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Upoważnienie aplikanta do zastępstwa funkcjonuje od dawna. Jako że ma charakter tylko albo aż upoważnienia korporacyjnego, stąd też na tym tle jest ono różnie postrzegane. Do tego dochodzą dylematy w zakresie pełnienia przez profesjonalnego pełnomocnika funkcji kuratora, a także kwestia udzielenia upoważnienia do zastępstwa dla aplikanta czy nawet substytucji procesowej dla innego profesjonalnego pełnomocnika w osobie adwokata lub radcy prawnego. Wielość wątków z uwagi na szerokie spektrum aktywności aplikanta, co wiązać należy z odbywaną przez niego aplikacją adwokacką albo radcowską, pociąga za sobą konieczność umiejscowienia go w szeroko rozumianym wymiarze sprawiedliwości jako osoby quasi-funkcyjnej. W literaturze przedmiotu oraz judykaturze w tym zakresie nie ma zgody co do wszystkich kwestii z tym związanych, tzn. układów procesowych, w jakich mógłby on zastąpić swego profesjonalnego mocodawcę. Regulacja prawna powinna w tej kwestii być jednoznaczna i nie zostawiać pola na indywidualną wykładnię sądową. Wszystko zatem, co dla „liniowego” adwokata lub radcy prawnego, jak również aplikanta, stanowi nie lada problem i dylemat procesowy w zakresie m.in. powyższych kwestii, dla osób niewykonujących tego zawodu może być jedynie zagadnieniem wtórnym wymagającym rozstrzygnięcia jednoznacznego, tj. normatywnego, poczynionego nie w drodze wykładni sądowej i poglądów doktryny, ale powszechnie obowiązującej normy prawnej, The trainee representative mandate has been in place for a long time. However, as it is simply a corporate mandate, it is viewed differently in this context. This is further complicated by the question of a professional representative acting as a guardian ad litem, as well as the question of granting authorisation for a trainee for representation or even a substitution in litigation court proceedings for another professional representative, such as an advocate or attorney-at-law. The wide range of aspects associated with the trainee’s practice, linked to the trainee’s legal training as an advocate or attorney-at-law, means that the trainee must be considered as a quasifunctional person in the justice system as a whole. There is a lack of agreement in the literature and among legal professionals on all the issues involved, such as the procedural arrangements in which the trainee may act in place of their professional principal. The legal regulation should be unambiguous in this regard and not open to individual judicial interpretation. Therefore, any significant problems or procedural dilemmas that may arise for a “front-line” advocate or attorney-at-law, as well as a trainee, concerning, inter alia, the aforementioned issues, may only be considered a secondary issue for non-practitioners, and requires a clear, normative resolution, not made through judicial interpretation or jurisprudential doctrine, but rather through a universally applicable legal norm

Free-of-charge legal assistance remains one of the key areas of state activity. However, the system created is not optimal and its formal, organisational and financial framework needs to be modified. This concerns not only an increase in the amounts of funding, but also the quality of services provided. Not only is the choice of the legal and organisational model of providing legal assistance doubtful, but also the subjective and objective scope of the statutory regulations (including in the context of interpretation of tax regulations) raise some objections. As a postulate for the law as it should stand de lege ferenda), it is proposed to make appropriate legislative changes, aimed not only at clarifying the content of the provisions, or removing the legislative inconsistencies found, but also at thoroughly considering a remodelling of the legal assistance system in Poland. The above conclusions were formulated against the backdrop of the organisational and financial legal solutions adopted in other countries. To this end, the author used the formal-dogmatic and comparative legal methods, and also resorted to the historical method as an auxiliary method, in order to show the evolution of the institution under analysis.

В статье рассматриваются особенности деятельности адвокатуры как института гражданского общества в Российской Федерации и Западной Европе, а именно во Франции и в Германии. Анализируется современное правовое положение адвокатуры в гражданском обществе., The article examines the features of the bar as an institution of civil society in the Russian Federation and Western Europe, namely France and Germany. The article analyzes the current legal status of the legal profession in civil society.

The diploma thesis deals with the institute of compulsory representation in a civil dispute. That is, a situation where the parties to such a dispute must be represented by an attorney-at- law. The diploma thesis provides a comprehensive review of this institute and its regulation de lege lata including excursions to the regulation of compulsory representation outside civil procedure. It further compares it to the historical regulation of compulsory representation in the territory of present Czech Republic and with foreign legislation as well, specifically with the regulation of compulsory representation in Austrian, German and Slovak procedural codes. The diploma thesis emphasizes the regulation of mandatory representation de lege ferenda. Aside from considering individual aspects of possible future regulation and the general benefit or, on the other hand, the disadvantages of introducing compulsory representation, it compares it both to the draft Act on collective proceeding and to the Substantive Intent of the Civil Procedure Code. Although one of the proposals is already under legislative process (as of the date of concluding the manuscript of this diploma thesis) and the other is more of a set of basic theses for further discussion, both proposals introduce mandatory representation into Czech civil...

The present thesis addresses the issue of obtaining and gathering information in criminal proceedings which is subject to attorney-client privilege, and its subsequent use in criminal proceedings. The issue is rather complex, as de lege lata there is no comprehensive legal regulation addressing it in a satisfactory manner. The objective of the thesis is to find legally correct and fair solutions in respect of the protection of the attorney-client privilege, on the one hand, and the societal need to obtain and gather evidence effectively for the purposes of criminal proceedings, on the other hand. The thesis provides a general description of the attorney-client privilege and legal assistance, on which the attorney-client privilege is based, and it also contains specific application problems encountered in connection with the use of means of obtaining evidence and gathering criminal intelligence pursuant to the Criminal Procedure Code. Such application problems are dealt with using methods of analysis, synthesis, analogy, comparison, with the results being generalized. Last but not least, the thesis provides an outline and comparison of the relation between the attorney-client privilege and other professional privileges, focussing on the options of obtaining different types of information. The author...

The thesis "Limitations of professional liability in relation to the professions of auditor, tax adviser and accountant with regard to the duty of confidentiality" focuses on a more detailed elaboration of the selected specific segment of professional liability of the given professions, on the legal and ethical obligations in the field of confidentiality and the possibility of its breaking. The introductory part of the thesis deals with confidentiality in terms of historical development and its importance in the present. Further, it outlines the area of moral and ethical responsibility, legal liability in general, and confidentiality as a specific duty. The concept of confidentiality of the professions of auditors, tax advisers and accountants represents the core of the presented work. The duty of confidentiality of the profession of auditors is significantly influenced by the public interest in the presented information in the form of opinion on the financial statements of the audited entities, and thus the possibilities of the legally supported breaking of this obligation are the most extensive, as evidenced by the amendment to the Act on Auditors, effective from 1 October 2016. The duty of confidentiality of the tax adviser has until recently been strictly defined on a legal basis. The change was brought by the Supreme Court's case law in November 2015, which by comparing the principally equivalent conditions for the exercise of legal liability in the area of confidentiality of the tax adviser and attorney, also deduces the similarities of competencies of both professions in cases of breaking the confidentiality. The accounting profession is not regulated by law, and therefore the confidentiality obligation is also not legally enforceable. However, professional certified accountants are required to comply with the Code of Conduct issued by the Professional Chamber. The final part of the thesis focuses on comparing the duty of confidentiality of the selected professions of auditors, tax advisers and professional accountants with the attorney-at-law profession.