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When we talk about ‘severe’ mental health difficulties or ‘complex presentations’, we usually mean mental health difficulties that significantly affect people in their day-to-day lives, often over a number of years or in conjunction with other health conditions. Some might consider particular diagnoses as evidence of a ‘complex presentation,’ such as psychosis or bipolar disorder. However, there is usually a spectrum of severity and experience within any ‘diagnosis,’ and a degree of overlap in signs and symptoms across conditions. For instance, the experience of hearing voices others can’t (be it internal or external) could result from: large doses of certain pain relief or immunosuppressant medication following a major surgery; intrusive thoughts associated with obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) or eating disorders; psychosis; or dissociation. It is also widely recognised that stress, trauma and low self-compassion underpin many frightening and critical auditory hallucinatory experiences, for example. These are broadly psychosocial factors and not symptoms of illness. Therefore, for the purposes of this chapter, we will focus on supporting people with a range of ‘complex presentations’, rather than focusing on specific diagnoses or clusters of specific symptoms. The National Health Service within the UK recognise that complex mental health does not just refer to an individual’s diagnosis, but to a number of different factors (NHS England 2019). This includes: • The nature, duration and severity of mental health problems • Any co-occurring drug or alcohol dependency • The nature, duration and severity of co-existing physical health problems • Problems associated with ageing, such as frailty • The availability and quality of personal and social support and networks • Any associated functional impairment, or impact on activities of daily living • The effectiveness of current or past support or interventions

Additional file 3: Postnatal questionnaire. Online questionnaire for completion by women participants after the birth of their baby.

Additional file 1: HCP online questionnaire. Online questionnaire for completion by healthcare professionals.

Since the Silurian, fire has played a pivotal role in the shaping of global landscapes. This is particularly evident for Australia’s environment with biological and biogeochemical processes reliant on a consistent bushfire regime. Throughout the late Holocene, there has been dramatic changes in both the anthropogenic and climatic influence on Australia’s bushfire regime, as a result of colonisation, loss of Indigenous landscape management and global warming. This project focused on reconstructing the wildfire history of eastern Kangaroo Island over the late Holocene, since ~6500 ka. Kangaroo Island was devastated by the 2019-20 summer bushfires, therefore the normality of wildfire events was called into question. By using a multi-proxy approach, coupling pyrogenic polyaromatic hydrocarbons, the anhydrosugar levoglucosan and traditional charcoal data, this allowed for a distinguishment to be made between low intensity bushfires and high intensity wildfire events. It was shown that since ~4000 cal yr there has been a gradual increase in the frequency of burn events, however in the last 1200 ka, the intensity of bushfires has surged. This project demonstrates that the uninhabitance of Kangaroo Island by Indigenous Australians, along with changes in the influence of ENSO may have contributed to the new fire regime we see today.

Supplementary files to the manuscript "Open Hardware in Science: The Benefits of Open Electronics" published in the Journal Integrative and Comparative Biology. The collection contains raw data, R Markdown, data summaries, and plots of a Web of Science and a PLOS full text database search for common open electronics boards.

Additional file 2: Antenatal questionnaire. Online questionnaire for completion by women participants before the birth of their baby.

sj-docx-1-jar-10.1177_07435584211043879 for How Transgender Adolescents Experience Expressing Their Gender Identity Around New People: An Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis by Hannah Wilson, Aiysha Malik and Sam Thompson in Journal of Adolescent Research

Freely and openly shared low-cost electronic applications, known as open electronics, have sparked a new open-source movement, with much un-tapped potential to advance scientific research. Initially designed to appeal to electronic hobbyists, open electronics have formed a global community of "makers" and inventors and are increasingly used in science and industry. Here, we review the current benefits of open electronics for scientific research and guide academics to enter this emerging field. We discuss how electronic applications, from the experimental to the theoretical sciences, can help (I) individual researchers by increasing the customization, efficiency, and scalability of experiments, while improving data quantity and quality; (II) scientific institutions by improving access and maintenance of high-end technologies, visibility and interdisciplinary collaboration potential; and (III) the scientific community by improving transparency and reproducibility, helping decouple research capacity from funding, increasing innovation, and improving collaboration potential among researchers and the public. Open electronics are powerful tools to increase creativity, democratization, and reproducibility of research and thus offer practical solutions to overcome significant barriers in science., Comment: 20 pages, 3 figure, 2 tables

Importance Inadequate management of elevated blood pressure is a significant contributing factor to maternal deaths. The role of blood pressure self-monitoring in pregnancy in improving clinical outcomes for the pregnant individual and infant is unclear. Objective To evaluate the effect of blood pressure self-monitoring, compared with usual care alone, on blood pressure control and other related maternal and infant outcomes, in individuals with pregnancy hypertension. Design, Setting, and Participants Unblinded, randomized clinical trial that recruited between November 2018 and September 2019 in 15 hospital maternity units in England. Individuals with chronic hypertension (enrolled up to 37 weeks’ gestation) or with gestational hypertension (enrolled between 20 and 37 weeks’ gestation). Final follow-up was in May 2020. Interventions Participants were randomized to either blood pressure self-monitoring using a validated monitor and a secure telemonitoring system in addition to usual care (n = 430) or to usual care alone (n = 420). Usual care comprised blood pressure measured by health care professionals at regular antenatal clinics. Main Outcomes and Measures The primary maternal outcome was the difference in mean systolic blood pressure recorded by health care professionals between randomization and birth. Results Among 454 participants with chronic hypertension (mean age, 36 years; mean gestation at entry, 20 weeks) and 396 with gestational hypertension (mean age, 34 years; mean gestation at entry, 33 weeks) who were randomized, primary outcome data were available from 444 (97.8%) and 377 (95.2%), respectively. In the chronic hypertension cohort, there was no statistically significant difference in mean systolic blood pressure for the self-monitoring groups vs the usual care group (133.8 mm Hg vs 133.6 mm Hg, respectively; adjusted mean difference, 0.03 mm Hg [95% CI, −1.73 to 1.79]). In the gestational hypertension cohort, there was also no significant difference in mean systolic blood pressure (137.6 mm Hg compared with 137.2 mm Hg; adjusted mean difference, −0.03 mm Hg [95% CI, −2.29 to 2.24]). There were 8 serious adverse events in the self-monitoring group (4 in each cohort) and 3 in the usual care group (2 in the chronic hypertension cohort and 1 in the gestational hypertension cohort). Conclusions and Relevance Among pregnant individuals with chronic or gestational hypertension, blood pressure self-monitoring with telemonitoring, compared with usual care, did not lead to significantly improved clinic-based blood pressure control. Trial Registration ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT03334149

Upconverting phosphors (UCPs) convert multiple low energy photons into higher energy emission via the process of photon upconversion and offer an attractive alternative to organic fluorophores for use as luminescent probes. Here, UCPs were capped with functionalized silica in order to provide a surface to covalently conjugate proteins with surface?accessible cysteines. Variants of green fluorescent protein (GFP) and the flavoenzyme pentaerythritol tetranitrate reductase (PETNR) were then attached via maleimide?thiol coupling in order to allow energy transfer from the UCP to the GFP or flavin cofactor of PETNR, respectively. PETNR retains its activity when coupled to the UCPs, which allows reversible detection of enzyme substrates via ratiometric sensing of the enzyme redox state.

Adult participants report expecting darker objects to be heavier in weight and brighter objects to be lighter in weight (Payne, 1958; Plack & Shick, 1976; Walker, Francis & Walker, 2010; Wright 1962). Although there is evidence that young infants appreciate crossmodal correspondences between pitch and height, and sharpness, there is no evidence to date that infants appreciate the correspondence between brightness and weight (Walker, Bremner, Mason, Spring, Mattock, Slater, & Johnson, 2010; Walker, Bremner, Lunghi, Dolscheid, Barba, & Simion, 2018). The objective of the current thesis was to understand more about the correspondence between brightness and weight by examining the situations in which it is revealed and the age at which it emerges. In doing so, the intention was to uncover more information about the nature of the correspondence and its potential origins. Using verbal reports, Experiments 1 and 3 provided further evidence of a brightness-weight and material-weight correspondence in adult participants. By examining whether the correspondence is acted upon spontaneously, Experiments 2 and 4 revealed early evidence that adults selectively prepare for objects based on brightness and material. The potential reasons for the selective preparation are discussed in detail. In Experiments 5 and 6, infants’ appreciation of the brightness-weight and material-weight correspondences were explored. Whilst the studies revealed no evidence for appreciation of the brightness-weight correspondence, Experiment 6 provided substantial evidence suggesting that infants selectively prepare for objects based on material. The implications of these findings, and the potential inferences that can be made about the nature and origins of the brightness-weight correspondence are discussed.

Cooking for a Lifetime of Cancer Prevention (C4L) Program Instructor Training Agenda. Agenda for training of program instructors. (PDF 164 kb)

Cooking for a Lifetime of Cancer Prevention (C4L) Instructor Interview Guide. Interview guide for semi-structured interviews of C4L program instructors. (PDF 136 kb)

This thesis investigates the food systems of Indigenous undergraduate students’ and experiences of community service providers with Indigenous students and needs of those students relating to their food systems. Data collection included face-to-face semi-structured interviews with eight self-identified Indigenous students. A focus groups was conducted with service providers on- and off-campus, including stakeholders at the University of Guelph, and the community of Guelph. Data was analyzed using thematic analysis. Interview results were organized using the socio-ecological model. Interview participants identified several factors that influenced their food systems including financial capacity, convenience, social influences and campus food environments. Participants also provided recommendations to support their food systems. Focus group participants identified linkages of social support and connectedness to increase student access to food systems. Barriers for students and food systems include lack of awareness and stigma. Suggestions are made to address the needs of Indigenous students and their food systems.

Supplementary Material, JHP_supplementary_material_case_studies_Oct_2015 for Health workers’ support for hepatitis C treatment uptake among clients with a history of injecting by Loren Brener, Courtney von Hippel, Hannah Wilson and Max Hopwood in Journal of Health Psychology

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) plays an important role in brain health and is often compromised in disease. Moreover, as a result of its significant barrier properties, this endothelial interface restricts neurotherapeutic uptake. Thus, a renewable source of human BBB endothelium could prove enabling for brain research and pharmaceutical development. Herein, we demonstrate that endothelial cells generated from human pluripotent stem cells (hPSCs) can be specified to possess many BBB attributes, including well-organized tight junctions, expression of nutrient transporters, and polarized efflux transporter activity. Importantly, hPSC-derived BBB endothelial cells respond to astrocytic cues yielding impressive barrier properties as measured by transendothelial electrical resistance (1450±140 Ωxcm2) and molecular permeability that correlates well with in vivo brain uptake. In addition, specification of hPSC-derived BBB endothelial cells occurs in concert with neural cell co-differentiation via Wnt/β-catenin signaling, consistent with previous transgenic studies. This study represents the first example of organ-specific endothelial differentiation from hPSCs.

The Maya are the most populous and shortest in stature Native American ethnic group. The Maya provide us a good opportunity to study the dietetic characteristics of a group who experience nutritional dual burden (the combination of under and overnutrition) at the individual, mother-child dyad and population level. The aim of this study is to describe general dietetic patterns of a sample of Maya mothers and children who experienced nutritional dual burden and were living in the city of Merida, Yucatan, Mexico. From February to July 2010 we applied food frequency questionnaires (FFQ) to 58 dyads of Maya mothers and their children (7-9 years old). The FFQ was developed by staff of the Department of Human Ecology at Cinvestav and included 78 foods, grouped in: cereals and tubers, foods of animal origin, leguminous vegetables, fats, fruits, vegetables, sugars, and daily products. The frequencies of consumption were classified in four levels: 1) no consumption, 2) low (1-2 days/week), 3) medium (3-4 days/week), high (5-7 days/week). The observed pattern suggests a low consumption of fruits and vegetables, a medium consumption of pork, eggs, oil and lard, and a high consumption of soda and whole milk. From these frequencies we extrapolated that the dietetic pattern is characterized by a low intake of fibre and micronutrients and high intake of fat and sugars, findings supported by previous National and regional studies. Our observations suggest that the studied group have a dietetic pattern that has moved away from a traditional Maya diet. Los mayas, uno de los grupos étnicos más importantes en Mesoamérica y con menor estatura. Ellos nos otorgan la oportunidad de estudiar las características dietéticas de un grupo que muestra doble carga nutricional (DCN) (coexistencia de desnutrición y sobrepeso/obesidad) a nivel individual, en pares de madre-hijo y de población. El objetivo de este estudio es describir de manera general el patrón dietético de una muestra de madres e hijos mayas con DCN y que viven en la ciudad de Mérida, Yucatán, México. Entre febrero y julio de 2010 aplicamos cuestionarios de frecuencia de consumo de alimentos (CFCA) a 58 pares de madre-hijo (7-9 años de edad). Los CFCA, que fueron diseñados por el personal del Departamento de Ecología Humana del Cinvestav, incluyeron 78 alimentos agrupados en cereales y tubérculos, de origen animal, leguminosas, grasas, frutas, verduras, azúcares y lácteos. Las frecuencias de consumo fueron clasificadas en: 1) sin consumo, 2) bajo (1-2 días por semana), 3) medio (3-4 días por semana) y 4) alto (5-7 días por semana). El patrón observado sugiere un consumo bajo de frutas y verduras, consumo medio de carne de cerdo, huevo, aceite y manteca de cerdo y consumo elevado de refrescos embotellados y leche entera. En conclusión, sugerimos que el patrón dietético encontrado, se caracteriza por una ingesta pobre en fibra y micronutrientes y alto en grasa y azucares, resultados que muestran similitudes con estudios nacionales y regionales. Nuestras observaciones también sugieren que el grupo estudiado se ha alejado de un patrón dietético maya tradicional.

The objectives of this study were to explore the experiences of trainee clinical psychologists who utilised therapy whilst training, and its role in their personal and professional development. Ten clinical psychologists were recruited, and asked to share their story of accessing personal therapy during training. Data were analysed using narrative analysis, which led to the development of four chapters: Chapter one explores the context of being a trainee clinical psychologist whilst experiencing therapy, including stressors encountered during training. In chapter two, participants discuss the stigma they felt in accessing personal therapy. Through chapter three, participants describe the journey of therapy itself, including difficult emotions they experienced and events such as ‘the ending’. Finally, chapter four details the personal and professional impact of their therapy journey. It is concluded that personal therapy can provide both personal and professional support to trainee clinical psychologists. However, some barriers may affect individuals seeking such support. The clinical and professional implications of these findings are discussed, in addition to recommendations for future research.

Supplementary characterization of hPSC-derived BMECs

The co-existence of very short stature due to poor chronic environment in early life and obesity is becoming a public health concern in rapidly transitioning populations with high levels of poverty. Individuals who have very short stature seem to be at an increased risk of obesity in times of relative caloric abundance. Increasing evidence shows that an individual is influenced by exposures in previous generations. This study assesses whether maternal poor early life environment predicts her child's adiposity using cross sectional design on Maya schoolchildren aged 7-9 and their mothers (n = 57 pairs). We compared maternal chronic early life environment (stature) with her child's adiposity (body mass index [BMI] z-score, waist circumference z-score, and percentage body fat) using multiple linear regression, controlling for the child's own environmental exposures (household sanitation and maternal parity). The research was performed in the south of Merida, Yucatan, Mexico, a low socioeconomic urban area in an upper middle income country. The Maya mothers were very short, with a mean stature of 147 cm. The children had fairly high adiposity levels, with BMI and waist circumference z-scores above the reference median. Maternal stature did not significantly predict any child adiposity indicator. There does not appear to be an intergenerational component of maternal early life chronic under-nutrition on her child's obesity risk within this free living population living in poverty. These results suggest that the co-existence of very short stature and obesity appears to be primarily due to exposures and experiences within a generation rather than across generations.

Lack of stratigraphic context for dinosaur eggs inhibits understanding of dinosaur reproductive biology and the taphonomic processes of egg preservation. Past taphonomic work suggests two features, compression ridges (sharp edge of broken eggshell around egg circumference) and deformation asymmetry (proportion of crushed to rounded sides of the egg), as geopetal structures. We examined these features across a large sample of Spheroolithus eggs from the Cretaceous of Zhejiang, China, to test their utility. On 103 isolated eggs, we determined asymmetry ratios (crushed side egg height divided by rounded side egg height) and observed an average asymmetry ratio of 0.71. Additional observations of in situ eggs demonstrate the stratigraphic downside as more rounded and less fractured, the stratigraphic upside as flatter with heavier fracturing and compression ridges as parallel to original bedding plane. Burial-caused fractures on the upper side of the egg allowed sediment to partially fill, subsequently supporting the bottom portion. Examining these features within 16 clutches allowed differentiation of biotic versus taphonomically altered arrangements. Three common clutch arrangements include planar (minimal egg overlap), offset (extreme overlap) and agglomerate (randomly arranged, closely packed). Analysis of egg strike and dip across clutches favours planar clutches as the principal configuration for Spheroolithus clutches.

This thesis is composed of three sections: A literature review of trainee therapists’ experiences of supervision; a research paper exploring clinical psychologists’ experiences of accessing personal therapy during training; and a critical appraisal which considers some of the issues encountered during the research process. The literature review was conducted systematically, which resulted in fifteen qualitative studies for inclusion. A meta-synthesis was conducted with these studies. The findings suggest supervision can provide a number of learning opportunities for trainee therapists, and support them both personally and professionally. However, the efficacy of supervision appears to depend substantially upon the supervisory relationship. This includes the power differential between a supervisor and supervisee, such as whether a trainee fears negative evaluation if they raise concerns or difficulties. Implications for training courses are discussed, including recommendations for supervisor training courses. The research paper explores the experience of accessing personal therapy whilst undertaking clinical psychology training. Ten clinical psychologists were recruited and interviewed. The interviews were analysed using narrative analysis. The findings suggested personal therapy had a positive impact on participants both personally and professionally. They described a number of difficult experiences during the process, including a perceived stigma of accessing therapy as a trainee therapist. Participants also reflected on the role of personal therapy in supporting them through the stressors of clinical training. Implications for both clinical psychology training programmes and the profession are discussed, in addition to ideas for future research. The critical appraisal discusses particular aspects of the research process. This includes deciding to research personal therapy and reflections on the difference between a research interview and a therapy session. This section also considers decisions and challenges encountered using a narrative approach, both at the interviewing and analysis stages. Finally, the personal impact of the research is discussed.

Globalization is, in part, an economic force to bring about a closer integration of national economies. Globalization is also a biological, social and ideological process of change. Globalization results in powerful multinational corporations imposing their products on new markets. Food globalization brings about nutritional transitions, the most common being a shift from a locally-grown diet with minimally refined foods, to the modern diet of highly processed foods, high in saturated fat, animal products and sugar, and low in fiber. This paper will examine the influences of food globalization using the Maya of Mexico as a case study. The Maya people of Mexico are a poignant case. Maya health and culture has deteriorated as a result, with highly processed foods affecting physical growth and health of Maya children and their families. The case of the Maya is not isolated and we must come to terms with food globalization if we are to translate research into better child health and well-being.

Research shows that some young people who are at risk for acquiring hepatitis C have inadequate knowledge of hepatitis C and limited access to harm reduction services. This study investigates the innovative method of using tattoo studios to distribute harm reduction to at risk young people. The study explores the willingness of tattooists to deliver harm reduction as well as the factors that could influence their willingness to deliver harm reduction. These factors include professional identity, client rapport, hepatitis C knowledge, attitudes towards hepatitis C and people who inject drugs (PWID) and perceptions of how controllable injecting drug use is perceived to be. Attempts were made to recruit from the population of New South Wales tattooists using reply paid postal surveys. Due to a lower than expected response additional recruitment strategies were adopted, including expanding into Victoria and Queensland. Additionally, a qualitative in-depth interview component was incorporated into the study to further explore the quantitative findings. Findings from the survey indicated that respondents were willing to deliver harm reduction information relating to hepatitis C, for example the locations of hepatitis C testing services, but were significantly less willing to deliver information on safe injecting practices or needle and syringe programs. The quantitative and qualitative data together suggested that respondents were highly committed to developing rapport with their clients. Consequently, respondents acknowledged clients frequently confided in them like a therapist. Both quantitative and qualitative data illustrated that respondents held negative attitudes towards PWID. However, respondents' overall attitude towards PWID was not associated with their willingness to deliver harm reduction. Finally, the more respondents perceived injecting drug use (IDU) to be under the control of the individual, the less willing they were to distribute information about safe injecting practices. This study suggests that most tattooists would be willing to deliver harm reduction information regarding hepatitis C to at risk young people. However, before this can occur tattooists' perceptions of IDU should be targeted. This could involve tattooists attending stigma-reduction education workshops. Prior research suggests that such interventions can have a significant impact on participants' perceptions of the responsibility of stigmatised individuals for their stigma.

Craft, both as process and resulting artifact, implies notions of care, foresight, human skill and investment. In this paper we examine the practice of creating E-Textiles as a contemporary craft, and we ask ourselves what will become of this craft when the first fully automated machine for E-Textiles production hits the market. Will the craft in E-Textiles survive, and why do we care that it does?

This report presents data collected as part of a periodic cross-sectional study of people who used community-based pharmacies to obtain sterile needles and syringes in 2009. Specifically, it presents data about the demographic profile of respondents, patterns of acquisition of needles and syringes, recent drug use, self-reported incidence of risk practice for transmission of hepatitis C and HIV and self-reported rates of testing for hepatitis C and HIV, and self-reported prevalence of hepatitis C and HIV. Data are stratified by region and, where relevant, data for 2006–2008 are included to show trends.

This report presents data collected as part of a periodic cross-sectional study of people who used community-based pharmacies to obtain sterile needles and syringes for the period 2006 to 2008., NCHSR Monograph 2/2010

Illicit drug use was common among attendees of the Big Day Out who lived in New South Wales. Over half of respondents in 2009 reported having used at least one illicit drug in the previous 12 months, most commonly cannabis, ecstasy and/or amphetamine., NCHSR Monograph 1/2010

Available literature indicates that clinical factors, social factors, personal values and knowledge are all important in determining whether or not people decide to have treatment for hepatitis C. Therefore this study sought to investigate a range of factors associated with making the decision to take up treatment. Additionally, to explore how Australian clients of Opiate Substitute Treatment (OST) centres made decisions about treatment, this study interviewed a sample of OST clients and health professionals in Sydney about their perceptions of a proposed model of delivery of treatment for hepatitis C through OST clinics.

The Big Day Out survey is a cross-sectional survey which surveyed people who attended the Big Day Out music festival at the Gold Coast, Queensland, in 2008 and 2009. The survey gains insight into drug use amongst young people and those who have been exposed to injecting.

The demographic and drug-using profiles of survey respondents who purchased sterile injecting equipment from pharmacies in Western Australia differ in important ways from existing data about injecting drug users in Western Australia that were collected from needle and syringe exchange programs (NSEPs). Clients of pharmacies appear to be younger (mean 32.4 years), with shorter injecting histories (mean 12 years) and report injecting less frequently (38.4% reported having injected daily or more frequently) and most commonly inject meth/amphetamine (58.5%)., NCHSR Monograph 5/2009

This report reviews behavioural data relevant to the transmission of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), viral hepatitis and sexually transmissible infections (STIs) in Australia. It also examines behavioural data relevant to the social aspects of treatment and care of those who have been infected, including those who are living with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS)., NCHSR Monograph; 4/2009

Supplementary Information. Additional details on training data used for microbial source tracking and dust homogenization techniques. (PDF 68 kb)

Supplementary Information. Additional details on training data used for microbial source tracking and dust homogenization techniques. (PDF 68 kb)

Self-categorization theory (Oakes, Haslam & Turner, 1994) proposes that the salience of a social identity is context-dependent, with the salience of that identity being dependent upon the particular social comparisons which are available in any given context. Thus, in the case of national identity, when the context contains a comparable national outgroup, the salience of the national ingroup increases; when the context contains the national ingroup alone, the salience of that ingroup decreases. The theory also proposes that when a particular social identity becomes salient to an individual, self-stereotyping occurs and perceived ingroup homogeneity increases. Finally, the theory postulates that comparative context can affect group evaluations; depending upon the particular comparison outgroup which is available in the given context, the evaluation of the ingroup can change. Previous empirical studies have shown that these effects do indeed occur in individuals aged 18 years and over (see Oakes et al. 1994 for a review of these studies). The present study was designed to explore whether these various effects also occur in children. 307 English children aged from 5 to 11 years old were asked to attribute adjectives to their own national ingroup (English) in one of three different conditions: either alone; or in conjunction with a liked national outgroup (American); or in conjunction with a disliked national outgroup (German). In addition, the children were asked to rank the importance of their own national identity in relationship to their other social identities immediately after the attribution task, in order to assess the relative salience of their national identity in these three different comparative contexts. It was found that intergroup comparative context did not influence the salience of the children's own national identity, their attributions of ingroup homogeneity, or their evaluation of the ingroup. These findings imply that the processes postulated by selfcategorization theory do not operate in 5 to 11 year old children, as least as far as their national identity is concerned. However, it was also found that the younger children were more positive towards their own national ingroup, and more negative to both of the national outgroups, than the older children. The younger children also made more homogeneous evaluations of all the national groups than the older children. In addition, national identity became more salient with age. The implications of these findings for self-categorization theory are discussed.