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Waves and oscillations play a key role in the flow and processing of information in the brain. Recent work has demonstrated that in addition to electrical activity, biomechanical signaling can also be excitable and thus capable of self-sustaining oscillations and waves. Here we measured the biomechanical dynamics of actin polymerization in neural precursor cells throughout their differentiation into populations of neurons and astrocytes. Fluorescence-based live-cell imaging allowed us to analyze the dynamics of actin in conjunction with the dynamics of calcium signals. Actin dynamics throughout differentiation showed a rhythmic character, localized mostly in processes, with changes in scale associated with differentiation. Furthermore, actin dynamics impact ionic dynamics, with an increase in the frequency of calcium bursts accompanied by a decrease in cell-cell correlations when actin dynamics is inhibited. This impact of cytoskeletal dynamics on cellcell coupling and ionic neural cell signaling suggests that information flow in the brain may be able to harness both biomechanical and electrical/ionic excitability.

Despite dramatic advances in genomics, connecting genotypes to phenotypes is still challenging. Sexual genetics combined with linkage analysis is a powerful solution to this problem but generally unavailable in bacteria. We build upon a strong negative selection system to invent mass allelic exchange (MAE), which enables hybridization of arbitrary (including pathogenic) strains of

Despite dramatic advances in genomics, connecting genotypes to phenotypes is still challenging. Sexual genetics combined with linkage analysis is a powerful solution to this problem but generally unavailable in bacteria. We build upon a strong negative selection system to invent mass allelic exchange (MAE), which enables hybridization of arbitrary (including pathogenic) strains of Escherichia coli . MAE reimplements the natural phenomenon of random cross-overs, enabling classical linkage analysis. We demonstrate the utility of MAE with virulence-related gain-of-function screens, discovering that transfer of a single operon from a uropathogenic strain is sufficient for enabling a commensal E. coli to form large intracellular bacterial collections within bladder epithelial cells. MAE thus enables assaying natural allelic variation in E. coli (and potentially other bacteria), complementing existing loss-of-function genomic techniques.

Breast cancer is responsible for one of the top leading causes of cancer deaths among women. Radiotherapy (RT) uses high energy radiation to kill cancer cells, but this method has been reportedly linked to risks of toxicity. Post-therapeutic relapse from RT believed to be caused by its toxicity is one of the challenges encountered during tumour therapy. Therefore, further attention should be devoted to developing novel anti-tumour therapeutic approaches. The role of low-level laser therapy (LLLT) in breast cancer management is to alleviate the side effects arising from RT, instead of acting against the tumour cells directly. This study investigated the effects of low-level laser (532 nm), as well as single and fractionated irradiation, on breast cancer MCF 7 cell line. Additionally, this study assessed the most effective laser parameter for fractionated irradiation. The MCF 7 cells were irradiated with green laser power at 1.5, 45.0, and 100.0 mW with a spot size diameter of 0.7 mm for 1, 5, 10, and 15 min. The irradiation was carried out in single, double, and triple fractionation separated by 5- and 10-min intervals in between the fractional regimes. The laser output of 100 mW showed a promising potential in killing cells with single fractionation. However, as the irradiation was fractionated into two, power of 1.5 mW appeared to be more effective in cell death, which contributed to the lowest percentage cells viable of 31.4% recorded in the study. It was proven that fractionated regime was more successful in tumour cell death.

Human blood exposed to irradiation absorbs electromagnetic energy which consequently effect temperature variation. The evaluation of Specific Absorption Rate (SAR) of human blood helps to ascertain the values for optimum laser power, time, and temperature variation for fair therapy to avoid blood-irradiation pollution but to enhance its rheological properties when using lasers. Prior knowledge of blood SAR evaluating its dielectric properties is significant, but this is under investigation. We investigate the appropriate SAR threshold value as affected by temperature variation using fundamental blood dielectric parameters to optimize the effect of low-level laser therapy based on physiological and morphological changes of the stimulated diabetic blood. Studies were carried out with Agilent 4294A impedance analyser at frequencies (40Hz – 30 MHz) and designed cells (cuvettes) comprises of electrodes were used in the pre- and post-irradiations measurements. At different laser power outputs, blood samples were subjected to various irradiation durations using portable laser diode-pumped solid state of wavelength 532 nm. Results showed laser at low energy is capable of moderating morphologically the proportion of abnormal diabetic red blood cells. Hence, there is a significant effect using a laser at low energy, as non-medicinal therapy in controlling diabetic health conditions. The positive biostimulation effects on the irradiated diabetic blood occurred within absorbance threshold SAR values range of 0.140?0.695 W/kg and average temperatures range of 24.2?28.0 0C before blood saturation absorbance peak. There is morphological stimulation at a laser power of 50 mW for an exposure time of 10–15 minutes and 60 mW for 5–10 minutes of laser therapy that demonstrates better blood rejuvenated conditions. This occurred within the threshold SAR of 0.140?0.695 W/kg and average temperatures range of 24.2?28.0 0C. Therefore, the diabetic blood irradiated using laser output powers of 70 and 80 mW during exposure durations of 5,10, 15 and 20 minutes rather bio-inhibits positive blood stimulation which has resulted to crenation due to excessive irradiation.

Prior information of blood dielectric properties is important and a valuable tool to examine cell morphological structures, functions and mechanisms of their metabolic systems; however, this is under investigated. The study explores the technique of electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements to reveal the proper biostimulation conditions for diabetic blood-low level laser therapy. Dielectric spectroscopy of the diabetic patient’s blood was studied using Impedance analyser (Agilent 4294A) within the range of frequency 40 Hz-30 MHz. Blood biostimulations were done using a 532 nm wavelength portable solid-state laser (diode-pumped). The accurate characterization of irradiated diabetic blood impedance and proper observations at power output of 50 mw within exposure duration of 10-15 minutes yield an efficient biostimulation and positively enable rejuvenation and proliferation of the deformed erythrocytes and stimulate healthy blood condition. The irradiated diabetic blood got rejuvenated and had their electrode polarization (α-dispersion region) stretched from frequency of 40 Hz until within a range of 11.7- 11.9 kHz similar to the healthy human blood. This formed appreciable positive effect of the properly stimulated diabetic blood with significant impedance within the cell structures, cytoplasm and plasma of the blood.

The traffic demand and prediction for the next decade would be mostly affiliated with the Internet of Things (IoT). Various challenges with mobile communication industry will be faced as the demand in high capacity, multi mobile devices (users) connected to the network, uplink power consumption on User Equipment (UE), and its effect on the life span of mobile phone. The major features of 5G as per user experience on the network are Ultra-Reliable Low Latency Communication (URLLC), Internet of Things (IoT), sustaining high rate Enhanced Mobile Broadband (eMBB), and connection density Massive Machine Type Communication (mMTC). This research work focuses on Non-Standalone (NSA) 5G New Radio (NR) early deployment on eMBB for achieving the required throughput. The 5G performance requirement is higher than 4G, which includes the capacity to support user experience downlink throughput with target value of 1 Gbps, millisecond-level of end-to-end latency, and high connection density of 1 million per square kilometer. Optimization is a vast topic, and this paper discusses the problems faced by users latching on 5G NSA network on the downlink and 4G Network on the uplink and suggests its solution.

The US Social Security pension system is not adequately financed to fully meet benefit obligations specified in current law beyond the early 2030s. This potential financing shortfall has been recognized for at least the past quarter century, but policymakers have done nothing to address it. The system is largely financed on a pay-as-you-go basis, so restoring financing balance requires that the taxes supporting the system be increased, the benefits provided under current law be reduced, or some combination of the two. The delay in addressing the system’s financing imbalances has resulted in shifting of costs associated with the pensions from older to younger generations. The analysis here explains how this works and provides estimates of the cost shifting that has occurred due to the delays in financing reform. It assesses how recent proposals to address Social Security financing shortfalls shift costs to future generations and depart fundamentally from basic principles on which the system was originally based. TOPICS:Retirement, social security, pension funds, wealth management Key Findings • Policy makers have known for more than a quarter century that Social Security is under financed and the delay in rebalancing its financing will dramatically increase costs for those now entering the workforce, those now entering kindergarten, and those not yet born. • From 1990 to 2012, median real incomes of the elderly grew 29 percent, while that of families of full-time, full year working families grew 2.3 percent raising questions about the equity of increasing taxes on workers to finance across-the-board Social Security benefit increases. • Public sentiment toward maintaining or expanding Social Security benefits at the cost of higher future taxes ignores the implications for and potential sentiments of the young and unborn people who will be paying the higher taxes.

In this paper, we explore the underlying explanations for the under financing of the U.S. Social Security pension system that has persisted since the late 1980s despite repeated calls for reform by the program’s trustees and various advisory groups. Both micro and macro estimates of the cost shifting from older to younger generations because of the delay in financing reform are provided. The analysis shows that recent proposals that call for balancing financing reform adjustments between benefits and revenues would result in most of the cost being shifted to future generations of participants. Because reforms have been delayed and many current proposals call for greater welfare transfers in the program from high to low career earners, the case is made that the costs of reform should be imposed on the basis of participants’ ability to pay rather than on the basis of the year in which they were born.

Photon absorption parameters such as mass attenuation coefficients ( $${\mu }_{\mathrm{m}}$$ ), molar extinction coefficients ( $$\varepsilon$$ ), total molecular ( $${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t},\mathrm{m}}$$ ), atomic ( $${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t},\mathrm{a}}$$ ) and electronic ( $${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t},\mathrm{el}}$$ ) cross sections, half-value layers $$({X}_{1/2})$$ , tenth-value layers ( $${X}_{1/10}$$ ), mean free paths $$(\lambda )$$ , effective atomic numbers ( $${Z}_{\mathrm{eff}}$$ ), and effective electron densities ( $${N}_{\mathrm{el}}$$ ) were estimated for defatted soy flour (DSF), soy protein concentrate (SPC), and soy protein isolate (SPI)-based Rhizophora spp. particleboard composites substituted with 10 wt% sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and 0, 5, 10, and 15 wt% itaconic acid polyamidoamine-epichlorohydrin (IA-PAE) adhesives. Elemental composition was assessed using ultrahigh-resolution field emission scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (UHR-FESEM-EDX). The interaction parameters were evaluated for $${\mathrm{K}}_{\mathrm{\alpha }1}$$ photons at 16.59, 17.46, 21.21, and 25.26 keV, employing a low-energy germanium (LEGe) detector system and an 241Am $$\gamma$$ -ray source. X-ray diffraction characterization revealed an amorphous phase in the developed particleboard composites. Samples DSF15′, SPC15′, and SPI15′ exhibited the highest values of $${\mu }_{\mathrm{m}}$$ , $$\varepsilon$$ , $${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t},\mathrm{m}}$$ , $${Z}_{\mathrm{eff}}$$ , and $${N}_{\mathrm{el}}$$ among all of the studied particleboard samples, within the range of measured photon energies. In addition, all of the modified samples exhibited lower $${X}_{1/2}$$ , $${X}_{1/10}$$ , $$\lambda$$ , $${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t},\mathrm{a}}$$ , and $${\sigma }_{\mathrm{t},\mathrm{el}}$$ than the unmodified samples, with DSF-, SPC-, and SPI/NaOH/Rhizophora spp./IA-PAE (15 wt%), indicating insignificant changes. The current results of the particleboard samples’ analysis can be useful for medical radiation applications and shielding research.

A Doppler ultrasound is a noninvasive test that can be used to estimate the blood flow through the vessels. Presently, few flow phantoms are being used to be qualified for long-term utilize and storage with high physiological flow rate Doppler ultrasound. The main drawback of the two hydrogel materials items (Konjac (K) and carrageenan (C) (KC)) that it is not fit for long-term storage and easy to deteriorate. Thus, this research study focuses on the characterization and construction of a robust and elastic wall-less flow phantom with suitable acoustical properties of TMM. The mechanisms for the fabrication of a wall-less flow phantom utilizing a physically strong material such as K, C, and gelatin (bovine skin)-based TMM were explained. In addition, the clinical ultrasound (Hitachi Avius (HI)) system was used as the main instrument for data acquisition. Vessel mimicking material (VMM) with dimensions of 15.0 mm depth equal to those of human common carotid arteries (CCA) were obtained with pulsatile flow. The acoustical properties (speed of sound and attenuation were 1533±2 m/s and 0.2 dB/cm. MHz, respectively) of a new TMM were agreed with the IEC 61685 standards. Furthermore, the velocity percentages error were decreased with increase in the Doppler angle (the lowest % error (3%) it was at 53◦). The gelatin from bovine skin was a proper material to be added to KC to enhance the strength of TMM during for long-term utilize and storage of high-flow of blood mimicking Fluid (BMF). This wall-less flow phantom will be a suitable instrument for examining in-vitro research studies.

The increasing rate of risky behaviours among the East African adolescents has greater burden to the adolescent, family and the society. Young women in this region are exposed to potential sexual and reproductive health problems including sexually transmitted infections, unwanted pregnancies, unsafe abortions, contraception, sexual abuse and rape, female genital mutilation, and maternal or child mortality. This is attributed by failure of communication of most parents in this region with their adolescents on issues of sexuality and reproductive health like condom use, puberty, STIs and physical development. On the base of academic literature and other materials, this paper argues that parents’- adolescents’ communication on sexual and reproductive health issues in this region is circumscribed by various factors including gender differences, level of education among parents, occupations, traditional norms and religion. The paper concludes that, parents and other adults’ discussion with adolescents on reproductive health issues is imperative in reducing risky behaviors among adolescents. For effective communication on reproductive health issues, parents and adults need to be educated on their roles as primary source of information to their children. Furthermore, there is a need to address gender differences and socio-cultural norms that hinder effective communication. Key words: Parent, adolescent, sexuality, reproductive health, communication, barriers, East Africa.

The U.S. Social Security pension system is not adequately financed to fully meet benefit obligations specified in current law beyond the early 2030s. This potential financing shortfall has been recognized for at least the past quarter century but policymakers have done nothing to address it. The system is largely financed on a pay-as-you-go basis so restoring financing balance requires that the taxes supporting the system be increased, the benefits provided under current law be reduced or some combination of the two. The delay in addressing the system’s financing imbalances has resulted in shifting of costs associated with the pensions from older to younger generations. The analysis here explains how this works and provides estimates of the cost shifting that has occurred due to the delays in financing reform. It assesses how recent proposals to address Social Security financing shortfalls shift costs to future generations and depart fundamentally from basic principles on which the system was originally based.

The research study elucidates the dielectric parameters of both diabetic and nondiabetic human blood relatives to frequency which are paramount for blood study and functional therapeutic mechanisms using He-Ne laser irradiation. In the work, the Agilent 4294A impedance analyser within frequency range 40 Hz – 30 MHz and designed cuvette cells with two electrodes each were used for the analysis of 48 human blood samples (24 diabetic blood of glucose level 9.28 mmol/L and 24 non-diabetic blood) collected through venepuncture. Irradiations were done with 532 nm wavelength He-Ne laser of power output of 60 mW for 5, 10, 15 and 20 minutes’ durations. The studied dielectric parameters (dielectric constant, dielectric loss and electric conductivity) demonstrated significantly high values in the control diabetic blood with low impedance level compared to the control non-diabetic blood which demonstrated higher impedance level. The irradiated diabetic blood shows reduced values of the dielectric parameters after irradiation exposure durations of 5 and 10 minutes with significant increase in impedance level. While the dielectric parameters significantly increased when exposed diabetic blood for 15 and 20 minutes became crenated therefore abruptly experienced a dropped in the impedance level. The observed significant variation in dielectric parameters and impedance levels of both blood could be recognised as the result of cellular morphology and the physiological conditions of erythrocytes membranes and other constituents which characterizes its electric response. The irradiated diabetic blood demonstrates positive biostimulation effects due to the enhance stimulation ability of the He-Ne laser irradiation as a safe and effective therapeutic modality for diabetes mellitus.

In recent years, aging populations and growing pension costs have led to a number of concerns over existing retirement systems across much of the developed world. These concerns range from the macroeconomic effects of mandated retirement plans on national saving, labor supply, economic productivity, and intra- and intergenerational equity to more microeconomic issues and, notably, the efficiency of these systems as retirement savings vehicles. This article’s analysis explores the latter issue. It examines the mandatory retirement systems covering workers in Australia, Canada, the United Kingdom, and the United States and considers the marginal costs levied against workers’ earnings when they are covered under the respective programs and the benefits that they receive at retirement. The relative costs and benefits of retirement system participation for workers reaching retirement today are considered at three earnings levels across the four countries, and estimates are made of how the systems will treat the generations coming to retirement in 2025, 2035, and 2045 if current policies persist. The article also discusses briefly the possible effects of different reforms of Social Security on workers of different generations.

The research work investigates the dielectric properties (dielectric constant, dielectric loss and conductivity) of both diabetic and non-diabetic patients’ blood in order to enhance of low level laser therapy (LLLT). Knowing the dielectric properties of blood, profile dose threshold exposure duration can improve LLLT for diabetic mellitus disease. This was achieved, using impedance analyser 4294A, frequency range 40 kHz - 30 MHz. Measurements were taken before and after blood irradiated with a portable diode-pumped solid state laser of wavelength 532 nm at power of 60 mW in standard cuvettes. Control diabetic patient’s bloods were high in dielectric parameter compared with the control non-diabetic patient’s blood. After exposure for 5 and 10 minute’s duration, the value of dielectric loss for the blood exposed for 5 minutes duration appreciated significantly. This is attributed to the energy acquired by haemoglobin and oxygen activation that increased cell membrane resistance, protecting the K+ions efflux and thus prevent perilous balance of Ca+2 ions. Laser power of 60 mW for 5 minutes exposure proved effective in LLL diabetic mellitus therapy.

The evolution of Mobile communication over time have grown from second generation and still growing. Since LTE is a packet based all IP network, which cannot support terrestrial circuit switch call, therefore, Circuit switch fall back is needed to redirect this service to existing UMTS/GSM network. Customers' requirements for radio resources increases with the use of devices and smart phones, however, to satisfy this demand access to packet data services and voice are needed at all time. This work intends to analyze how user/subscriber latched on preferred technology, communicate while mobility takes places without facing drop calls both PS and CS between LTE and 3G network. Network Operators goal is to ensure optimal, seamless coverage for its users while roaming from one cluster/location area to another cluster without distortion. The demand for radio resources increases, hence optimizations (soft or physical adjustment) are carried out at interval to improve network quality and coverage.

The widely reported waning of the American Dream has been blamed on a litany of economic and cultural currents, but the cost of the U.S. health care system rarely makes the list. The U.S. spends at least 7 percent more of its GDP on health care than other rich countries, on average, leaving us with less to spend on infrastructure and defense, houses and education, and other worthwhile governmental and personal pursuits. And we have little to show for it, as the U.S. lags most other rich countries on many key health measures, including longevity. This analysis shows how since the 1980s, the cost growth of employer-provided health benefits has been shrinking workers’ wage growth, eroding their retirement benefits and becoming an increasingly important factor in growing income inequality. While the losses have been most painful for those across the bottom 60 percent of the earnings distribution, higher earners have not escaped the damage, especially when factoring in the total cost of employer-provided health insurance. The latter part of the analysis explores how the organization and delivery of health services in the U.S. sustain our abnormally high health costs, often without improving our health, and suggests several practical solutions that can both bring costs down and encourage evidence-based best practices. Failure to stanch the rising flow of compensation dollars into health benefits will close the door on the American Dream for an ever-increasing share of U.S. workers.

There has been a great deal of discussion in recent years regarding the implications of the shift from defined-benefit to defined-contribution retirement plans on workers’ ability to adequately provide for their retirement security needs. There has been almost no discussion about the changing economics of participation in the U.S. Social Security pension system and the implications for the burden on workers attempting to save for retirement. In its early years, Social Security benefits were highly subsidized and now present an implicit tax on retirement saving for many workers. The analysis here presents the magnitudes of these shifts for workers at different points in the earnings distribution.

This study examined the effect of peer assisted co-operative instructional strategy on the ability levels of students. Two research questions and hypotheses were developed to guide the study. A non-randomized pre-test and post -test control group design was adopted for the study. A total of 110 Senior Secondary 2 Chemistry students were used. Cognitive Ability Test (CAT) and Chemistry Performance Test (CPT) were the instruments used to generate data. Reliability coefficients of 0.82 and 0.80 were obtained for CAT and CPT respectively using Kuder-Richardson formula 21. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics of mean, standard deviation, independent t-test and analysis of co-variance. From the findings of the study, it was observed that peer assisted co-operative instructional strategy had effect on cognitive ability levels of chemistry students. The result also showed that there was no significant difference existing among the academic performance of male and female students taught with peer assisted co-operative instructional strategy. Recommendations included that teachers should vary their instructional strategy to meet with students’ learning styles and cognitive ability levels instead of relying on the conventional method alone. Key words: Peer assisted, cooperative instructional strategy, cognitive ability levels.

Several recent assessments suggest that the majority of U.S. workers are at risk of suffering a fall in their standard of living in retirement. These assessments are often based on models that fail to reflect the way income and saving vary over workers’ life cycles. They extrapolate younger workers’ observed savings behavior into the future, ignoring workers’ capacity to boost saving after children leave home, the mortgage is paid off, and other early-life obligations have been discharged. The measurement of preretirement income and its spendable portion as an indicator of living standards in working years is often exaggerated by inappropriate indexing. This method leads to overestimates of earnings to be replaced in retirement and underestimates of the income replacement capacity of Social Security for various segments of the workforce. Although clearly some workers are not saving enough to maintain their standard of living throughout retirement, the situation is less dire than a number of studies have suggested. This general conclusion holds true even with a sensible consideration of healthcare costs.

Recently, much concern has been expressed about the U.S. retirement system. Social Security is underfunded, while supplemental plans reportedly provide benefits half only that of Social Security and have gained little ground over the last 40 years. The shift to defined contribution plans is often seen as problematic. Some analysts suggest scrapping tax preferences for retirement plans and expanding Social Security. Much evidence that supplemental plans are coming up short on enhancing retirement security comes from the Current Population Survey (CPS). The analysis here shows that most income from retirement plans is not captured by the CPS or the Social Security reports developed using it. Ignoring retirees’ growing private retirement savings and income distorts the role played by private pensions, resulting in inaccurate assessments of retirees’ economic status. This error may bias policymakers’ judgment as to the right policies for an aging population and underfunded pensions.

Wind turbines blades of propeller type are made according to various blade profiles such as NACA, LS, and LM. There are many factors for selecting a profile. One significant factor is the chord length, which depend on various values throughout the blade. In this work a NACA 4412 profile was created using DESIGN FOIL software to obtain the coordinates of a wind turbine blade in PRO/E. Aerodynamic analysis was done on the created design. Maximum lift to drag ratio was calculated by varying angle of attack of the blade. To find a suitable composite for wind turbine blade, Modal and Static analysis were performed on the modified design using Carbon fiber, E-Glass, S-Glass and Kevlar fiber composites in ANSYS APDL 12.0 software.

In recent years, there has been a growing angst about the state over retirement security. What seemed a golden age of retirement 15 years ago has become increasingly costly and precarious, and there is limited understanding of the underlying causes for the changing environment. The discussion here explores the evolution of public policies and demographics that have driven the different experience of successive generations under both Social Security and employer-sponsored pensions. Social Security has become much more expensive and less efficient over time because it is financed on a pay-as-you-go basis. Employer-sponsored pension costs have exploded in recent years because we largely deferred the funding of the baby boom generation’s retirement benefits to the latter part of their working lives. This result was driven by a combination of policy appetites to keep income tax rates low and variations in financial market performance. The need to bring new policies to bear on our situation is delineated, and a description of potential policies to address current and future generations’ income security is provided.

The study investigated the influence of gender on teachers’ self-efficacy in public secondary schools of Kisumu County, Kenya. Bandura’s (1989) Social Cognitive Theory guided the study. The study employed the mixed methods approach within which a concurrent triangulation design was used. The target population was 1790 teachers in 143 public secondary schools from which a sample size of 327 teachers was drawn using stratified random sampling. Questionnaires and interview schedule were used to collect data. Piloting helped to clarify the test items, determine construct validity (r = 0.564 for items expected to have similar responses and r = -0.325 for items expected to have different responses) and establish internal reliability (Cronbach’s α = 0.9976). Two experts in Educational Psychology established face validity of the data collection instruments. Qualitative data was transcribed verbatim and analyzed thematically while quantitative data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). The MANOVA results revealed that there was no statistically significant influence of gender on teachers’ self-efficacy, but the qualitative results revealed that gender had an influence on self-efficacy of teachers in co-educational and Boys’ schools. The study recommended that teacher counsellors be empowered to counsel female teachers on the challenges of teaching in co-educational and Boys’ schools. DOI: 10.5901/ajis.2015.v4n3p189

The study investigated the influence of marital status on teachers’ self-efficacy in public secondary schools of Kisumu County, Kenya. Concurrent Triangulation Design was adopted to collect quantitative and qualitative data from samples of 327 students and 12 teachers. The interview schedule and questionnaire were piloted with 2 and 33 teachers respectively, who did not participate in the survey. Piloting helped to clarify the test items, determine construct validity (r = 0.564 for items expected to have similar responses and r = -0.325 for items expected to have different responses) and two experts in Educational Psychology established face validity of the research instruments. Internal reliability was established at Cronbach’s α = 0.9976. Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA) was used to analyze data from questionnaire. The quantitative findings revealed that marital status had no statistically significant influence on teachers’ self-efficacy while the qualitative findings revealed that marital status had an influence on teachers’ self-efficacy. The study recommends the employment of counsellors in schools to help teachers to deal with psychosocial and domestic issues. DOI: 10.5901/ajis.2015.v4n3p115

Virtually all state and local government employers in the United States offer workers some sort of retirement benefits today but there is significant variation in the characteristics of those plans. There is also a great deal of public angst about the level and timing of commitments made in these plans. The literature on retirement plans suggests that they are important elements of compensation that plan sponsors use in meeting their human resource goals. But public retirement plans are created and operated in a public policy environment and forces other than local labor market considerations may be brought to bear in the organization and operation of these plans. This paper explores some of the possible explanations for the variation in state retirement plans. Public disclosure data is used to develop a model that explains relative generosity of benefits based on the characteristics of participants and the marketplaces in which the plans are offered. The final section of the paper places the issues explored in a forward looking context. The public disclosure environment recently put in place for public retirement plans is likely to have a more profound effect on state pension operations than any other development in recent history.

Financial advisors commonly use earnings replacement rates to assist workers in their retirement planning. Policymakers and analysts use them to gauge the adequacy of Social Security benefits and other retirement income in allowing retirees to maintain preretirement living standards. In recent years, the Social Security trustees have regularly published replacement rates that have been widely interpreted as the extent to which Social Security benefits replace earnings of workers at various points in the lifetime earnings distribution. However, the trustees’ replacement rates are calculated differently than those generally used for retirement planning purposes, possibly leading to confusion among policymakers and others regarding how much of workers’ earnings are replaced by Social Security and how much those workers need to save on their own for retirement. Financial planners calculate replacement rates by comparing an individual’s retirement income to that same individual’s preretirement earnings, generally earnings in the years immediately preceding retirement. The Social Security Administration, by contrast, effectively calculates replacement rates by comparing retiree incomes to the incomes of contemporaneous workers. This latter measure is often used in other countries but differs both qualitatively and quantitatively from the more common replacement-rate calculations used for financial planning purposes. We find that replacement rates calculated on a financial planning basis are generally higher than those published by the Social Security trustees and that Social Security benefits generally replace somewhat more of individual workers’ earnings than the trustees’ rates suggest.