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DYRK1A is important in neuronal development and function, and its excessive activity is considered a significant pathogenic factor in Down syndrome and Alzheimer's disease. Thus, inhibition of DYRK1A has been suggested to be a new strategy to modify the disease. Very few compounds, however, have been reported to act as inhibitors, and their potential clinical uses require further evaluation. Here, we newly identify CX-4945, the safety of which has been already proven in the clinical setting, as a potent inhibitor of DYRK1A that acts in an ATP-competitive manner. The inhibitory potency of CX-4945 on DYRK1A (IC50=6.8 nM) in vitro was higher than that of harmine, INDY or proINDY, which are well-known potent inhibitors of DYRK1A. CX-4945 effectively reverses the aberrant phosphorylation of Tau, amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin 1 (PS1) in mammalian cells. To our surprise, feeding with CX-4945 significantly restored the neurological and phenotypic defects induced by the overexpression of minibrain, an ortholog of human DYRK1A, in the Drosophila model. Moreover, oral administration of CX-4945 acutely suppressed Tau hyperphosphorylation in the hippocampus of DYRK1A-overexpressing mice. Our research results demonstrate that CX-4945 is a potent DYRK1A inhibitor and also suggest that it has therapeutic potential for DYRK1A-associated diseases., Editors' choice: In vivo validation of a potent DYRK1A inhibitor, with proven clinical safety, using Down-syndrome- and Alzheimer's-disease-like models.

Dual-specificity tyrosine(Y)-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A) is a protein kinase that might be responsible for mental retardation and early onset of Alzheimer's disease in Down's syndrome patients. Dyrk1A plays a role in many cellular pathways through phosphorylation of diverse substrate proteins; however, its role in synaptic vesicle exocytosis is poorly understood. Munc18-1, a central regulator of neurotransmitter release, interacts with Syntaxin 1 and X11α. Syntaxin 1 is a key soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor protein involved in synaptic vesicle docking/fusion events, and X11α modulates amyloid precursor protein processing and β amyloid generation. In this study, we demonstrate that Dyrk1A interacts with and phosphorylates Munc18-1 at the Thr(479) residue. The phosphorylation of Munc18-1 at Thr(479) by Dyrk1A stimulated binding of Munc18-1 to Syntaxin 1 and X11α. Furthermore, the levels of phospho-Thr(479) -Munc18-1 were enhanced in the brains of transgenic mice over-expressing Dyrk1A protein, providing in vivo evidence of Munc18-1 phosphorylation by Dyrk1A. These results reveal a link between Munc18-1 and Dyrk1A in synaptic vesicle trafficking and amyloid precursor protein processing, suggesting that up-regulated Dyrk1A in Down's syndrome and Alzheimer's disease brains may contribute to some pathological features, including synaptic dysfunction and cognitive defect through abnormal phosphorylation of Munc18-1.

Two genes on chromosome 21, namely dual specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A) and regulator of calcineurin 1 (RCAN1), have been implicated in some of the phenotypic characteristics of Down syndrome, including the early onset of Alzheimer disease. Although a link between Dyrk1A and RCAN1 and the nuclear factor of activated T cells (NFAT) pathway has been reported, it remains unclear whether Dyrk1A directly interacts with RCAN1. In the present study, Dyrk1A is shown to directly interact with and phosphorylate RCAN1 at Ser(112) and Thr(192) residues. Dyrk1A-mediated phosphorylation of RCAN1 at Ser(112) primes the protein for the GSK3β-mediated phosphorylation of Ser(108). Phosphorylation of RCAN1 at Thr(192) by Dyrk1A enhances the ability of RCAN1 to inhibit the phosphatase activity of calcineurin (Caln), leading to reduced NFAT transcriptional activity and enhanced Tau phosphorylation. These effects are mediated by the enhanced binding of RCAN1 to Caln and its extended half-life caused by Dyrk1A-mediated phosphorylation. Furthermore, an increased expression of phospho-Thr(192)-RCAN1 was observed in the brains of transgenic mice overexpressing the Dyrk1A protein. These results suggest a direct link between Dyrk1A and RCAN1 in the Caln-NFAT signaling and Tau hyperphosphorylation pathways, supporting the notion that the synergistic interaction between the chromosome 21 genes RCAN1 and Dyrk1A is associated with a variety of pathological features associated with DS.

Down syndrome (DS) is associated with many neural defects, including reduced brain size and impaired neuronal proliferation, highly contributing to the mental retardation. Those typical characteristics of DS are closely associated with a specific gene group "Down syndrome critical region" (DSCR) on human chromosome 21. Here we investigated the molecular mechanisms underlying impaired neuronal proliferation in DS and, more specifically, a regulatory role for dual-specificity tyrosine-(Y) phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A), a DSCR gene product, in embryonic neuronal cell proliferation. We found that Dyrk1A phosphorylates p53 at Ser-15 in vitro and in immortalized rat embryonic hippocampal progenitor H19-7 cells. In addition, Dyrk1A-induced p53 phosphorylation at Ser-15 led to a robust induction of p53 target genes (e.g. p21(CIP1)) and impaired G(1)/G(0)-S phase transition, resulting in attenuated proliferation of H19-7 cells and human embryonic stem cell-derived neural precursor cells. Moreover, the point mutation of p53-Ser-15 to alanine rescued the inhibitory effect of Dyrk1A on neuronal proliferation. Accordingly, brains from embryonic DYRK1A transgenic mice exhibited elevated levels of Dyrk1A, Ser-15 (mouse Ser-18)-phosphorylated p53, and p21(CIP1) as well as impaired neuronal proliferation. These findings suggest that up-regulation of Dyrk1A contributes to altered neuronal proliferation in DS through specific phosphorylation of p53 at Ser-15 and subsequent p21(CIP1) induction.

The dual-specificity tyrosine(Y)-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A) gene is located on human chromosome 21 and encodes a proline-directed protein kinase that might be responsible for mental retardation and early onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in Down syndrome (DS) patients. Presenilin 1 (PS1) is a key component of the γ-secretase complex in the generation of β-amyloid (Aβ), an important trigger protein in the pathogenesis of AD. Increased Dyrk1A expression has been reported in human AD and DS brains. We previously showed that Dyrk1A increased Aβ production in mammalian cells and transgenic mice that over-express Dyrk1A. In this study, we describe a potential mechanism by which Aβ is increased in Dyrk1A-over-expressing DS and AD brains. First, we show that PS1 is phosphorylated by the Dyrk1A at Thr(354) and that this phosphorylation increases γ-secretase activity. Then, using transgenic mice that over-express human Dyrk1A, we demonstrate that phospho-Thr354-PS1 (pT354-PS1) expression is enhanced when Dyrk1A level is increased. We also show that pT354-PS1 is more stable than the unphosphorylated form of PS1. These results reveal a potential regulatory link between Dyrk1A and PS1 in the Aβ pathway of DS and AD brains, suggesting that up-regulated Dyrk1A may accelerate AD pathogenesis through PS1 phosphorylation.

Down syndrome (DS) is associated with a variety of symptoms, such as incapacitating mental retardation and neurodegeneration (i.e., Alzheimer's disease), that prevent patients from leading fully independent lives. These phenotypes are a direct consequence of the overexpression of chromosome 21 genes, which are present in duplicate due to non-disjunction of chromosome 21. Accumulating data suggest that the chromosome 21 gene product, dual-specificity tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A), participates in the pathogenic mechanisms underlying the mental and other physical symptoms of DS. In this review, we summarize the evidence supporting a role for Dyrk1A in DS, especially DS pathogenesis. Recently, several natural and synthetic compounds have been identified as Dyrk1A inhibitors. Understanding the function and regulation of Dyrk1A may lead to the development of novel therapeutic agents aimed at treating DS.

Down syndrome (DS) results from overexpressed genes on an extra copy of human chromosome 21. Among various phenotypes seen in DS patients, mental retardation, such as learning and memory deficits, is a major factor that prevents DS individuals from leading fully independent lives. The Dyrk1A gene that plays a critical role in neurodevelopment has been isolated from chromosome 21, and transgenic mice with over-expression of Dyrk1A show severe hippocampal dependent learning and memory defects. In the present study, as an initial step to test the treatment of Dyrk1A dependent mental retardation phenotypes in model animals, we isolated human Dyrk1A specific lentiviral short hairpin RNA (shRNA) that inhibits the exogenous human Dyrk1A expression, but not the endogenous mouse expression in transgenic mice with human Dyrk1A overexpression. This limited and specific repression of exogenous human Dyrk1A will prove to be valuable information, if Dyrk1A dependent learning and memory defects in DS patients could be treated or at least ameliorated in vivo.

Most individuals with Down Syndrome (DS) show an early-onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD), which potentially results from the presence of an extra copy of a segment of chromosome 21. Located on chromosome 21 are the genes that encode beta-amyloid (Abeta) precursor protein (APP ), a key protein involved in the pathogenesis of AD, and dual-specificity tyrosine(Y)-phosphorylation regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A ), a proline-directed protein kinase that plays a critical role in neurodevelopment. Here, we describe a potential mechanism for the regulation of AD pathology in DS brains by DYRK1A-mediated phosphorylation of APP. We show that APP is phosphorylated at Thr668 by DYRK1A in vitro and in mammalian cells. The amounts of phospho-APP and Abeta are increased in the brains of transgenic mice that over-express the human DYRK1A protein. Furthermore, we show that the amounts of phospho-APP as well as those of APP and DYRK1A are elevated in human DS brains. Taken together, these results reveal a potential regulatory link between APP and DYRK1A in DS brains, and suggest that the over-expression of DYRK1A in DS may play a role in accelerating AD pathogenesis through phosphorylation of APP.

δ-Catenin was first identified through its interaction with Presenilin-1 and has been implicated in the regulation of dendrogenesis and cognitive function. However, the molecular mechanisms by which δ-catenin promotes dendritic morphogenesis were unclear. In this study, we demonstrated δ-catenin interaction with p190RhoGEF, and the importance of Akt1-mediated phosphorylation at Thr-454 residue of δ-catenin in this interaction. We have also found that δ-catenin overexpression decreased the binding between p190RhoGEF and RhoA, and significantly lowered the levels of GTP-RhoA but not those of GTP-Rac1 and -Cdc42. δ-Catenin T454A, a defective form in p190RhoGEF binding, did not decrease the binding between p190RhoGEF and RhoA. δ-Catenin T454A also did not lower GTP-RhoA levels and failed to induce dendrite-like process formation in NIH 3T3 fibroblasts. Furthermore, δ-catenin T454A significantly reduced the length and number of mature mushroom shaped spines in primary hippocampal neurons. These results highlight signaling events in the regulation of δ-catenin-induced dendrogenesis and spine morphogenesis.

DYRK1A is important in neuronal development and function, and its excessive activity is considered a significant pathogenic factor in Down syndrome and Alzheimer9s disease. Thus, inhibition of DYRK1A has been suggested to be a new strategy to modify the disease. Very few compounds, however, have been reported to act as inhibitors, and their potential clinical uses require further evaluation. Here, we newly identify CX-4945, the safety of which has been already proven in the clinical setting, as a potent inhibitor of DYRK1A that acts in an ATP-competitive manner. The inhibitory potency of CX-4945 on DYRK1A (IC 50 =6.8 nM) in vitro was higher than that of harmine, INDY or proINDY, which are well-known potent inhibitors of DYRK1A. CX-4945 effectively reverses the aberrant phosphorylation of Tau, amyloid precursor protein (APP) and presenilin 1 (PS1) in mammalian cells. To our surprise, feeding with CX-4945 significantly restored the neurological and phenotypic defects induced by the overexpression of minibrain , an ortholog of human DYRK1A, in the Drosophila model. Moreover, oral administration of CX-4945 acutely suppressed Tau hyperphosphorylation in the hippocampus of DYRK1A-overexpressing mice. Our research results demonstrate that CX-4945 is a potent DYRK1A inhibitor and also suggest that it has therapeutic potential for DYRK1A-associated diseases.

The activity of beta-site amyloid precursor protein (APP) cleaving enzyme 1 (BACE1) is elevated during aging and in sporadic Alzheimer's disease (AD), but the underlying mechanisms of this change are not well understood. p25/Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of several neurodegenerative diseases, including AD. Here, we describe a potential mechanism by which BACE activity is increased in AD brains. First, we show that BACE1 is phosphorylated by the p25/Cdk5 complex at Thr252 and that this phosphorylation increases BACE1 activity. Then, we demonstrate that the level of phospho-BACE1 is increased in the brains of AD patients and in mammalian cells and transgenic mice that overexpress p25. Furthermore, the fraction of p25 prepared from iodixanol gradient centrifugation was unexpectedly protected by protease digestion, suggesting that p25/Cdk5-mediated BACE1 phosphorylation may occur in the lumen. These results reveal a link between p25 and BACE1 in AD brains and suggest that upregulated Cdk5 activation by p25 accelerates AD pathogenesis by enhancing BACE1 activity via phosphorylation.

Among the various phenotypes seen in Down syndrome (DS), mental retardation is the most common and most debilitating condition suffered by individuals with DS. The DYRK1A gene on human chromosome 21q22.2 encodes a subfamily of protein kinases that displays dual substrate specificities and is known to play a critical role in neurodevelopment. To study DS mental retardation, we have generated transgenic mice that contain only one copy of the complete human DYRK1A gene in a bacterial artificial chromosome. The transgenic mice showed significant impairment in hippocampal-dependent memory tasks in a Morris water maze. Interestingly, we observed shifts in both long-term potentiation and long-term depression, which suggests a role for DYRK1A in bidirectional synaptic plasticity. These mice represent the most clinically relevant DYRK1A mouse model to date and provide us a valuable tool for the in vivo study of mechanisms that underlie the learning and memory deficit in DS.

Dual-specificity tyrosine(Y) regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A) is a serine/threonine protein kinase implicated in mental retardation resulting from Down syndrome. In this study, we carried out yeast two-hybrid screening to find proteins regulating DYRK1A kinase activity. We identified 14-3-3 as a Dyrk1A interacting protein, which is consistent with the previous finding of the interaction between the yeast orthologues Yak1p and Bmh1/2p. We showed the interaction between Dyrk1A and 14-3-3 in vitro and in vivo. The binding required the N-terminus of Dyrk1A and was independent of the Dyrk1A phosphorylation status. Functionally, 14-3-3 binding increased Dyrk1A kinase activity in a dose dependent manner in vitro. In vivo, a small peptide inhibiting 14-3-3 binding, sc138, decreased Dyrk1A kinase activity in COS7. In summary, these results suggest that DYRK1A kinase activity could be regulated by the interaction of 14-3-3.

Glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) participates in many cellular processes, and its dysregulation has been implicated in a wide range of diseases such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, cancer, and Alzheimer disease. Inactivation of GSK3β by phosphorylation at specific residues is a primary mechanism by which this constitutively active kinase is controlled. However, the regulatory mechanism of GSK3β is not fully understood. Dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A) has multiple biological functions that occur as the result of phosphorylation of diverse proteins that are involved in metabolism, synaptic function, and neurodegeneration. Here we show that GSK3β directly interacts with and is phosphorylated by Dyrk1A. Dyrk1A-mediated phosphorylation at the Thr(356) residue inhibits GSK3β activity. Dyrk1A transgenic (TG) mice are lean and resistant to diet-induced obesity because of reduced fat mass, which shows an inverse correlation with the effect of GSK3β on obesity. This result suggests a potential in vivo association between GSK3β and Dyrk1A regarding the mechanism underlying obesity. The level of Thr(P)(356)-GSK3β was higher in the white adipose tissue of Dyrk1A TG mice compared with control mice. GSK3β activity was differentially regulated by phosphorylation at different sites in adipose tissue depending on the type of diet the mice were fed. Furthermore, overexpression of Dyrk1A suppressed the expression of adipogenic proteins, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ, in 3T3-L1 cells and in young Dyrk1A TG mice fed a chow diet. Taken together, these results reveal a novel regulatory mechanism for GSK3β activity and indicate that overexpression of Dyrk1A may contribute to the obesity-resistant phenotype through phosphorylation and inactivation of GSK3β.

In the present study we investigated the lipid binding characteristics of the C2 domains of Rabphilin3a. We found that the tandem C2 domain of Rabphilin3a specifically bound lipid vesicles containing phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PtdIns(4,5)P2) in a Ca2+-dependent manner. There was little binding to vesicles containing PtdIns(3,4)P2 in the presence or absence of Ca2+. Binding to phosphatidylinositol 3,4,5-triphosphate-containing vesicles was similar to binding to PtdIns(4,5)P2-containing vesicles. The presence of physiological amounts of phosphatidylserine (PS) greatly potentiated the ability of PtdIns(4,5)P2 to cause vesicle binding. As with the C2 domains together, the binding of individual C2 domain of Rabphilin3a was much greater to PtdIns(4,5)P2-containing vesicles than PtdIns(3,4)P2-containing vesicles. Both C2 domains also bound 29 mol % PS-containing vesicles in a Ca2+-dependent manner. Because of the importance of the C2B domain in the enhancement of secretion from chromaffin cells by Rabphilin3a, its biochemistry was further investigated. The mutation of aspartates 657 and 659 to asparagines in C2B decreased Ca2+-dependent and increased Ca2+-independent vesicle binding, indicating the Ca2+ dependence of the domain is provided by aspartic acid residues in the putative Ca2+-binding pocket. A peptide from the COOH-terminal region of the C2B domain specifically inhibited ATP-dependent secretion from permeabilized chromaffin cells and the binding of Rabphilin3a to phosphatidylcholine/PS/PtdIns(4,5)P2-containing lipid vesicles, suggesting a role of this sequence in secretion through its ability to interact with acidic lipid vesicles.

The mechanisms underlying aggregate formation in age-related neurodegenerative diseases remain not well understood. Here we investigated whether dual-specificity tyrosine-(Y)-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A) is involved in the formation of regulator of calcineurin 1 (RCAN1) aggregates. We show that RCAN1 self-associates and forms multimers, and that this process is promoted by the Dyrk1A-mediated phosphorylation of RCAN1 at the Thr(192) residue. Transgenic mice that overexpress the Dyrk1A exhibited lower levels of phospho-Thr(192)-RCAN1 in 10-month-old-group compared to littermate controls, when analyzed with soluble hippocampus lysates. These results suggest that the phosphorylation of RCAN1 by Dyrk1A stimulates the formation of insoluble aggregates upon aging.

To study gene regulation mediated by chromatin in mammals, we isolated the human (SUPT4H) and murine (Supt4h) counterparts of the yeast gene encoding SPT4; the product of this gene presumably interacts with the products of the mammalian homologues (which we have also cloned) of yeast SPT5 and SPT6, thereby modulating chromatin formation and activity. We isolated two different sized human SUPT4H cDNA clones (1464 and 728 nt) and one murine Supt4h (688 nt) cDNA clone; all three encode the same 117-amino-acid protein with conservation of the zinc finger motif found in SPT4. Conservation of this zinc finger motif from yeast to mouse and human implies functional importance. Although the overall sequence homology at the DNA level between the human 728-nt transcript and the murine 688-nt transcript is only 78.4%, the DNA sequence homology is 97.7% within the coding region. At the protein level, the amino acid sequences of the translated murine Supt4h and the human SUPT4H gene products are identical. The likely functional copy of SUPT4H, which has at least two introns, maps to human chromosome 17, with candidate intronless pseudogenes on chromosomes 2, 12, and 20. Buttressing the hypothesis that this is a gene required constitutively, both the human SUPT4H transcripts and the murine Supt4h transcript are expressed widely, although not at equal levels (e.g., such as most histones), in all fetal and adult tissues that we examined.

We isolated expressed sequence tags (ESTs) on the long arm of chromosome 21. The ESTs were mapped by PCR using a monochromosomal somatic-cell mapping panel. Of a total of 55 cDNAs, 30 mapped back uniquely to chromosome 21, 7 mapped back to other chromosomes including chromosome 21, 8 mapped back to chromosomes other than 21, and 10 could not be assigned using this methodology. The 30 chromosome 21-specific markers so isolated represent useful EST markers. A rapid PCR-based method was used to delineate the expression pattern of these 30 pairs in different tissues.

Feeding behavior is one of the most essential activities in animals, which is tightly regulated by neuroendocrine factors. Drosophila melanogaster short neuropeptide F (sNPF) and the mammalian functional homolog neuropeptide Y (NPY) regulate food intake. Understanding the molecular mechanism of sNPF and NPY signaling is critical to elucidate feeding regulation. Here, we found that minibrain (mnb) and the mammalian ortholog Dyrk1a target genes of sNPF and NPY signaling and regulate food intake in Drosophila melanogaster and mice. In Drosophila melanogaster neuronal cells and mouse hypothalamic cells, sNPF and NPY modulated the mnb and Dyrk1a expression through the PKA-CREB pathway. Increased Dyrk1a activated Sirt1 to regulate the deacetylation of FOXO, which potentiated FOXO-induced sNPF/NPY expression and in turn promoted food intake. Conversely, AKT-mediated insulin signaling suppressed FOXO-mediated sNPF/NPY expression, which resulted in decreasing food intake. Furthermore, human Dyrk1a transgenic mice exhibited decreased FOXO acetylation and increased NPY expression in the hypothalamus, as well as increased food intake. Our findings demonstrate that Mnb/Dyrk1a regulates food intake through the evolutionary conserved Sir2-FOXO-sNPF/NPY pathway in Drosophila melanogaster and mammals., Author Summary Feeding behavior is one of the most essential activities in animals. Abnormal feeding behaviors cause metabolic syndromes including obesity and diabetes. Neuropeptides regulate feeding behavior in animals from nematode to human. Here, we presented molecular genetic evidences of how neuropeptides regulate food intake using fruit fly and mouse model systems. Drosophila short neuropetide F (sNPF) and the mammalian functional homolog neuropeptide Y (NPY) are produced from neurons in the brain of fruit fly and mouse, respectively. These neuropeptides turned on the minibrain, in mammals also called Dyrk1a, a target gene through the PKA-CREB pathway. Then, this Mnb/Dyrk1a enzyme activated Sir2/Sirt1 enzyme, which activated FOXO transcriptional factor, turning on the expression of a sNPF/NPY target gene. The increased sNPF/NPY increased food intake in fruit flies and mice. On the contrary, increased food intake induced insulin and activated insulin signaling. When insulin signaling is activated, FOXO transcriptional factor inhibited expression of a sNPF/NPY target gene. The inhibited sNPF/NPY reduced food intake. These findings indicate that FOXO transcription factor acts as a gatekeeper for fasting–feeding transition by regulating sNPF/NPY expression in Drosophila and mammals.

Neural Wiskott–Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) is involved in tight regulation of actin polymerization and dynamics. N-WASP activity is regulated by intramolecular interaction, binding to small GTPases and tyrosine phosphorylation. Here, we report on a novel regulatory mechanism; we demonstrate that N-WASP interacts with dual-specificity tyrosine-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A). In vitro kinase assays indicate that Dyrk1A directly phosphorylates the GTPase-binding domain (GBD) of N-WASP at three sites (Thr196, Thr202 and Thr259). Phosphorylation of the GBD by Dyrk1A promotes the intramolecular interaction of the GBD and verprolin, cofilin and acidic (VCA) domains of N-WASP, and subsequently inhibits Arp2/3-complex-mediated actin polymerization. Overexpression of either Dyrk1A or a phospho-mimetic N-WASP mutant inhibits filopodia formation in COS-7 cells. By contrast, the knockdown of Dyrk1A expression or overexpression of a phospho-deficient N-WASP mutant promotes filopodia formation. Furthermore, the overexpression of a phospho-mimetic N-WASP mutant significantly inhibits dendritic spine formation in primary hippocampal neurons. These findings suggest that Dyrk1A negatively regulates actin filament assembly by phosphorylating N-WASP, which ultimately promotes the intramolecular interaction of its GBD and VCA domains. These results provide insight on the mechanisms contributing to diverse actin-based cellular processes such as cell migration, endocytosis and neuronal differentiation.

Pantothenate kinase catalyzes the rate-controlling step in coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthesis and is regulated by feedback inhibition by CoA. Pantothenate kinase was purified to homogeneity from Escherichia coli and was shown to exist as a homodimer. Kinetic analysis indicated the presence of two ATP binding sites that exhibited positive cooperativity with a Hill coefficient of 1.46. Site-directed mutagenesis of lysine 101 to methionine (K101M) resulted in the inactivation of the enzyme, although dimer formation was not altered. The K101M mutant was unable to bind either adenosine 5'-O-(3-thiotriphosphate) or CoA, supporting the conclusion from kinetic analysis that both the substrate and inhibitor bind to the same site on the enzyme. CoA binding was not cooperative. Coexpression of the K101M mutant gene on a high copy number plasmid in the presence of a chromosomal copy of the wild-type gene resulted in the production of heterodimers between active and inactive subunits. Kinetic analysis of the chimeric heterodimers showed the absence of cooperative ATP interactions and indicated a sequential kinetic mechanism for pantothenate kinase with ATP binding first and pantothenate second. Thus, pantothenate kinase regulation involves the competitive binding of CoA to the ATP site, which blocks ATP binding at one site and prevents positive cooperative ATP binding to the second site on the dimer.

Trisomy 21-linked Dyrk1A (dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A) overexpression is implicated in pathogenic mechanisms underlying mental retardation in Down syndrome (DS). It is known to phosphorylate multiple substrates including endocytic proteins in vitro, but the functional consequence of Dyrk1A-mediated phosphorylation on endocytosis has never been investigated. Here, we show that overexpression of Dyrk1A causes defects in clathrin-mediated endocytosis and specifically, in the recruitment of endocytic proteins to clathrin-coated pits in fibroblasts. Synaptic vesicle endocytosis also significantly slowed down as a result of Dyrk1A overexpression in cultured hippocampal neurons. These effects are dependent on Dyrk1A kinase activity. The inhibitory effect of Dyrk1A on synaptic vesicle endocytosis was confirmed in neuronal cultures derived from transgenic mice overexpressing Dyrk1A at levels found in DS. Pharmacological blockade of Dyrk1A with epigallocatechin gallate rescued the endocytic phenotypes found in transgenic neurons. Together, our results suggest that aberrant Dyrk1A-mediated phosphorylation of the endocytic machinery perturbs synaptic vesicle endocytosis, which may contribute to synaptic dysfunctions and cognitive deficits associated with DS.

The dual-specificity tyrosine(Y)-phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (Dyrk1A) gene is located on human chromosome 21 and encodes a proline-directed protein kinase that might be responsible for mental retardation and early onset of Alzheimer's disease (AD) in Down syndrome (DS) patients. Presenilin 1 (PS1) is a key component of the γ-secretase complex in the generation of β-amyloid (Aβ), an important trigger protein in the pathogenesis of AD. Increased Dyrk1A expression has been reported in human AD and DS brains. We previously showed that Dyrk1A increased Aβ production in mammalian cells and transgenic mice that over-express Dyrk1A. In this study, we describe a potential mechanism by which Aβ is increased in Dyrk1A-over-expressing DS and AD brains. First, we show that PS1 is phosphorylated by the Dyrk1A at Thr(354) and that this phosphorylation increases γ-secretase activity. Then, using transgenic mice that over-express human Dyrk1A, we demonstrate that phospho-Thr354-PS1 (pT354-PS1) expression is enhanced when Dyrk1A level is increased. We also show that pT354-PS1 is more stable than the unphosphorylated form of PS1. These results reveal a potential regulatory link between Dyrk1A and PS1 in the Aβ pathway of DS and AD brains, suggesting that up-regulated Dyrk1A may accelerate AD pathogenesis through PS1 phosphorylation.

Pantothenate kinase catalyzes the rate-controlling step in coenzyme A (CoA) biosynthesis. The structural gene (coaA) located at 90 min of the Escherichia coli chromosome was cloned and sequenced. The coaA gene was transcribed in the opposite direction to the flanking genes birA and thrU and produced a single 1.1-kb transcript. Translation of the coaA gene produced two protein products (36.4 and 35.4 kDa) that differed by eight amino acids at the amino terminus. The poor homology of the coaA promoter region to consensus E. coli promoter sequences and the low frequency of optimal codon usage (0.565) were consistent with the low abundance of pantothenate kinase. Strains containing multiple copies of the coaA gene possessed 76-fold-higher specific activity of pantothenate kinase; however, there was only a 2.7-fold increase in the steady-state level of CoA. These data corroborate the conclusion that regulation of pantothenate kinase activity by feedback inhibition is the critical factor controlling the intracellular CoA concentration.

Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) suffer from mental retardation. Overexpression and the resulting increased specific activity of Dyrk1A kinase located on chromosome 21 cause a learning and memory deficit in Dyrk1A transgenic mice. To search for therapeutic agents with Dyrk1A inhibition activity, previously we obtained HCD160 as a new hit compound for Dyrk1A inhibition. In the present study, we synthesized 34 HCD160 derivatives to investigate the quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR). This analysis could provide important information for novel drug discovery for treatment of DS related learning and memory deficits.

Most individuals with Down syndrome show early onset of Alzheimer disease (AD), resulting from the extra copy of chromosome 21. Located on this chromosome is a gene that encodes the dual specificity tyrosine phosphorylation-regulated kinase 1A (DYRK1A). One of the pathological hallmarks in AD is the presence of neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), which are insoluble deposits that consist of abnormally hyperphosphorylated Tau. Previously it was reported that Tau at the Thr-212 residue was phosphorylated by Dyrk1A in vitro. To determine the physiological significance of this phosphorylation, an analysis was made of the amount of phospho-Thr-212-Tau (pT212) in the brains of transgenic mice that overexpress the human DYRK1A protein (DYRK1A TG mice) that we recently generated. A significant increase in the amount of pT212 was found in the brains of DYRK1A transgenic mice when compared with age-matched littermate controls. We further examined whether Dyrk1A phosphorylates other Tau residues that are implicated in NFTs. We found that Dyrk1A also phosphorylates Tau at Ser-202 and Ser-404 in vitro. Phosphorylation by Dyrk1A strongly inhibited the ability of Tau to promote microtubule assembly. Following this, using mammalian cells and DYRK1A TG mouse brains, it was demonstrated that the amounts of phospho-Ser-202-Tau and phospho-Ser-404-Tau are enhanced when DYRK1A amounts are high. These results provide the first in vivo evidence for a physiological role of DYRK1A in the hyperphosphorylation of Tau and suggest that the extra copy of the DYRK1A gene contributes to the early onset of AD.

The presence of an extra copy of human chromosome 21 (trisomy 21), especially region 21q22.2, causes many phenotypes in Down syndrome, including mental retardation. To study genes potentially responsible for some of these phenotypes, we cloned a human candidate gene (DYRK) from 21q22.2 and its murine counterpart (Dyrk) that are homologous to the Drosophila minibrain (mnb) gene required for neurogenesis and to the rat Dyrk gene (dual specificity tyrosine phosphorylation regulated kinase). The three mammalian genes are highly conserved,99% identical at the protein level over their 763-amino-acid (aa) open reading frame; in addition, the mammalian genes are 83% identical over 414 aa to the smaller 542-aa mnb protein. The predicted human DYRK and murine Dyrk proteins both contain a nuclear targeting signal sequence, a protein kinase domain, a putative leucine zipper motif, and a highly conserved 13-consecutive-histidine repeat. Fluorescence in situ hybridization and regional mapping data localize DYRK between markers D21S336 and D21S337 in the 21q22.2 region. Northern blot analysis indicated that both human and murine genes encode approximately 6-kb transcripts. PCR screening of cDNA libraries derived from various human and murine tissues indicated that DYRK and Dyrk are expressed both during development and in the adult. In situ hybridization of Dyrk to mouse embryos (13, 15, and 17 days postcoitus) indicates a differential spatial and temporal pattern of expression, with the most abundant signal localized in brain gray matter, spinal cord, and retina. The observed expression pattern is coincident with many of the clinical findings in trisomy 21. Its chromosomal locus (21q22. 2), its homology to the mnb gene, and the in situ hybridization expression patterns of the murine Dyrk combined with the fact that transgenic mice for a YAC to which DYRK maps are mentally deficient suggest that DYRK may be involved in the abnormal neurogenesis found in Down syndrome.

We present a fluorescent-PCR-based technique to assay genomic sequence copy number and transcriptional abundance. This technique relies on the ability to follow fluorescent PCR progressively in real time during the exponential phase of the reaction so that quantitative PCR is accomplished. We demonstrated the ability of this technique to quantitate both known deletions and amplifications of loci that have been measured previously by other methods, and to measure transcriptional abundance. Using an efficient variant of the fluorescent-PCR technology, we can monitor transcription semiquantitatively. The ability to detect all amplifications and deletions at any single copy locus by PCR makes this the technique of choice to assay genomic sequence copy number anomalies in birth defects and cancers. The ability to detect variations in transcript abundance enables this technique to fashion a time and tissue analysis of transcription.

We have isolated and sequenced SUPT6H and Supt6h, the human and murine homologues of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Caenorhabditis elegans genes SPT6 (P using 1603 aa = 6.7 e-95) and emb-5 (P using 1603 aa = 7.0 e-288), respectively. The human and murine SPT6 homologues are virtually identical, as they share98% identity and99% similarity at the protein level. The derived amino acid sequences of these two genes predict a 1603-aa protein (human) and a 1726-bp protein (mouse), respectively. There were several known features, including a highly acidic 5'-region, a degenerate SH2 domain, and a leucine zipper. These features are consistent with a nuclear protein that regulates transcription, whose extreme conservation underscores the likely importance of this gene in mammalian development. Expression of human and murine SPT6 homologues was analyzed by Northern blotting, which revealed a 7. 0-kb transcript that was expressed constitutively. The SPT6 homologue was mapped to chromosome 17q11.2 in human by somatic cell hybrid analysis and in situ hybridization. These data indicate that SUPT6H and Supt6h are functionally analogous to SPT6 and emb-5 and may therefore regulate transcription through establishment or maintenance of chromatin structure.