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Against a background of continuing loss of biodiversity, it is argued that for the successful conservation of threatened plant species we need to ensure the more effective integration of the various conservation actions employed, clarify the wording of the CBD targets and provide clearer operational guidance as to how they are to be implemented and their implementation monitored. The role and effectiveness of protected areas in conserving biodiversity and in particular plant species in situ are discussed as are recent proposals for a massive increase of their extent. The need for much greater effort and investment in the conservation or protection of threatened species outside protected areas where most plant diversity occurs is highlighted. The difficulties involved in implementing effective in situ conservation of plant diversity both at an area- and species/population-based level are discussed. The widespread neglect of species recovery for plants is noted and the desirability of making a clearer distinction between species recovery and reintroduction is emphasized. Key messages from a global overview of species recovery are outlined and recommendations made, including the desirability of each country preparing a national species recovery strategy. The projected impacts of global change on protected areas and on species conservation and recovery, and ways of addressing them are discussed. Keywords: Plant conservation, CBD targets, Protected areas, Species recovery, Conservation approaches

As an introduction to the Special Issue on the restoration of threatened plant species and their habitats, this editorial shows how the various papers in the issue address the range of in situ interventions involved in species population management and restoration of their habitat, together with examples of case studies implementing these actions. It stresses the need for integrating these various interventions. It highlights the importance of protected areas in providing a degree of protection for threatened species but also the need to complement this with actions at the species level to ensure the effective conservation and long term persistence of these species. It emphasizes that ecological restoration is a complement to, not a substitute for conservation, and that the balance of effort and allocation of resources between them is a key issue. Keywords: Threatened species management, Habitat restoration, In situ conservation, Protected areas

The papers included in this special issue are mostly based on presentations made at the IABG international conference held at Shanghai Chenshan Botanical Garden, China, November 2016, which addressed the roles that botanic gardens, both in China and elsewhere, can play in national biodiversity conservation strategies, such as maintaining and conserving plant material ex situ and in contributing to the recovery of threatened plant species, reintroductions and other translocations. It also looked beyond botanic gardens and addressed how to work and plan much more closely with other practitioners. China is one of the world's richest countries in terms of plant diversity and also has a high level of endemism. However, plant diversity in China is increasingly threatened due to rapid industrialization, extensive urbanization, and explosive economic growth. Twenty percent of China's total higher plants are threatened with extinction (Huang, 2011, Huang et al., 2013). As a result, effective protection of plant diversity is a major problem and challenge that has to be faced and the paper by Charles Cannon (pp. 331–337) gives examples of the ways that China is addressing these issued. Part of this meeting focused on an assessment of China's existing plant conservation policy and the state of implementation. It discussed how to develop a plant conservation programme that takes into account the special characteristics of the Chinese situation and context, and ways of promoting cooperation between plant conservation research institutions and nature reserves, with a view to ensuring the conservation of Chinese plant resources through the adoption of efficient and effective procedures and protocols. These concerns are also faced by the rest of the world, and the speakers included leading plant conservation experts and researchers from abroad who shared their experience, and joined with key Chinese experts and with the leaders and plant protection specialists from the State Forestry Administration, provincial and municipal forestry bureaus in exploring these issues and proposing solutions.

Despite the massive efforts that have been made to conserve plant diversity across the world during the past few decades, it is becoming increasingly evident that our current strategies are not sufficiently effective to prevent the continuing decline in biodiversity. As a recent report by the CBD indicates, current progress and commitments are insufficient to achieve the Aichi Biodiversity Targets by 2020. Threatened species lists continue to grow while the world's governments fail to meet biodiversity conservation goals. Clearly, we are failing in our attempts to conserve biodiversity on a sufficient scale. The reasons for this situation are complex, including scientific, technical, sociological, economic and political factors. The conservation community is divided about how to respond. Some believe that saving all existing biodiversity is still an achievable goal. On the other hand, there are those who believe that we need to accept that biodiversity will inevitably continue to be lost, despite all our conservation actions and that we must focus on what to save, why and where. It has also been suggested that we need a new approach to conservation in the face of the challenges posed by the Anthropocene biosphere which we now inhabit. Whatever view one holds on the above issues, it is clear that we need to review the effectiveness of our current conservation strategies, identify the limiting factors that are preventing the Aichi goals being met and at the same time take whatever steps are necessary to make our conservation protocols more explicit, operational and efficient so as to achieve the maximum conservation effect. This paper addresses the key issues that underlie our failure to meet agreed targets and discusses the necessary changes to our conservation approaches. While we can justifiably be proud of our many achievements and successes in plant conservation in the past 30 years, which have helped slow the rate of loss, unless we devise a more coherent, consistent and integrated global strategy in which both the effectiveness and limitations of our current policies, action plans and procedures are recognized, and reflect this in national strategies, and then embark on a much bolder and ambitious set of actions, progress will be limited and plant diversity will continue to decline. Keywords: Plant conservation, Anthropocene, Aichi targets, Biodiversity governance, Protected areas

The conservation of plant species in situ is a complex and multifaceted procedure which involves both the maintenance and management of protected areas and actions targeted at the species and population level. Most effort has been aimed so far at the occurrence and persistence of species in protected areas as a measure of conservation. However, species-level actions such as conservation or recovery plans have been undertaken for only a small percentage of threatened plant species, mostly by a few countries. The reasons for this are complex and involve scientific, social and political considerations. The planning of targets for biodiversity conservation in situ by the Convention on Biological Diversity suffers from a failure to coordinate area-based and species-based actions leading to overlap and confusion. A set of recommendations is given to help remedy the neglect of targeted species conservation.

Ethnopharmacological relevance It is becoming increasingly clear that ethnopharmacology cannot be disassociated from food production, human nutrition and the conservation of the biodiversity that constitutes its resource base. Aim of the study This paper aims to provide a perspective of ethnopharmacology that explicitly extends the range of disciplines it covers so as to embrace food and nutrition and the biodiversity basis, both wild and agricultural, and also places it in the context of the dramatic changes to our planet that we are experiencing during a period of rapid global change and the impacts that these changes are having on human health and nutrition and on its resource base. Materials and methods A review is made of recent initiatives and developments that show linkages between ethnopharmacology, agriculture, food production, nutrition and biodiversity conservation. Results Ethnopharmacology, biodiversity, agriculture, food and nutrition are inextricably linked but suffer from compartmentalization and a lack of communication which have to be overcome if progress is to be made. Fortunately, a convergence of interest between the agricultural biodiversity and the biodiversity conservation sectors has emerged in recent years and there is an increased appreciation of the need to adopt a wider approach to human nutrition than the conventional agricultural model allows; there is also a greater awareness of the important role played by diversity of crops, especially local species, and consumption of wild species in achieving balanced nutrition. An increased recognition of the key role of local communities in managing agricultural biodiversity is evident. While ethnopharmacologists have expressed concern at the relentless loss of biodiversity, there has been little direct involvement but it is perhaps now time to consider a more proactive role. Attention is also drawn to the need to assess the implications of global change for ethnopharmacology. Conclusions Ethnopharmacologists need to take much more cognizance of the fate of the resource base – the plants, animals and microorganisms – and of the actions being undertaken under the auspices of treaties, such as the Conservation on Biological Diversity and its Global Strategy for Plant Conservation, and the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, to counter its degradation and loss. In addition, they should play a more active role in determining the actions needed to assess, monitor and conserve the resource base. Although it has been suggested that the ‘golden days’ of ethnopharmacology may be over, it is proposed that by embracing the challenges of broadening the remit so as to include the health aspects of wild biodiversity employed in nutrition, a new ‘golden age’ beckons. The paper concludes with some suggestions for action.

In light of the growing concern over the potentially devastating impacts on biodiversity and food security of climate change and the massively growing world population, taking action to conserve crop wild relatives (CWR), is no longer an option — it is a priority. Crop wild relatives are species closely related to crops, including their progenitors, many of which have the potential to contribute beneficial traits to crops, such as pest or disease resistance, yield improvement or stability. They are a critical component of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture (PGRFA), have already made major contributions to crop production and are vital for future food security; their systematic conservation in ways that ensure their continuing availability for use is therefore imperative. This is a complex, interdisciplinary, global issue that has been addressed by various national and international initiatives. Drawing on the lessons learnt from these initiatives we can now propose a global approach to CWR conservation, the key elements of which are: (1) estimating global CWR numbers, (2) assessment of the global importance of CWR diversity, (3) current conservation status, (4) threats to CWR diversity, (5) systematic approaches to CWR conservation, (6) CWR informatics, and (7) enhancing the use of CWR diversity.

One of the consequences of global change, especially demographic and climatic, will be a demand for novel plant germplasm of all kinds suited to the new ecoclimatic conditions predicted and plant introduction will assume a new importance. As a consequence, botanic gardens will face an unprecedented opportunity to regain their role as introduction centres and become major actors in the assessment of new germplasm, both of ornamentals as well as other economically important plants. Plant introduction has remained largely unchanged over the past 400 years and is as often ad hoc, poorly organized and insufficiently collaborative, but if it is to meet the needs of today’s situation it needs to be overhauled. In particular: (1) the basis of plant introduction needs to be broadened; (2) closer cooperation with agricultural genebanks should be established; (3) agreement should be reached between botanic gardens and the agricultural sector on their respective responsibilities (4) the quality and sampling of the accessions should be more strictly controlled; (5) proper evaluation of the introductions before they are disseminated; (6) information on the accessions of introduced plants and their fate needs to be more effectively maintained and disseminated; and (7) full cognizance should be taken of policies to protect against invasive species and care should be taken to evaluate the risks that new introductions might represent. Finally, consideration should be given to preparing a set of guidelines or even a code of conduct for plant introductions by botanic gardens in association with other agencies.

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Conservation of crop wild relatives (CWRs) is a complex interdisciplinary process that is being addressed by various national and international initiatives, including two Global Environment Facility projects ('In situ Conservation of Crop Wild Relatives through Enhanced Information Management and Field Application' and 'Design, Testing and Evaluation of Best Practices for in situ Conservation of Economically Important Wild Species'), the European Community-funded project 'European Crop Wild Relative Diversity Assessment and Conservation Forum (PGR Forum)' and the European 'In situ and On Farm Network'. The key issues that have arisen are: (1) the definition of what constitutes a CWR, (2) the need for national and regional information systems and a global system, (3) development and application of priority-determining mechanisms, (4) the incorporation of the conservation of CWRs into existing national, regional and international PGR programmes, (5) assessment of the effectiveness of conservation actions, (6) awareness of the importance of CWRs in agricultural development at local, national and international levels both for the scientific and lay communities and (7) policy development and legal framework. The above issues are illustrated by work on the conservation of a group of legumes known as grasspea chicklings, vetchlings, and horticultural ornamental peas (Lathyrus spp.) in their European and Mediterranean centre of diversity.

A review is given of the major conceptual changes that have taken place during the last 50 years in our understanding of the nature of plant conservation and of the principal methodological advances in undertaking conservation assessments and actions, largely through the incorporation of tools and techniques from other disciplines. The interrelationships between conservation and sustainable use are considered as well as the impact of the development of the discipline of conservation biology, the effects of the general acceptance of the concept of biodiversity and the practical implications of the implementation of the Convention on Biological diversity. The effect on conservation policy and management of the accelerating loss or conversion of habitats throughout the world and approaches for combating this are discussed.

While only about 1-200 species are used intensively in commercial floriculture (e.g. carnations, chrysanthemums, gerbera, narcissus, orchids, tulips, lilies, roses, pansies and violas, saintpaulias, etc.) and 4-500 as house plants, several thousand species of herbs, shrubs and trees are traded commercially by nurseries and garden centres as ornamentals or amenity species. Most of these have been introduced from the wild with little selection or breeding. In Europe alone, 12 000 species are found in cultivation in general garden collections (i.e. excluding specialist collections and botanic gardens). In addition, specialist collections (often very large) of many other species and/or cultivars of groups such as orchids, bromeliads, cacti and succulents, primulas, rhododendrons, conifers and cycads are maintained in several centres such as botanic gardens and specialist nurseries, as are 'national collections' of cultivated species and cultivars in some countries. Specialist growers, both professional and amateur, also maintain collections of plants for cultivation, including, increasingly, native plants. The trade in ornamental and amenity horticulture cannot be fully estimated but runs into many billions of dollars annually and there is considerable potential for further development and the introduction of many new species into the trade. Despite this, most of the collections are ad hoc and no co-ordinated efforts have been made to ensure that adequate germplasm samples of these species are maintained for conservation purposes and few of them are represented at all adequately in seed banks. Few countries have paid much attention to germplasm needs of ornamentals and the Ornamental Plant Germplasm Center in conjunction with the USDA National Plant Germplasm System at The Ohio State University is an exception. Generally there is a serious gap in national and international germplasm strategies, which have tended to focus primarily on food plants and some forage and industrial crops. Adequate arrangements need to be put in place to ensure the long- and medium-term conservation of representative samples of the genetic diversity of ornamental species. The problems of achieving this will be discussed. In addition, a policy for the conservation of old cultivars or 'heritage' varieties of ornamentals needs to be formulated. The considerable potential for introduction of new ornamental species needs to be assessed. Consideration needs to be given to setting up a co-ordinating structure with overall responsibility for the conservation of germplasm of ornamental and amenity plants.

In the 1960s Taxon published articles aimed at improving botanical Seed Lists. We compared suggestions made then with the situation in 2007. Sadly the majority of problems raised in the original manuscripts were still evident today. Botanic gardens must improve if this practice is to survive.

(1995). A global strategy for the conservation of plant diversity. Grana: Vol. 34, No. 6, pp. 363-366.

In this treatment, the genera Coincya (synonym: Hutera) and Rhynchosinapis are regarded as one genus under the name Coincya which has nomenclatural priority. This study is based on data from morphology, population studies, cytology, ecology and reproductive biology reinforced by breeding experiments.Coincya is a west European genus comprising 14 taxa (including six species, five subspecies and three varieties).Eight new combinations are proposed and two species are excluded; R.nivalis is referable to the genus Brassica and R. Leplocarpa is probably referable to Erucastrum. The chromosome number is either 2n= 24 or 2n= 48, which confirmed previous counts; C. Transtagana has not been counted. Breeding experiments were carried out with C. Longirostra, C.rupestris, C.monensis subsp.monensis, diploid and tetraploid races of subsp.recurvata var.recurvata, var.johnslonii, var.setigera, var.granatensis, subsp.hispida and subsp.puberula. All taxa tested are outbreeding with a genetic self-incompatibility mechanism and are cross-compatible, suggesting that there has been no cytological differentiation between the diploid species in this study. The tetraploids formed semi-sterile triploids when crossed with diploids and although the chromosomes only formed bivalents and trivalents at meiosis it was postulated that the tetraploid was an autotetraploid of polytopic origin. The evolution and differentiation of the genus and species are discussed.

The problems of world poverty will not be solved by biotechnology alone, nor by traditional plant breeding or improved agronomic practices but by a combination of all of these and other approaches. We need therefore to adopt a broad approach to our considerations of the links between biodiversity, agrobiodiversity and biotechnology.

In most considerations of plant conservation, scant attention is paid to sampling and conserving the chemical diversity and the underlying genetic diversity found in plant populations. Such diversity is of particular importance when dealing with medicinal and aromatic plants where it is precisely their chemical features, such as alkaloids, essential oils, etc. that are the characteristics for which they are valued. In contrast, a great vast amount of effort has gone into isolating and characterizing these chemical constituents from the limited samples that are traditionally used in phytochemical studies. Conservation of the genetic diversity of medicinal and aromatic plants has generally not received a great deal of attention from the genetic resource agencies or national or regional seedbanks1,2, although they are recognized in principle as an important group3,4, nor is there is great deal of evidence from the industry that this has been seriously addressed. Many seed banks do contain samples of some of these plants, but they are not generally the result of deliberate sampling campaigns. Public concern tends to focus on the benefits that may be derived from medicinal plants and on issues of Safety and the assumption is made that the plant resources will continue to be available although no concerted efforts hace been made to ensure this.

In this paper, I address both the wider issues that affect floristic studies today and how they are likely to develop in the future, and the special problems that concern the Mediterranean region in particular. A survey of published floristic studies is given for the Mediterranean and the Middle East, and the desirability of applying electronic web-based preparation and publication of floristic and taxonomic projects is considered, with special reference to the Euro + Med PlantBase project. A new paradigm for taxonomy, and a plan of action for Mediterranean floristic studies are proposed.

Worldwide there are many thousands of species of higher plants which are used by man and can therefore be considered resources (Heywood 1991). About 5,000 species have been cultivated at one time or another and there are many more which are harvested or used directly from the wild. As an illustration of this, the Plant Resources Project of South-East Asia records over 8,000 species in its basic list of species used by mankind in that area (Lemmens et al., 1989) and assuming similar percentages of the floras of other tropical regions are similarly employed, then we can extrapolate to a figure of 25–30,000 species for the tropics as a whole. In addition several thousand species are used by Man in the temperate regions of the world. Up to 25,000 species have been used in herbal medicines and many thousand species of ornamentals are grown in parks and in public and private gardens and as street trees.

Summary - An overview of man's current efforts to preserve plant diversity, both through in situ and ex situ conservation, is presented. Several approaches are reviewed, such as the IUCN Biodiversity Conservation Strategy, IUCN Protected Areas Program, Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat, the Centers for Plant Diversity and the Rapid Assessment Program.

Nearly all cultures, from ancient times to today, have used plants as a source of medicine. In many developing countries, traditional medicine is still the mainstay of health care and most of the drugs and cures used come from plants. In developed countries many people are turning to herbal remedies. With this widespread use has come the assumption that plants identified as having medicinal qualities will be available on a continuing basis. However no concerted effort has been made to ensure this and in the face of the threats of increasing demand, a vastly increasing human population and extensive forest destruction, there can be no guarantee that we will continue to benefit indefinitely from this valuable resource. In light of this situation the World Health Organisation held a meeting in 1988. This book is the outcome of that meeting, detailing in a series of papers by leading experts the problems of which need to be addressed, the existing experiences from a range of countries and the future direction which must be taken to ensure the conservation of the world's medicinal plants.

The flavonoids, both external aglycones and vacuolar flavonoid glycosides, have been identified in the aerial parts of endemic North African Sideritis species. The flavonoids produced by these African species are very similar to those produced by Spanish species, being mainly 7-allosylglucosides of 8-hydroxyflavones. Two new flavonoid glycosides, apigenin and luteolin 7-allosylglucosides, have been identified in these plants. Species of the section Sideritis are characterized by the accumulation of the 7-glycosides of 8-hydroxyflavones (isoscutellarein, hypolaetin and their methyl ethers) whereas those of section Hesiodia accumulate 7-glycosides of the common flavones (apigenin, luteolin and chrysoeriol).

Yellow flavonols have been identified in flowers of Coleostephus myconis, Glossopappus macrotus, Lepidophorum repandum and Leucanthemopsis flaveola . In addition to quercetagetin, gossypetin, patuletin and quercetagetin 3′-methyl ether previously reported in other species of the tribe Anthemideae of the Compositae, spinacetin, the 6,3′-dimethyl ether of quercetagetin, has been found for the first time as a flower pigment. It occurs as the 7-glucoside in flowers of Lepidophorum repandum , the leaves of which contain patuletin 3-rhamnoside. The presence of spinacetin and the 3′-methyl ether of quercetagetin in Lepidophorum fits in with the results of recent taxonomic studies which place this genus closer to Chrysanthemum than to Anthemis . Similarly, the occurrence of quercetagetin and gossypetin in Leucanthemopsis confirms its recently proposed separation from Tanacetum . The chemical data indicate that there is an evolutionary trend in yellow flower pigmentation, with Leucanthemopsis and Chrysanthemum segetum as the two least specialized species and Lepidophorum as the most advanced.

Seeds of 100 species from fifty genera of the Umbelliferae were surveyed for the psychotropic aromatic ether myristicin. It was found for the first time in the tribe Caucalideae, in Daucus glochidiatus, Pseudorlaya pumila and P. minuscula. Its presence in the tribes Peucedaneae (three genera) and Apieae (eight genera) was confirmed. Variation within species was noted in that it occurred in seed of both the cultivated parsnip Pastinaca sativa and the cultivated fennel (Foeniculum vulgare) but was absent from wild collections of these species. The only genus where it occurred regularly was Oenanthe (in all of five species examined). It could not be detected in any other of the Umbelliferae tribes nor in the related family, Araliaceae, and thus appears to be rare as a seed constituent.

Five species of Ostericum can be separated from Angelica s.l. by the presence in the former of high concentrations of flavonoids in leaf and mericarp. Some 15 glycosides of apigenin, luteolin, kaempferol and quercetin were characterized in Ostericum , while seven of eight species of Angelica s.s. surveyed lacked flavonoids in significant amount. Within Ostericum , each species gave a characteristic pattern; additionally in O. sieboldi , two chemical races were detected.