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Research on the efficacy of innovative, ecofriendly biostimulants in sport turf management is scarce, with less information available from open-field experiments, and even less pertaining to thatch control-related problems. The objective was to investigate the open-field effectiveness of a commercial product, EM-1, and two newly developed products, ExpA and ExpB, in improving both rhizosphere and turfgrass, Agrostis stoloniferous L., characteristics on a golf green. ExpA and ExpB, identical in microbial composition, were equally effective in significantly increasing chlorophyll synthesis and visual turf quality, as well as in resistance to tearing out, compared to the untreated control 56 days after treatment (DAT). EM-1 showed intermediate trends between the control and novel biostimulants. The inclusion of humic acids and mycorrhizal fungi to the microbial composition in ExpB significantly improved some rhizosphere properties 56 DAT relative to the control. Results on ExpB evidenced a significant decrease in the thatch layer thickness and fresh leaf weight, associated with a significant increase in the humus thickness, organic matter decomposition and evapotranspiration efficiency. An increased dry leaf biomass was also shown. ExpA and EM-1 showed either marginal or intermediate improvements relative to the control. ExpB represents a promising alternative to alleviate negative environmental impacts associated with turf maintenance-related activities.

This research was carried out between May 2016 and February 2018 on the experimental field of Bayindir Vocational Training School at Ege University, Izmir, Turkey. The research study was a pioneer attempt in a Mediterranean area, conducted in two consecutive steps. In the first step, turf color performances of five different turf colorants were tested on a dormant Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon L.) stand. Dormant Bermuda grass was overseeded with eleven different varieties of cool-season turf grasses in the second step of the study and color, texture and turf quality traits together with the rate of weed invasion and cover were determined. As the results of the study, SP Green, Ecolor Koyu and Ecolor Acik were identified as the brands demonstrating the greatest visual impact on the plots where the turf colorants were applied. Additionally, Poa pratensis cultivars were found to be completely inadequate among the tested varieties to compete with Bermuda grass during the summer months, Agrostis stolonifera demonstrated the most successful performance in the second year compared to other cool-season turf cultivars tested in the research., Ege University Scientific Research Projects Coordination [16-BAMYO-001], Research study (16-BAMYO-001) founded by Ege University Scientific Research Projects Coordination.

Because of public concern about exposing children to pesticides, legislation restricting its use on school playing fields has increased. One way to manage weeds without chemical herbicides is overseeding or the practice of repetitively seeding with a rapidly germinating turfgrass species. Overseeding for broadleaf weed control was tested on eight fields in Central New York (CNY) for three seasons and 40 fields across the northeastern United States for two seasons. Half of each field was treated each season by overseeding Lolium perenne L. (perennial ryegrass) three to five times each season for a total of 731 kg seed/ha (15 lb per 1000 ft2). Changes in the percent broadleaf weeds, grass, bare ground, soil moisture, Dark Green Color Index (DGCI) of grass cover, depth to soil compaction, and shear strength were measured after each treatment. The percent broadleaf weeds decreased and the percent grass cover increased due to overseeding in the Northeast fields, but not in CNY fields. Depth to compaction, percent soil moisture, and shear strength varied over time in the Northeast fields, and the percent bare ground, DGCI, and soil moisture varied over time in CNY fields. DGCI in the Northeast and soil compaction in CNY were affected by the interaction of overseeding × time. Although overseeding can be a beneficial weed management tool and affect other turf and soil traits in an integrated turf management program, monitoring environmental conditions and supporting field maintenance routines are critical weed management strategies for maintaining healthy turfgrass.

Areas with controlled access, as Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) and Territorial Use Rights for Fisheries (TURF), are conceived as tools to contribute to the ecosystem conservation and fisheries sustainability. Management and Exploitation Areas for Benthic Resources (MEABR), a TURF system implemented in Chile, offers the opportunity to test this hypothesis. The management in these areas is based mainly on the assessment of the resources population status, with low or no consideration of the ecological - environmental effects that condition their productivity. In this study, we evaluate ecological trophic dynamics of the rocky subtidal community configuration in four periods along 20 years of the highly productive Choros Island MEABR – MPA, including one pre-implementation period. In this TURF, the carnivore gastropod Concholepas concholepas (locally known as “loco”) is the main targeted resource. The performance of ecosystem indexes of this TURF increased during the MEABR regime as compared with the pre MEABR implementation. Nevertheless, the most conspicuous increase occurred in 2013, primarily in response to changes in environmental conditions and their direct and indirect effects on community interactions. The analysis of interactions between guilds indicated that the main drivers were the interaction between the primary productivity, prey abundance and the top predator loco. This produces a long-term dynamic of the system modulated by the interplay of environmental variability, which at benthic community level increases prey populations thus sustaining increased loco productivity. In turn, intensified predation of loco reduces its prey. This produces natural productivity fluctuations, which counteract the expected outcome of management actions, impeding to achieve stable landings in the long term.

The reuse of treated wastewater represents an attractive prospect for sustainable water management in urban areas. The aim of this study was to evaluate the reuse of treated wastewater from constructed wetland systems for the irrigation of Seashore paspalum turf (Paspalum vaginatum Sw.) and assess the effects of treated wastewater on the soil and turfgrass. The research was carried out in Sicily (Italy) in a pilot-scale horizontal subsurface flow system (HSSF). Seashore paspalum plots were irrigated with freshwater and treated wastewater. In treated wastewater-irrigated plots, we estimated the amounts of nitrogen and potassium, supplied by irrigating with treated wastewater. The productive and qualitative characteristics of Seashore paspalum were not significantly influenced by irrigation with treated wastewater compared to freshwater. There was no significant variation in soil salinity and organic matter with the application of treated wastewater. The results confirm that treated wastewaters provide an additional water source and fertilizer for turf management in urban areas where the supply of freshwater is often limited.

The development of a (layer of) thatch in turfgrass causes important changes to near-surface eco-hydrological processes. In this study, we investigated the effects of turfgrass thatch, specifically Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) and red fescue (Festuca rubra L.) on water infiltration, surface runoff, and soil moisture evaporation. The thatches were collected from the field for controlled experiments using packed soil columns under various rainfall conditions. Results indicated that the presence of thatch delayed the onset of infiltration compared with situations without a thatch at the soil surface. Infiltration was delayed for a longer period in thicker red fescue thatch than thinner Kentucky bluegrass thatch. The presence of a thatch reduced runoff by holding more water locally during the rainfall period and allowing a longer period of time for infiltration. Additionally, evaporative water loss was reduced with the presence of thatch than that of bare soil. Our results highlight that the presence of thatch changes the near-surface hydrological processes, which may help improve turf management practices in terms of thatch control and irrigation scheduling.

Forty schools having natural turf playgrounds were investigated by on-spot investigation and oral interviews with relevant school officials to find out basic information on turfgrass management practices of school playgrounds in Gyeonggi province. Average area of playground was per school and per student. Ninety five percent of turf playgrounds were managed by school staff and ninety percent of schools spent less than 5 million won per year for turf management. The difficulties in turfgrass management were considered as a major challenge for the schools, followed by turfgrass management cost. Among the management practices, school officials pointed out weed management as the most difficult work, followed by irrigation. The average number of fertilization and mowing was 2 and 6 times per year, respectively. About the half of playgrounds were irrigated only when there was wilting symptom. Zoysiagrass was the most popular choice for the school playgrounds and only three school playgrounds were established with pop-up irrigation system. Fourteen school playgrounds had good turf quality but the rest of school playgrounds had inadequate turf quality requiring minor or full renovation.

Annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.) may be the most troublesome and studied weed on golf courses in the United States. Given the genetic variability of annual bluegrass and its ability to adapt to different environments, it is important to understand how control methods vary across environments or regions. Our objective was to evaluate seven season-long regimes of herbicide or growth regulators for annual bluegrass control in creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera Huds.) putting greens over 3 or 4 years in three states in the midwestern United States. Depending on the product, applications were made as often as every 2 weeks from April through September. Effectiveness of treatments varied widely by location and time, with treatments most effective in Indiana and Nebraska. Paclobutrazol was the most effective plant growth regulator for annual bluegrass control, followed closely by flurprimidol. Intermediate at reducing annual bluegrass was flurprimidol + trinexapac-ethyl and trinexapac-ethyl was ineffective. Among herbicides, the now discontinued experimental cumyluron was most effective and four applications of bispyribac-sodium at 2 oz/acre every 2 weeks in August and September was more effective than 1 oz/acre applied every 2 weeks from May through September or applications of cumyluron. Though a number of products will reduce annual bluegrass on golf greens, overall control was relatively low, reinforcing the need to maximize cultural practices before attempting chemical control. Furthermore, our results reinforce the importance of superintendents’ experimenting and refining treatment regimes in their specific location to maximize efficacy. Annual bluegrass (Poa annua L.; ABG) may be the most troublesome weed on golf courses worldwide. Annual bluegrass’s genetic diversity, ability to adapt to varying environments, and reproductive capacity from seed enable it to thrive in golf course turf. A number of herbicides and growth regulators are labeled and effective for ABG control on fairwayheight cool-season grasses. Paclobutrazol is a growth regulator that inhibits gibberellic acid (GA), and multiple applications effectively reduce ABG cover in fairway-height creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera Huds.; CBG) (Isgrigg et al., 1999a, 1999b; Johnson and Murphy, 1995, 1996; McCullough et al., Published in Crop, Forage & Turfgrass Management DOI: 10.2134/cftm2014.0050 © 2015 American Society of Agronomy and Crop Science Society of America 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison, WI 53711 All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permission for printing and for reprinting the material contained herein has been obtained by the publisher. Zachary Reicher, Professor; and Matt Sousek, Research Technologist; Dep. of Agronomy & Horticulture, Univ. of Nebraska-Lincoln, Lincoln, NE 68583. Aaron Patton, Associate Professor; and Dan Weisenberger, Research Agronomist; Dep. of Agronomy, Purdue Univ., West Lafayette, IN 47907. Aaron Hathaway, Research Assistant, Dep. of Plants, Soil, and Microbial Sciences, Michigan State Univ., East Lansing, MI 48824. Ronald Calhoun, Director of Education, Training and Outreach, Residex Professional Pest and Turf Management Supply, Novi, MI 48377. Zachary Reicher, current address: Bayer Crop Sciences, 2483 County Rd. A., Denton, NE 68339. Received 9 June 2014. Accepted 18 Feb. 2015. *Corresponding author (zac.reicher@bayer.com). Abbreviations: ABG, annual bluegrass; AUPPC, area under percent Poa curve; CBG, creeping bentgrass; GA, gibberellic acid. Published July 17, 2015

In the United States, there is a growing need for turfgrass management practices that protect community and environmental health. The proportion of the developed landscape in the United States covered by turfgrass is significant and, at present, covers at least 1.9% of the total land area and comprises 60% in parts of the country. As urbanization progresses, there is a critical need to re-examine turf management practices that reduce reliance on pesticide and fertilizer inputs while contributing additional beneficial ecosystem services. In this review, we discuss the functional role of turfgrass in urban ecosystems. We identify key urban ecosystem processes associated with turfgrass and evaluate the potential to integrate biodiversity into their design and management. Specifically, we summarize research on the Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function theory that shows enhanced C storage, N retention, and weed suppression in natural and managed ecosystems, which are traits that are relevant to turfgrass systems. Enhancing biodiversity in turfgrass systems could increase ecosystem services in urban landscapes and should be considered a component of sustainable management practices.

Turf management on golf courses entails frequent maintenance activities, such as mowing, irrigation and fertilisation, and relies on purchased inputs for optimal performance and aesthetic quality. Using life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology, this study evaluated energy use and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from management of two Swedish golf courses, divided into green, tee, fairway and rough, and identified options for improved management. Energy use and GHG emissions per unit area were highest for greens, followed by tees, fairways and roughs. However, when considering the entire golf course, both energy use and GHG emissions were mainly related to fairway and rough maintenance due to their larger area. Emissions of GHG for the two golf courses were 1.0 and 1.6 Mg CO2e ha 1 year 1 as an area-weighted average, while the energy use was 14 and 19 GJ ha(-1) year Mowing was the most energy-consuming activity, contributing 21 and 27% of the primary energy use for the two golf courses. In addition, irrigation and manufacturing of mineral fertiliser and machinery resulted in considerable energy use. Mowing and emissions associated with fertilisation (manufacturing of N fertiliser and soil emissions of N20 occurring after application) contributed most to GHG emissions. Including the estimated mean annual soil C sequestration rate for fairway and rough in the assessment considerably reduced the carbon footprint for fairway and turned the rough into a sink for GHG. Emissions of N20 from decomposition of grass clippings may be a potential hotspot for GHG emissions, but the high spatial and temporal variability of values reported in the literature makes it difficult to estimate these emissions for specific management regimes. Lowering the application rate of N mineral fertiliser, particularly on fairways, should be a high priority for golf courses trying to reduce their carbon footprint. However, measures must be adapted to the prevailing conditions at the specific golf course and the requirements set by golfers. (C) 2016 The Authors. Published by Elsevier GmbH.

In Europe the cultivation of warm season turfgrasses was negligible until the beginning of the 90’s. A scientific approach to their cultivation started with field trials being installed in several locations in Italy starting from 1994. Adaptation to climatic condition and first screening of relative performance of cultivars were held as primary elements to assess in order to assist turf growers in introducing the different species and cultivars of zoysiagrass (Zoysia spp. Willd.) in the warm temperate regions of the Mediterranean Europe. At a later stage, studies on zoysiagrass adaptation were extended as north as 45° parallel and, as slow establishment began to appear a major limitation of this turfgrass, an alternative establishment method and establishment pattern were investigated. As for other warm season turfgrasses winter dormancy is considered a major drawback and trials dealing with fall fertilization and winter management have been carried out to support winter maintenance decisions. In recent years soccer playing characteristics have been determined on zoysiagrass while preliminary research results indicate turf management through remotely sensed data as a promising technique for the years to come.

Spectral reflectance data originating from Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) imagery is a valuable tool to monitor plant nutrition, reduce nitrogen (N) application to real needs, thus producing both economic and environmental benefits. The objectives of the trial were i) to compare the spectral reflectance of 3 turfgrasses acquired via UAV and by a ground-based instrument; ii) to test the sensitivity of the 2 data acquisition sources in detecting induced variation in N levels. N application gradients from 0 to 250 kg ha-1 were created on 3 different turfgrass species: Cynodon dactylon x transvaalensis (Cdxt) 'Patriot', Zoysia matrella (Zm) 'Zeon' and Paspalum vaginatum (Pv) 'Salam'. Proximity and remote-sensed reflectance measurements were acquired using a GreenSeeker handheld crop sensor and a UAV with onboard a multispectral sensor, to determine Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Proximity-sensed NDVI is highly correlated with data acquired from UAV with r values ranging from 0.83 (Zm) to 0.97 (Cdxt). Relating NDVI-UAV with clippings N, the highest r is for Cdxt (0.95). The most reactive species to N fertilization is Cdxt with a clippings N% ranging from 1.2% to 4.1%. UAV imagery can adequately assess the N status of turfgrasses and its spatial variability within a species, so for large areas, such as golf courses, sod farms or race courses, UAV acquired data can optimize turf management. For relatively small green areas, a hand-held crop sensor can be a less expensive and more practical option.

Thesis (PhD(Environmental Science and Engineering))--University of South Australia, 2016. Includes bibliographical references (pages 238-251) Turf is an integrated system comprising of several components and optimal performance of a sports turf surface will only be achieved if all critical components of the turf system are adequately provided. Critical components include the turf root zone, plant system and management program. The scope of this thesis is to investigate these critical components via practical yet scientifically-designed field trials, industry surveys and observations from extensive industry research and extension. The overall objective of this thesis is to derive information and systems that will enable leading multi-use stadiums in Australia to optimise the safe use of the playing surface and in turn improve the sustainability and profitability of the sports field resource.

BACKGROUND: Turfgrass management practices, especially the use of chemical pesticides, may be detrimental to beneficial arthropods such as predators and decomposers. However, little is known about the impact of other practices or pest control products on these beneficials. The impact of four different management regimes, consisting of synthetic pesticide cover sprays or combinations of more targeted applications of natural pesticides, on selected groups of non-targeted arthropods in lawns of different age was studied over 3 years. The short-term effect of diazinon and carbaryl on Carabidae and Collembola was also evaluated. RESULTS: Formicidae and Araneae were the most abundant taxa at both sites, representing 74-80% of total captures. With a few short-term exceptions, no persistent and significant difference between turfgrass management regimes on arthropod abundance was observed over the 3 year study. Diazinon and carbaryl significantly reduced Carabidae abundance, but only one year out of three, while Collembola abundance was only transiently affected by carbaryl application in 2003. CONCLUSION: The study showed that practices and products used in the four management regimes did not disrupt the populations of specific groups of arthropods. These results provide useful information to professionals for the development of ecological turf practices to maintain beneficial arthropod abundance and diversity in urban landscapes.

A critical challenge facing the turf industry is increasingly limited water supplies. Identifying cultivars that use less water while maintaining acceptable quality may mitigate irrigation demands. Our objectives were to identify Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) (KBG) cultivars and phenotypic groups that maintained better visual quality with less water. Thirty bluegrass selections were evaluated in a 2-yr field study under a rainout shelter near Manhattan, KS. Irrigation (2.5 cm) was applied when >50% of a plot exhibited visible wilt symptoms. Visual quality was rated daily. Average irrigation applications ranged widely from 23.3 cm (mean = 2.2 mm d⁻¹) in Bedazzled to 44.9 cm (mean = 4.2 mm d⁻¹) in Kenblue, and days to wilt between irrigations ranged from 6.4 d in Kenblue to 13.1 d in Cabernet. Visual quality averaged at or slightly below 6.0, defined as “minimally acceptable,” but this may be adequate when water conservation is a priority and some dormancy is tolerable; irrigation at

An estimated 32,000 golf courses worldwide (approximately 25,600 km2), provide ecosystem goods and services and support an industry contributing over $124 billion globally. Golf courses can impact positively on local biodiversity however their role in the global carbon cycle is not clearly understood. To explore this relationship, the balance between plant–soil system sequestration and greenhouse gas emissions from turf management on golf courses was modelled. Input data were derived from published studies of emissions from agriculture and turfgrass management. Two UK case studies of golf course type were used, a Links course (coastal, medium intensity management, within coastal dune grasses) and a Parkland course (inland, high intensity management, within woodland).Playing surfaces of both golf courses were marginal net sources of greenhouse gas emissions due to maintenance (Links −2.2 ± 0.4 Mg CO2e ha(−1) y(−1); Parkland − 2.0 ± 0.4 Mg CO2e ha(−1) y(−1)). A significant proportion of emissions were from the use of nitrogen fertiliser, especially on tees and greens such that 3% of the golf course area contributed 16% of total greenhouse gas emissions. The area of trees on a golf course was important in determining whole-course emission balance. On the Parkland course, emissions from maintenance were offset by sequestration from turfgrass, and trees which comprised 48% of total area, resulting in a net balance of −5.4 ± 0.9 Mg CO2e ha(−1) y(−1). On the Links course, the proportion of trees was much lower (2%) and sequestration from links grassland resulted in a net balance of −1.6 ± 0.3 Mg CO2e ha(−1) y(−1). Recommendations for golf course management and design include the reduction of nitrogen fertiliser, improved operational efficiency when mowing, the inclusion of appropriate tree-planting and the scaling of component areas to maximise golf course sequestration capacity. The findings are transferrable to the management and design of urban parks and gardens, which range between fairways and greens in intensity of management.

According to the National Safe Kids Coalition, 30 million young people play organized sports in the United States annually. One million of them are treated annually in an emergency room and 50% of those treated injuries are preventable. As more people are encouraged to be active in their daily lives to combat health issues and obesity, an increased demand on recreational and sport facilities and playing surfaces will increase the degradation of the playing surfaces and thereby increase the risk of sports related injuries. Continual maintenance and upkeep of playing surfaces can be become a sinkhole for budgeted dollars if a facility use plan and a maintenance plan are not in place for dealing with the increase in play on athletic fields and parks. So why do the statistics of athletic injury matter? As we manage sports fields, our jobs are to reduce the number of injuries on our playing surfaces. We need to make our fields as safe as we can. There are a number of agronomic practices that many times are overlooked or forgotten about when managing sports turf. “8 Steps to an Easy Field Facelift” is a list of the management practices we can employ that will sustain our fields safer for play for a longer period of time at minimal cost.

Crabgrass species are problematic weeds in bermudagrass turf that can be controlled by PRE herbicide applications. Because of the difficulty in predicting crabgrass emergence and other prevailing management constraints, PRE herbicide applications are not always properly timed. Mesotrione controls crabgrass both PRE and POST; however, relatively short soil-residual activity limits its use as a PRE herbicide. Two experiments were conducted to evaluate smooth crabgrass control with PRE applications of mesotrione plus prodiamine. The first experiment evaluated the influence of application timing on the efficacy of mesotrione-plus-prodiamine combinations. Applications were made every 2 wk from March 15 to May 24. Mesotrione plus prodiamine controlled smooth crabgrass more consistently across all application dates than either mesotrione or prodiamine applied alone. The second experiment evaluated mesotrione along with current PRE and early POST herbicide treatments used for control of crabgrass. When applied at...

Capped waste sites often are vegetated with commercial turf grasses to increase evapotranspiration and prevent erosion and possible exposure of the barrier. Fertilizer, frequent watering, and mowing may be required to establish the turf grass and prevent invasion by trees and shrubs. Oldfield vegetation of grasses and forbs is a possible sustainable alternative to turf grass communities. To determine if oldfield vegetation can establish on caps, we (1) compared establishment of a dominant oldfield grass and a commercial turf grass under different combinations of new closure cap management: spring or summer planting and presence or absence of amendments to alleviate drought (watering, mulch) or increase soil fertility (fertilizer, lime, a nitrogen-fixing legume); (2) surveyed existing caps to determine if oldfield species establish naturally; and (3) performed a greenhouse experiment to compare growth of two native grasses under low and amended (added water, soil nutrients) conditions. Both the commercial grass and oldfield species established under new cap conditions; fertilizer, water, and mulch improved vegetation establishment in spring or summer, but legumes decreased grass cover. In the greenhouse, both native grasses grew best with amendments; however, substantial stem and root length were obtained with no fertilizer and only once-weekly watering. Existing vegetated caps supported planted grasses and naturally established oldfield species. Overall, the results indicate native grasses can establish on new caps and oldfields can serve as a management model; further work is needed to determine the management strategy to maintain herbaceous vegetation and slow woody species invasion.

Turfgrass is a highly managed ecosystem subject to frequent fertilization, mowing, irrigation, and application of pesticides. Turf management practices may create a perturbed environment for ammonia oxidizers, a key microbial group responsible for nitrification. To elucidate the long-term effects of turf management on these bacteria, we assessed the composition of betaproteobacterial ammonia oxidizers in a chronosequence of turfgrass systems (i.e., 1, 6, 23, and 95 years old) and the adjacent native pines by using both 16S rRNA and amoA gene fragments specific to ammonia oxidizers. Based on the Shannon-Wiener diversity index of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis patterns and the rarefaction curves of amoA clones, turf management did not change the relative diversity and richness of ammonia oxidizers in turf soils as compared to native pine soils. Ammonia oxidizers in turfgrass systems comprised a suite of phylogenetic clusters common to other terrestrial ecosystems. Nitrosospira clusters 0, 2, 3, and 4; Nitrosospira sp. Nsp65-like sequences; and Nitrosomonas clusters 6 and 7 were detected in the turfgrass chronosequence with Nitrosospira clusters 3 and 4 being dominant. However, both turf age and land change (pine to turf) effected minor changes in ammonia oxidizer composition. Nitrosospira cluster 0 was observed only in older turfgrass systems (i.e., 23 and 95 years old); fine-scale differences within Nitrosospira cluster 3 were seen between native pines and turf. Further investigations are needed to elucidate the ecological implications of the compositional differences.

The golf industry does not have comprehensive national data on the property features, management practices, inputs, and outputs associated with golf courses. A series of surveys will be conducted to collect the data necessary to develop a national golf course environmental profile. This was the first survey of the series and the objectives were to determine total acreage of a golf course, land-use characteristics, acres and grass species of each component of the golf course, acreage dedicated to natural resources and environmental stewardship practices. The survey was sent to 16,009 golf course facilities' superintendentsi n the United States. Golf courses were stratified by agronomic region, coursetype, and number of holes to ensure all types of golf courses were represented in the results. Results indicate the total acreage of an average 18-hole golf courseis 150 acres, of which 100 acres (67%) is maintained turf. Cool-season grasses are grown on 66% and warm-season grasses are grown on 34% of all maintained turf acreage on golf courses. The remaining acreage is comprised of non-turfgrass landscapes (16%), water bodies (7%), buildings (4%), bunkers (3%), and parking lots (3%). Approximately 44% of golf courses have increased the non-turfgrass landscape areas by nearly 10 acres over the last 10 years. Over the last 10 years, an average of five environmental improvements have been made on 18-hole golf courses, while those golf courses that participated in voluntary environmental stewardship programs have made an average of seven improvements.These data provide an accurate portrayal of golf course land use to guide golf industry agronomic and environmental initiatives and establish a baseline that can be compared to data from future surveys to monitor industry change.

Economic and environmental concerns over nitrogen (N) fertilization of turfgrasses are prompting serious considerations of how to best use various N pools in turf-soil ecosystems. Nitrogen in clippings is receiving special consideration but information on how large and variable this N source might be for different turfgrasses is limited. Therefore, a field study investigated growth of and N recovery in clippings from 10 cultivars each of kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) turf at the University of Rhode Island Turfgrass Research Station, Kingston, during 1990 and 1991 growing seasons. All turf had been established in 1985, 1986 or 1987 on an Enfield silt loam (Coarse loamy over sandy skeletal, mixed, mesic, Typic Dystrochrepts) and maintained under N fertilization rate of 147 kg N ha/year. Daily clipping growth rate (DCG), leaf blade N concentration (NC), and daily N recovery rate (DNR) in clippings were compared across species and cultivars. Seasonal clipping yields ranged from 5152 kg dry weight/ha for tall fescue to 3680 kg·ha–1 for perennial ryegrass. Significant species differences in the amount and seasonal pattern of N recovery were identified. Cultivar differences in N recovery were greatest for kentucky bluegrass but much less for perennial ryegrass and tall fescue. Total N recovery in clippings ranged from 260 to 111 kg N/ha/year generally exceeded N supplied as fertilizer, thus emphasizing potential importance of clipping N in turf management.

Water, soil, and turfgrass are the key elements in the environmental management of golf courses. All of them must be combined to create a modified ecosystem meeting the needs of the golf player. For several reasons, golf courses and golf itself are suffering from a misunderstanding and lack of a positive image in several European countries. Thus, the correct management and the wise use of natural resources, land, and water are nowadays paramount for the golf world. There are arguments about the amount of water used for golf course irrigation on the grounds of excess water resources employed, competition with other water uses, and the attitude of part of the public that considers golf as a sumptuary activity. Soil is also considered as a resource because golf courses use considerable amounts of land, for a limited amount of people, during the year. A discussion arises on whether land is modified in an irreversible way or not. Many times, the debate is not centred on the green areas, but on the built areas surrounding courses. Plants are the third element in a golf course, no less important, and the discussion in this case derives from the use of allochthonous species, usually consuming more water than the autochthonous ones.

Typical turfgrass species often receive substantial inputs of water, fertilizer, chemicals, and cultural management, particularly in the Intermountain U.S. Plant materials that do not require these inputs and that also maintain acceptable levels of turf quality and performance are desirable in low-maintenance/limited irrigation situations. However, there is a lack of plant material that fits this description. Crested wheatgrass is a potential source of turf varieties for semi-arid regions and is the focus of current breeding efforts to improve its turf characteristics. This study examined implications of irrigation interval, mowing height, nitrogen fertilization, and cultivar selection on the performance of crested wheatgrass turf. While irrigation interval, mowing height, and cultivar affected performance, the application of nitrogen fertilization was the critical factor for maintaining the quality of crested wheatgrass turf under the conditions of this study. Regardless of the treatments imposed, crested wheatgrass turf performance declines during the hot summer months.

Soil organic C (SOC) directly affects soil quality by influencing aeration and water retention and serving as a major repository and reserve source of plant nutrients. Limited information is available concerning the long-term SOC changes in turfgrass systems. The CENTURY stimulation model offers an opportunity to predict long-term SOC trends based on mathematical representations of C-cycling processes in the soil-plant systems. The objectives of this study were to (i) evaluate the ability and effectiveness of the CENTURY model to simulate the long-term SOC dynamics in highly managed turfgrass ecosystems and (ii) simulate long-term SOC changes for golf course fairway and putting green scenarios with the CENTURY model. The CENTURY model simulations near Denver and Fort Collins, CO, indicate that turfgrass systems can serve as a C sink following establishment. Model estimates are that 23 to 32 Mg ha -1 SOC were sequestered in the 0 to 20 cm below the soil surface after about 30 yr. Historic soil-testing data from parts of 16 golf courses with age ranging from 1 to 45 yr were used to compare with the simulated results. Model predictions of organic C accumulation compared reasonably well with observed SOC, with regression coefficients of 0.67 for fairways and 0.83 for putting greens. Our results suggest that the CENTURY model can be used to simulate SOC changes in turfgrass systems and has the potential to compare C sequestration under various turf management conditions. Simulation results also suggest that warming temperatures have greater degree of influence on SOC in turf systems compared with native grasslands.

Annual bluegrass control was reduced following 7 yr of continuous fall application of dinitroaniline (DNA) herbicides. Annual bluegrass control was

Grasslands are significantly important vegetation resources that occupy about one-quarter of the earths vegetative surface. Whereas sports turf has been defined as a surface layer of vegetation, consisting of earth and a dense stand of grasses and roots, amenity grasslands have been defined as grasslands which provide recreational, functional, or aesthetic value, but which is not used primarily for agricultural production. Sports turf and amenity grassland management can vary in terms of the grass assets, function, composition, use and level of intensity and their annual cost of maintenance. The resources required to maintain the level of playing surface performance are described in terms of mowing, fertilizer application, irrigation, aeration, topdressing and plant protection procedures, as well as a means of effectively measuring player and playing surface performance.

The stability of nitrogen within a turf-soil ecosystem is important both for efficient turf management and preventing the contamination of ground water by nitrate. The objective of this study was to quantify responses of the microbial community and the mobility of soil nitrogen following the sudden death of established turf. Twelve-year-old turf plots comprising four cool-season turfgrass species fertilized with five N sources were maintained on an Enfield silt loam (coarse-silty over sandy or sandy-skeletal, mixed, active, mesic Typic Dystrudept) at Kingston, RI. Half of the plots were killed with glyphosate in early September and any regrowth was removed mechanically. Measurements of soil physical, chemical, and microbiological properties and nitrate leaching in killed and healthy plots were compared for 12 mo. Turf death did not alter soil moisture, temperature, pH, or extractable ammonium. Nitrate levels were higher in both the root zone and at 60 cm following turf death and this difference persisted for the sampling year. Carbon mineralization and microbial biomass C were not different between soils from healthy and killed plots. Killed plots leached three times more nitrate than healthy plots but this amounted to less than 10% of total soil N present. Retention of nitrate in a turf-soil system depends on absorption by living grass roots, although reasonable N stability is also provided by N cycling within the soil microbiota. Protecting ground water from nitrate contamination is optimized by maintaining a vigorous turfgrass cover.

Turf management in shaded conditions is difficult in part because the reduced irradiance causes excessive shoot elongation, reduced tillering and root growth, and weak plants exceptionally prone to damage. Successful installation of natural grass athletic fields in covered or shaded stadia require improved management procedures. The objective of this study was to determine if flurprimidol [α-(1- = -methylethyl)-α-[(trifluourmethoxy)phenyl]-5-pyrimidinemethanol], a gibberellic acid (GA)-biosynthesis inhibitor, could be used to increase turf quality for athletic fields in covered stadia and other reduced irradiance situations. Portable plots of Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.) were established outdoors and moved inside a covered-stadium simulator facility (CSSF). Four rates of flurprimidol (0.56, 1.12, 1.68, and 2.80 kg ha -1 ) were compared against a control. Studies were conducted under ambient (equivalent to 2-3% full summer sunlight) and supplemental (equivalent to 9-18% full summer sunlight) irradiance. The turf was evaluated with and without simulated soccer traffic. Under ambient irradiance conditions, turf quality generally declined to unacceptable levels within 30 d, although the low rate of flurprimidol extended this period for up to 60 d. Supplemental irradiance provided turf of acceptable quality for up to 70 d and the low rate of flurprimidol extended this period for >100 d. Applications repeated within 30 to 40 d virtually stopped measurable shoot growth under all irradiance and traffic regimes. Flurprimidol did not affect turf shear resistance or rooting but did increase tillering. Low rates of flurprimidol should be useful for maintaining turf in reduced irradiance conditions because turf quality is enhanced with minimal risk of phytotoxicity.

[EN] Grassy weeds may reduce cool-season turfgrass establishment after seeding and herbicide use is often warranted. Field experiments were conducted to evaluate the tolerance of creeping bentgrass (Agrostis stolonifera L.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and tall fescue (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) to fenoxaprop and metamifop applications at 1, 2, 3, or 4 weeks after seeding (WAS). Creeping bentgrass groundcover was reduced from 34% to 71% at 8 WAS from the nontreated by fenoxaprop at 50 g a.i./ha and metamifop at 400 and 800 g a.i./ha at all application timings. Metamifop at 200 g·haL1 reduced creeping bentgrass cover 10% to 18% from the nontreated at 8 WAS when applied 1, 2, or 3 WAS, but treatments at 4 WAS did not reduce cover. Perennial ryegrass treated with fenoxaprop and metamifop at 800 g·haL1 at 1 WAS had cover reduced from the nontreated on two and one dates, respectively, whereas tall fescue cover was never reduced greater than 5% from the nontreated. Results suggest applications to creeping bentgrass should be delayed greater than 4 WAS for fenoxaprop at 50 g·haL1 , greater than 4 WAS for metamifop at 400 and 800 g·haL1 , and 3 WAS for metamifop at 200 g·haL1 . Additionally, fenoxaprop applications should be delayed 2 WAS for perennial ryegrass and tall fescue, whereas metamifop could be safely applied at all rates at 1 WAS., We thank Bill Nutt, Seth Williams, and Bob Perry for technical support with this research. We also thank the PAID-00-12, I + D Programe from the Universitat Politecnica de Valencia for supporting the sabbatical work of Diego Gomez de Barreda at the University of Georgia.

Landscape maintenance firms in Georgia were surveyed to obtain information regarding pesticide usage and factors that would facilitate adoption of non-chemical pest control measures. The trend in pest control from 1988 to 1993 was toward greater usage of non-chemical control measures. The usage trend for chemicals during that period was an increase for fungicides/bactericides and herbicides and a decrease for insecticides, with growth regulator use remaining steady. Over half (55%) of the pesticides were used for turf management. All firms expect to use about the same amount of pesticides over the next 5 years while increasing the use of non-chemical control measures. Opportunities were identified for landscape architects and university personnel to help landscape maintenance firms reduce the need for pesticides. The two most frequently identified opportunities for university personnel were to sponsor local workshops with specific training for workers on integrated pest management (IPM) practices (35.6%) and seasonal or regular newsletters with IPM reminders (30.0%). The most frequently identified opportunities available to the landscape architects to help reduce pesticide use included: (1) improved plant selection, particularly pest resistant varieties (51.8%), (2) proper site selection/location of plants (14.8%), and (3) more spacing between plants and consideration of final size (13.7%).

Despite being fragmented and highly disturbed habitats, urban turfgrass ecosystems harbor a surprising diversity of arthropods. The suitability of turf as arthropod habitat, however, likely depends on the extent and types of pesticides and fertilizers used. For example, moderate levels of weed cover in low-input lawns may provide alternative food resources. We conducted a 2-yr field study to: 1) characterize the ground beetle (Carabidae) species assemblage in turfgrass, and 2) assess the direct and indirect effects of lawn management on carabid communities. Weed cover and beetle activity were compared among four lawn management programs: 1) consumer/garden center, 2) integrated pest management (IPM), 3) natural organic, and 4) no-input control. Nearly 5,000 carabid beetles across 17 species were collected with the predator Cyclotrachelus sodalis LeConte numerically dominating the trap catch (87% and 45% of individuals in 2005 and 2006, respectively). Populations of C. sodalis underwent a distinct peak in activity during the third week of June, whereas omnivorous and granivorous species tended to occur at far lower levels and were less variable over the season. We found no evidence for direct effects of lawn management on carabid species diversity; however, we detected an indirect effect mediated by variation in weed cover. Seed-feeding species were positively correlated with turf weeds early in 2006, whereas strictly predaceous species were not. Thus, turf management programs that lead to changes in plant species composition (i.e., herbicide regimes) may indirectly shape epigeal arthropod communities more strongly than the direct effects of insecticide use.

Annual bluegrass is a troublesome weed in turf management and there are currently limited POST herbicides labeled for use in seashore paspalum. Field and greenhouse experiments were conducted to evaluate seashore paspalum tolerance to pronamide and other herbicides for annual bluegrass control. In field experiments, turf injury never exceeded 7% from pronamide applied at dormancy, 50% green-up, or complete green-up of seashore paspalum in spring. Annual bluegrass control from pronamide was initially similar across timings and averaged 67, 90, and 98% control from 0.84, 1.68, and 3.36 kg ai ha21, respectively, after 6 wk. In greenhouse experiments, the aforementioned pronamide rates caused less than 10% injury on seashore paspalum. Seashore paspalum injury in the greenhouse was excessive (. 20%) from atrazine, bispyribac-sodium, and trifloxysulfuron and moderate (7 to 20%) from foramsulfuron, rimsulfuron, and ethofumesate. Seashore paspalum seedhead count reductions by 4 wk after treatment (WAT) were good to excellent (87 to 98%) from atrazine, bispyribac-sodium, rimsulfuron, and trifloxysulfuron and poor (# 0%) from ethofumesate, foramsulfuron, and pronamide. By 4 WAT, seashore paspalum clippings were reduced 0 to 39% from pronamide, whereas atrazine, bispyribac-sodium, and trifloxysulfuron reduced clippings by 54 to 69% from the untreated and ethofumesate, foramsulfuron, and rimsulfuron reduced clippings by 27 to 39%., The authors thank Dr. Paul Raymer, Bill Nutt, and Bob Perry for technical support at the University of Georgia and Dow Agrosciences for partial funding to support this research.

Large earthworms consume substantial numbers of seeds, above and below ground. Many are deposited in a viable state in wormcasts on the soil surface. Such wormcasts apparently provide particularly favourable conditions for seedling establishment. Plants with seeds that are readily ingested by earthworms are likely to be at an advantage over other species in at least some communities. This neglected area of plant-animal interactions lends itself well to student projects, a number of which are suggested. Such investigations could yield valuable new information, with implications for turf management and the composition of natural communities.

The golf industry in the United States has grown tremendously over the last fifteen years, due primarily to the surging economy during the 1990s and the rise of Tiger Woods with his record-setting win at the 1997 Masters. The National Golf Foundation's (NGF) latest report, however, showed that, the number of rounds played, a key barometer of golf industry growth, has been declining since 2008 and the number of core golfers has also declined (Rudy, 2008). Municipal golf courses, "Munis," are coping with a myriad of challenges such as declining number of rounds played, budget cuts, escalating benefits expenses for city employees, the increased cost of turf management, and so on. For example, the city of Albuquerque has increased their green fees to cover costs of maintaining their three municipal courses; however, no data exists to analyze the impact of this decision. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to analyze factors affecting consumers’ preferences in selecting golf courses, their perceptions about the prices of products being sold at the golf courses, and to analyze the differences in price perceptions among different groups of golfers such as avid golfers, core golfers, and casual golfers. A questionnaire was developed based on literature available in the golf industry and reviewed by an expert panel. The findings show that there were no significant differences among golfers using municipal golf courses about price perceptions being sold at the pro shop including green fees, cart rentals, golf equipment, etc. Golfers perceived green fees as “reasonable” but the results of this research suggest that golf course authorities should keep green fees competitive, and find other innovative ways to manage their course assets to increase participation in the future. 1 Kim et al.: Price Perceptions in the Selection of Golf Courses: A Case Study Published by ScholarWorks@GVSU, 2010 Journal of Tourism Insight s Vol. 1 No. 1 66 as free range balls, tees, water, and so on. These pricing structures may be a major barrier to the long term success of the Albuquerque municipal golf courses. For example, both the number of core golfers and the number of rounds played have been declining recently. The majority of golfers (almost 97 %) using municipal golf courses at the city of Albuquerque are locals, and the number of rounds played decreased from more than 400,000 in 2000 to 289,642 in 2008, a decrease of more than 27%. The price of green fees at the municipal golf course in Albuquerque was $17.00 for weekdays and $18.25 for weekends in 2000; but has risen more than 29% and 54%, respectively, to $22.00 and $28.50 each, despite a significant decrease in the rounds played at all municipal golf courses. Table 1, below, depicts the decline in the number of rounds played between 1998 and 2008.

Publisher Summary This chapter examines the usages and functional aspects of turf environments to illustrate its uniqueness compared to other plant environments. A properly planned and maintained recreational turfgrass facility offers a diversity of functional benefits to the overall surrounding community, in addition to the physical and mental health benefits provided by the recreational activity. The uniqueness of the turf environment is particularly amenable to the application of integrated pest management strategies and in the development of best management practices to minimize and mitigate the impact of the pesticides and nutrients used to maintain turfgrasses. Turfgrass has been shown to function efficiently as a means to reduce surface water runoff and can be used in conjunction with vegetative filter strips to provide a barrier against surface and groundwater contamination from pesticides and nutrients used on turf. With additional research to develop best management strategies for turfgrass maintenance, the benefits derived from the turfgrass ecosystem and the environmental stewardship of these important recreational settings will coincide with each other to the mutual betterment of both. The increased use of “reduced risk pesticides,” postapplication irrigation, application of pesticides to limited aspects of the turf environment, and reentry intervals following pesticide applications will all reduce the limited human and environmental exposures seen.

Explains good management practices that can be used at golf courses in order to reduce the risk of contamination of water resources with sources such as nitrates, phosphorus, and potassium.