden där det föreligger stort behov av framtida satsningar för utökad produktion, distribution och användning. Ett område som i detta examensarbete har identifierats ha stort behov av framtida biogassatsningar är bland annat framtagande av alternativa rötningssubstrat, eftersom mängden tillgängligt substrat nuläget inte är tillräcklig. Detta utgör idag en begränsning för biogasproduktionen. Det bör även satsas mer på förbehandling av substrat innan rötning, vilket ökar gasproduktionen och förbättrar substratutnyttjandet i större utsträckning. Mer satsningar behövs också kring hur biogasprocessens slutprodukt, rötresten, kan bli en mer attraktiv produkt så att återcirkulering av växtnäring kan ske i större grad genom rötrestspridning på åkermark. Detta är av stor vikt eftersom en ökad volym rötningssubstrat ger upphov till större mängd rötrester som ska hanteras. Andra områden som är i behov av framtida stöd är utveckling av befintliga anläggningar för att öka och effektivisera produktionen. För att optimera processerna bör framför allt mer medel satsas på kunskapsuppbyggnad och spridning av den vetenskap som finns tillgänglig. Att länka samman universitet, högskolor och naturbruksgymnasium med anläggningar i drift kan vara det mest effektiva sättet att nå ut med relevant information och kunskap. Ur ett samhällsekonomiskt perspektiv bör mer medel läggas på att öka gödselrötning då detta minskar metanläckage. Swedish Energy Agency has been allocated SEK 100 million from the government to distribute as investment grant to promote efficient and expanded production, distribution and use of renewable gases such as biogas. The Agency has also been given the task to develop a multidisciplinary strategy for biogas and propose measures which can contribute to increased use of biogas in the short and long term. This strategy will also serve as a basis for the allocation of various forms of support in the biogas sector. The purpose of this study is to compile information which can be used as input for the establishment of the multidisciplinary strategy for biogas. Another purpose is to provide information to support the Swedish Energy Agency in the assessment of which areas an investment grant will have the greatest impact for the future development of biogas. This grant refers to the latest call of Swedish Energy Agency in the sector. This report includes a summary of what areas grants have been given for research of biogas in recent years, mainly financed by the Swedish Energy Agency, but also an insight into efforts made by other national operators. A number of people from professional biogas organizations have been interviewed to share their views on the future biogas market. Which efforts should be made and the main obstacles to be overcome are other questions discussed. The report contains conclusions from the experience of previous support from the Swedish Energy Agency as well as identification of areas in which there is great need for future efforts in order to expand the production, distribution and use of biogas. Some areas which have been identified in this thesis for need of future efforts in the biogas sector is for example the development of alternative substrates for anaerobic digestion, because the amount of available substrate is at present not sufficient. This is currently a limitation for the biogas production. There is also a need to further develop the pre-treatment of the substrate before digestion, in order to increase the gas production and improve substrate utilization to a greater extent. More focus are also needed on how the end product from the biogas process, the digestion residues, can become a more attractive product to the recycling of plant nutrients by use as a bio fertilizer on farmland. This is of great importance because larger volume of digestion will result in greater volume of digestion residues to be managed. Other areas in need of future investments are the development of existing facilities to increase and optimize the production. In order to optimize the production processes, more resources should be devoted to capacity building and dissemination of the available knowledge. Linking universities and colleges together with operating biogas plants could be the most effective way to reach out with relevant information and knowledge. From a socioeconomic perspective more resources should be spent on increasing the volume of manure digestion then it is today, which also will result in reduced methane leaks.

Energimyndigheten har från Regeringen blivit tilldelad 100 miljoner kronor att fördela som investeringsstöd för att främja en effektiv och utökad produktion, distribution samt användning av förnybara gaser såsom biogas. Myndigheten har samtidigt fått i uppdrag att utveckla en sektorsövergripande biogasstrategi och föreslå åtgärder som på kort och lång sikt kan bidra till ökad användning av biogas. Denna strategi ska också tjäna som ett underlag för fördelning av olika former av stöd inom sektorn. Syftet med detta examensarbete är att sammanställa information som kan bidra som underlag vid upprättandet av den sektorsövergripande biogasstrategin. Ett annat syfte är att bidra med underlag för Energimyndighetens bedömning av var ett investeringsstöd kan ge störst effekt för den fortsatta utvecklingen inom biogasområdet. Detta stöd avser den senaste, ovan nämnda, utlysning som Energimyndigheten gjort inom området. Examensrapporten innehåller bland annat en sammanställning av gjorda insatser inom forskningsområdet biogas de senaste åren, finansierat av framför allt Energimyndigheten, men även en inblick i vilka biogassatsningar som är gjorda av andra nationella aktörer. Ett antal personer från bland annat branschorganisationer har intervjuats för att ta del av deras syn på den framtida biogasmarknaden, vilka satsningar som bör göras och vilka hinder som har störst inverkan. Organisationerna är valda utifrån kriteriet att de ska representera olika delar av biogasbranschen och att olika synvinklar därigenom ska framkomma. Rapporten innehåller slutsatser som dragits av tidigare biogassatsningar hos Energimyndigheten och identifiering av biogasområden där det föreligger stort behov av framtida satsningar för utökad produktion, distribution och användning. Ett område som i detta examensarbete har identifierats ha stort behov av framtida biogassatsningar är bland annat framtagande av alternativa rötningssubstrat, eftersom mängden tillgängligt substrat nuläget inte är tillräcklig. Detta utgör idag en begränsning för biogasproduktionen. Det bör även satsas mer på förbehandling av substrat innan rötning, vilket ökar gasproduktionen och förbättrar substratutnyttjandet i större utsträckning. Mer satsningar behövs också kring hur biogasprocessens slutprodukt, rötresten, kan bli en mer attraktiv produkt så att återcirkulering av växtnäring kan ske i större grad genom rötrestspridning på åkermark. Detta är av stor vikt eftersom en ökad volym rötningssubstrat ger upphov till större mängd rötrester som ska hanteras. Andra områden som är i behov av framtida stöd är utveckling av befintliga anläggningar för att öka och effektivisera produktionen. För att optimera processerna bör framför allt mer medel satsas på kunskapsuppbyggnad och spridning av den vetenskap som finns tillgänglig. Att länka samman universitet, högskolor och naturbruksgymnasium med anläggningar i drift kan vara det mest effektiva sättet att nå ut med relevant information och kunskap. Ur ett samhällsekonomiskt perspektiv bör mer medel läggas på att öka gödselrötning då detta minskar metanläckage. Swedish Energy Agency has been allocated SEK 100 million from the government to distribute as investment grant to promote efficient and expanded production, distribution and use of renewable gases such as biogas. The Agency has also been given the task to develop a multidisciplinary strategy for biogas and propose measures which can contribute to increased use of biogas in the short and long term. This strategy will also serve as a basis for the allocation of various forms of support in the biogas sector. The purpose of this study is to compile information which can be used as input for the establishment of the multidisciplinary strategy for biogas. Another purpose is to provide information to support the Swedish Energy Agency in the assessment of which areas an investment grant will have the greatest impact for the future development of biogas. This grant refers to the latest call of Swedish Energy Agency in the sector. This report includes a summary of what areas grants have been given for research of biogas in recent years, mainly financed by the Swedish Energy Agency, but also an insight into efforts made by other national operators. A number of people from professional biogas organizations have been interviewed to share their views on the future biogas market. Which efforts should be made and the main obstacles to be overcome are other questions discussed. The report contains conclusions from the experience of previous support from the Swedish Energy Agency as well as identification of areas in which there is great need for future efforts in order to expand the production, distribution and use of biogas. Some areas which have been identified in this thesis for need of future efforts in the biogas sector is for example the development of alternative substrates for anaerobic digestion, because the amount of available substrate is at present not sufficient. This is currently a limitation for the biogas production. There is also a need to further develop the pre-treatment of the substrate before digestion, in order to increase the gas production and improve substrate utilization to a greater extent. More focus are also needed on how the end product from the biogas process, the digestion residues, can become a more attractive product to the recycling of plant nutrients by use as a bio fertilizer on farmland. This is of great importance because larger volume of digestion will result in greater volume of digestion residues to be managed. Other areas in need of future investments are the development of existing facilities to increase and optimize the production. In order to optimize the production processes, more resources should be devoted to capacity building and dissemination of the available knowledge. Linking universities and colleges together with operating biogas plants could be the most effective way to reach out with relevant information and knowledge. From a socioeconomic perspective more resources should be spent on increasing the volume of manure digestion then it is today, which also will result in reduced methane leaks.

Impacts of the French bio-fuel policy on the French arable crop sub-sector. The paper provides an analysis of the impacts of the bio fuel policy on the French arable crop sub-sector. The model used is a bio fuel supply model composed of an agricultural module and an industrial bio fuel-processing module. Our results show that the incorporation target of 7% of bio fuels in transport fuels would lead to a considerable increase in the rapeseed area. In the main producing regions, the rapeseed area would reach approximately a third of the total farmed area. It would not be possible to reach a 10% incorporation target without imports. Furthermore, we analyse the impacts of reaching these production levels on the rapeseed opportunity costs, and show that reaching the incorporation targets will need an increase in rapeseed prices paid to farmers. We calculate the impacts of this opportunity cost increase on the competitiveness of bio fuels with respect to fossil oil, for different levels of oil prices., Le papier analyse les conséquences de la politique de développement des biocarburants sur la production française de grandes cultures. Les simulations sont conduites à l'aide d'un modèle d'offre de biocarburants, construit à partir de modèles micro-économiques d'exploitations et d'un module de transformation des matières premières agricoles en biocarburants. Nous montrons qu'un objectif d'incorporation de 7 % de biocarburants dans les carburants utilisés dans les transports routiers, s'il devait se réaliser sur la base d'une production agricole française sans réduire les exportations, conduirait à une croissance très importante de la superficie en colza, qui couvrirait alors, dans les principales régions de production, près de 30 % des superficies cultivées. Une incorporation de 10 % ne pourrait pas être atteinte sur la base d'une production nationale. Nous montrons également que le coût d'opportunité du colza augmenterait avec la demande et nous calculons les seuils de compétitivité du biodiesel par rapport au gazole, pour différents niveaux de prix du pétrole., Guindé Loic, Jacquet Florence, Millet Guy. Impacts du développement des biocarburants sur la production française de grandes cultures.. In: Revue d’études en Agriculture et Environnement, N°89, 2008-4. pp. 55-81.

The thesis describes a completely new biofuel system to generate particle-free heat from combustion of ash-containing biofuel particles at high temperatures. The suggested system gives opportunities to introduce biofuels in new areas. Main components in the suggested system is a heat radiating combustion chamber intended for pulverized wood, combined with regenerators to extract heat from flue gases and simultaneously preheating the combustion air. The thesis contains a description of the suggested system, theoretical considerations, calculations regarding the combustion, and includes results from tests performed. The results from calculations and tests performed concludes that the system is workable and possible to apply. Uppsatsen beskriver ett helt nytt system för att åstadkomma partikelfri värme och höga temperaturer från biobränslen. Det föreslagna systemet ger goda möjligheter att använda biobränslen inom helt nya områden. Systemet består huvudsakligen av en brännkammare för träpulver, utförd som en hålrumsstrålare, samt regenerativa värmeväxlare mellan avgående rökgas och inkommande förbränningsluft. Uppsatsen innehåller en beskrivning av det föreslagna systemet, teoretiska överväganden, beräkningar rörande förbränningen, samt redovisar resultat från gjorda försök. Resultat från beräkningar och genomförda försök visar att det föreslagna systemet fungerar och är praktiskt möjligt att tillämpa.

At the beginning of the 20th century the pulp industry in Sweden faced major problems with waste. Pine and spruce contain at the best 40 % cellulose. The remainder was released into the air and water, causing major environmental problems. In 1909 two Swedish engineers patented a method to ferment sulphite lye into alcohol. Apart for consumption, the alcohol could be used as fuel. The rest of the lye, reduced of it’s saccariferous contents, was expected to become the basis of a new chemical industry, producing dyestuffs etc. Within two years three sulphite alcohol factories were established in Sweden and the method was also used in other countries. There was just one problem. In Sweden, ever since the beginning of the 17th century, the production of liquor had been intensely regulated by the state. And the law concerning the production was adapted to agrarian interests, producing alcohol from products like corn or potatoes. Organized temperance and the agrarians acted against the pulp producers and argued that it’s better to use “natural” products instead of dirty lye. Then came the First World War and the import of petrol decreased. At the same time food supply became critical. It seemed unreasonable to produce alcohol out of food, but reasonable to compensate the lack of petrol with sulphite alcohol- The number of plants producing sulphite alcohol grew rapidly and an industry producing car engines fuelled by sulphite alcohol was emerging. This came to an end after the war when the price of imported petrol gave sulphite alcohol problems to compete and agrarian and temperance interests once again acted against the production. But the story was repeated during the Second World War and is also of contemporary interest since many countries and companies are trying to substitute oil for ethanol, bio-alcohol