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We propose that Frantz Fanon’s analysis of language develops an immanent critique of Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology. Fanon transforms the phenomenological method to account for the Black speaking subjects’ experience through a sociogenic account of language. First, while the French colonial language has a robust diachronic dimension, the language of the colonized, Creole, is relegated to a synchrony without diachrony, as the historical past is erased. Second, while French metropolitan intersubjectivity is modelled on harmonious reciprocity and reflects continuity between the family and the state, relations between dominant and subjugated speaking subjects employ paternalism and primitivism that reinforce coloniality. We develop the notion of a racialized and historicized language-schema to capture Fanon’s analysis and envisage future critical phenomenologies of language. Nous postulons ici que l’analyse du langage de Frantz Fanon développe une critique immanente de la phénoménologie de Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Fanon transforme la méthode phénoménologique pour rendre compte de l'expérience des sujets parlants Noirs à travers un examen sociogénique du langage. Premièrement, alors que la langue coloniale française a une dimension diachronique robuste, la langue des colonisés, le créole, est reléguée à une synchronie sans diachronie, le passé historique en étant effacé. Deuxièmement, alors que l’intersubjectivité métropolitaine française est modelée sur une réciprocité harmonieuse et reflète la continuité entre la famille et l’État, les relations entre les sujets parlants dominants et assujettis emploient un paternalisme et un primitivisme qui renforcent la colonialité. Nous développons ici la perspective d’un schéma linguistique racialisé et historicisé pour rendre compte de l’analyse de Fanon et envisager de futures phénoménologies critiques du langage.

The article aims to formulate a legal-historical voice in the discussion about the amendment of the code of civil procedure (4 July 2019) and comments on the doctrine. Regulations introduced to the code on 4 July 2019 were under comprehensive discussion also in the interwar period. The pioneering concepts developed at that time concerned primarily: an obligatory reply to the statement of claim and preparatory proceedings, an obligation to tell the truth, the discretionary power of a judge, and abuse of the procedural rights clause. These original regulations were removed from the first Polish Code of Civil Procedure draft as too innovative for those times. However, the unrealized ideas of experts and their sources resulting from the preparatory materials are often much more valuable for studying the civil process than the adopted act. After reading the justification of the draft amendment of July 4, 2019, and the comments on the doctrine, one cannot help but feel that these gains of interwar science have been kept silent. The institutions introduced by the Act of 4 July 2019 were characterized as a manifestation of legal creationism and a manifestation of the hypertrophy of effectiveness in relation to the guarantee of a fair trial. Therefore, to discuss the recent actions of the legislator in reforming civil proceedings, it is worth adding a few remarks from the legal-historical perspective and comparative history of law, as they generally concern concepts and institutions that were designed almost 100 years ago.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of zinc supplementation (in the form of nano or microparticles) on the profile and metabolism of fatty acids in the liver microsomes of rats with induced breast cancer. The activity of desaturases (Δ5, Δ6, Δ9) and the level of cholesterol and its oxidized derivatives were measured. The aim of this study was also to determine the effect of various forms of zinc supplements on rats that were on 5-, 12- and 15-hydroxyeicosatetraenoic (5-, 12- and 15-HETE) and hydroxyoctadecadienoic (HODE) acids, and the level of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). Female Spraque-Dawley rats (n = 24) were divided into 2 groups that were supplemented with zinc in the micro form (342 nm) or nano form (99 nm) particles, respectively, and a group with a standard diet (control group). All animals received 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene twice for the induction of breast cancer. Dietary nano-Zn supplementation increased vaccenic acid content (p = 0.032) and decreased Δ6-desaturase activity (p = 0.006), whereas micro-Zn increased cholesterol (p = 0.006), ∑COPs (total cholesterol-oxidation products) (p = 0.019) and PGE2 (p = 0.028) content. Dietary enrichment with Zn microparticles resulted in lower concentrations of the metabolites 15-, 12- and 5-HETE and HODE. Our study indicates that the effect of zinc supplementation on the metabolism of fatty acids in the liver microsomes under neoplastic conditions depends on the form in which it is administered.

Review of Oksala's 2016 Feminist Experiences: Foucauldian and Phenomenological Investigations.

The present study aimed to assess the levels of 98 multi-class pharmaceuticals including cardiovascular drugs, antidepressants, hypnotics, antibiotics, and sulfonamides occurring in the muscle tissue of fish caught in the Baltic Sea. The following fish species were collected: perch (Perca fluviatilis), flounder (Platichthys flesus), turbot (Scophthalmus maximus), plaice (Pleuronectes platessa), cod (Gadus morhua callarias), bream (Abramis brama), crucian (Carassius carassius). Additionally, in the examined fish muscle the levels of heavy metals and trace elements were determined (As, Ag, Au, Ba, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg, Li, Mo, Ni, Pb, Sb, Se, Sn, Tl, V) as well as the levels of cholesterol and its 5 derivatives (7-ketocholesterol, 7α-hydroxycholesterol, 7β-hydroxycholesterol, 5β,6β-epoxy-cholesterol, 5α,6α-epoxycholesterol). In the performed studies 11 out of 98 examined pharmaceuticals were detected in fish muscle. The levels of pharmaceuticals in fish muscle varied depending on the species. In the tissues of bream and crucian, no pharmaceuticals were found. Mercury, lead and arsenic were detected in the muscles of all examined fish. Based on the hazard factor for Hg, Pb, Cd, Ni (target hazard quotient, THQ &lt, 1), it was found that the consumption of the studied fish does not constitute a health risk. However, the THQ for As remained &gt, 1 indicated possible risk from those metals. In the examined fish muscle the total cholesterol oxidation products (COPs) level of oxysterols were, respectively: 6.90 (cod) μg/g–4.18 μg/g (perch), which corresponded to 0.7–1.5% of cholesterol. The main COPs evaluated were 7-ketocholesterol (0.78 ± 0.14–1.79 ± 0.06 μg/g), 7β-hydroxycholesterol (0.50 ± 0.04–3.20 ± 2.95 μg/g) and 5β,6β-epoxycholesterol (0.66 ± 0.03–1.53 ± 0.66 μg/g). The assessment of health hazards due to contaminations is necessary, which may help to introduce national legislation and global standards aimed at reducing or even eliminating the exposure to contaminants.

Przedmiotem rozważań w artykule są te stany faktyczne, które wystąpiły na gruncie dekretu o reformie rolnej i dotyczyły bezprawnego przejęcia przez Państwo zespołów pałacowo-parkowych. Dopiero po upadku realnego socjalizmu właściciele lub ich następcy prawni uzyskiwali stwierdzenie nieważności decyzji o przejęciu majątku. Był i jest to jednak dopiero początek zmagań, gdyż Skarb Państwa lub jego następcy prawni powołują się przed sądami powszechnymi na zasiedzenie nieruchomości objętej żądaniem zwrotu. Rozbieżność co najmniej 20 lat w orzecznictwie co do daty rozpoczęcia biegu terminu wymaganego do zasiedzenia (1980–1991) jest zjawiskiem niepożądanym, wymagającym przyjęcia jednolitego stanowiska sądów. Konsekwentnie autorzy niniejszego artykułu reprezentują pogląd, że okres obowiązywania zarówno dekretu o przeprowadzeniu reformy rolnej, jak i późniejszych aktów prawnych, ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem okresu obowiązywania dekretu z 1945 r. (Dz.U. nr 28, poz. 321) i następnie art. 9 (16) ustawy z 1958 r., wyłączał bieg zasiedzenia na rzecz Skarbu Państwa przejętych przez Państwo bezprawnie nieruchomości rolnych i leśnych. Okres ten trwał do 31 grudnia 1991 r., czyli do końcowej daty obowiązywania art. 9 (16).

The subject of this paper are those factual states that occurred on the basis of the agrarian reform decree and concerned the unlawful seizure by the State of palace-park complexes. It was only after the collapse of real socialism in 1989 that the owners or their legal successors obtained an annulment of the decision to seize the property. However, this was, and is, only the beginning of the struggle, as the State Treasury or its legal successors are claiming before the common courts the acquisitive prescription of the property being the subject to the recovery claim. The divergence of at least 20 years in jurisprudence as to the date of commencement of the period required for acquisitive prescription (1980–1991) is an undesirable phenomenon, requiring the adoption of a coherent approach of the courts. Consequently, the authors of this text represent the view that the period of validity of both the Agrarian Reform Decree and the subsequent legal acts, with particular emphasis on the period of validity of the Decree of 1945 (Journal of Laws no. 28, item 321) and then Article 9 (16) of the Act of 1958 excluded the course of the acquisitive prescription in favour of the State Treasury of the agricultural and forestry properties unlawfully seized by the State. This period lasted until 31 December 1991, i.e. until the final date when Article 9 (16) was in force.

Pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and bitter melon dried fruits (BME) are used as natural remedies in folk medicine and as dietary supplements. However, the exact mechanism of their beneficial action is not known. The aim of study was to assess how the diet supplementation with PSO and/or with an aqueous solution of Momordica charantia affects the metabolism of fatty acids, fatty acids composition and the level of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in rat liver. Animals (Sprague-Dawley female rats, n = 48) were divide into four equinumerous groups and fed as a control diet or experimental diets supplemented with PSO, BME or both PSO and BME for 21 weeks. Fatty acids were determined using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. PSO added to the diet increased the rumenic acid content (p &lt, 0.0001) and increased accumulation of n-6 fatty acids (p = 0.0001) in hepatic tissue. Enrichment of the diet either with PSO or with BME reduced the activity of &Delta, 6-desaturase (D6D) (p = 0.0019), whereas the combination of those dietary factors only slightly increased the effect. Applied dietary supplements significantly reduced the PGE2 level (p = 0.0021). No significant intensification of the influence on the investigated parameters resulted from combined application of PSO and BME. PSO and BME have potential health-promoting properties because they influence fatty acids composition and exhibit an inhibiting effect on the activity of desaturases and thus they contribute to the reduction in the metabolites of arachidonic acid (especially PGE2).

Fatty acids, especially polyunsaturated, and their metabolites (eicosanoids) play many pivotal roles in human body, influencing various physiological and pathological processes. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of supplementation with edible oils diverse in terms of fatty acid composition on fatty acid contents, activities of converting their enzymes, and on lipoxygenase metabolites of arachidonic and linoleic acids (eicosanoids) in rat serum. Female Sprague-Dawley rats divided into seven groups were used in the study. Animals from six groups were fed one of oils daily (carotino oil, made up by combining of red palm oil and canola oil, linseed oil, olive oil, rice oil, sesame oil, or sunflower oil). One group received a standard diet only. Fatty acids were determined using gas chromatography with flame ionization detection. Eicosanoids&mdash, hydroxyeicosatetraenoic (HETE) and hydroxyoctadecadienoic acids (HODE) were extracted using a solid-phase extraction method and analyzed with HPLC. Vegetable oils given daily to rats caused significant changes in serum fatty acid profile and eicosanoid concentrations. Significant differences were also found in desaturases&rsquo, activity, with the linseed and olive oil supplemented groups characterized by the highest D6D and D5D activity. These findings may play a significant role in various pathological states.

It was commonly believed that Saussure’s students used their redacted lecture notes to compose the Course in General Linguistics in the wake of Saussure’s untimely death. However, Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, who were responsible for editing and composing the manuscript for the Course, did not attend Saussure’s lectures. Still, they positioned themselves as loyal disciples of their great master, and they sought to carry out their master’s legacy through the publication of the Course. Bally and Sechehaye did not solely base their reconstruction on the extant autograph manuscripts by Saussure and the student lecture notes, but they attempted to reconstruct a linguistics based upon a divination of Saussure’s thought. This dubious practice was legitimized by their efforts to secure themselves as the rightful heirs of the Saussurean intellectual estate and through the publication of scholarly essays and book reviews of the Course. Several students who actually attended Saussure’s lectures objected to Bally and Sechehaye’s simplified rendition. Paul Regard, Albert Riedlinger, and Antoine Meillet all expressed concerns, publicly and privately, about Bally and Sechehaye’s version of the Course.

The inverse correlation observed between Alzheimer&rsquo, s disease (AD) and cancer has prompted us to look for cholinesterase-inhibiting activity in phenothiazine derivatives that possess anticancer properties. With the use of in silico and in vitro screening methods, our study found a new biological activity in anticancer polycyclic, tricyclic, and tetracyclic compounds. The virtual screening of a library of 120 ligands, which are the derivatives of azaphenothiazine, led to the identification of 25 compounds that can act as potential inhibitors of acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). Biological assays revealed the presence of selective inhibitors of eeAChE (electric eel AChE) or eqBuChE (equine serum BuChE) and nonselective inhibitors of both enzymes among the tested compounds. Their potencies against eeAChE were in a submicromolar-to-micromolar range with IC50 values from 0.78 to 19.32 &mu, M, while their IC50 values against eqBuChE ranged from 0.46 to 10.38 &mu, M. The most potent among the compounds tested was the tetracyclic derivative, 6-(4-diethylaminobut-2-ynyl)-9-methylthioquinobenzothiazine 24, which was capable of inhibiting both enzymes. 9-Fluoro-6-(1-piperidylethyl)quinobenzothiazine 23 was found to act as a selective inhibitor of eqBuChE with an IC50 value of 0.46 &mu, M. Compounds with such a dual antitumor and cholinesterase-inhibitory activity can be considered as a valuable combination for the treatment of both cancer and AD prevention. The results presented in this study might open new directions of research on the group of tricyclic phenothiazine derivatives.

The clash of ideas regarding the nature of marriage took a specific form in the Polish lands during the partitions and after Poland regained independence (1918). The variety of laws in force at that time (German Burgeliches Gesetzbuch of 1896, Hungarian Act no. XXXI on marriage of 1894, Russian ukase on marriage of 1863, the first part of Volume X and partly the first part of Volume XI of the Digest of laws of the Russian Empire of 1832, and Austrian civil code of 1811) posed a challenge to the interwar codifiers and legal practitioners. The premises for the validity of marriage in civil law in the 19th century and in the first half of the 20th century were still of a mixed nature — they partly derived from religious principles (e.g. the impediment of differences of faith or priestly ordination), and partly from secular principles of Roman law (the impediment of age, kinship, affinity, adoption, bigamy and defects in the declaration of will). Against this background, the Hungarian Marriage Law must be assessed as modern.

The Course in General Linguistics played a significant role for the establishment of scientific structuralism in the 1950s’ and 1960s’ France. The structuralist readers tended to gloss over the complications befalling this posthumously edited text by receiving it reverently as the Vulgate, a popular scripture upon which the school of structuralism can be based. Foucault’s analysis of the authorial function helps to explain how the Course functioned ideologically as Saussure’s work, despite the empirical complications regarding its historical provenance and authorship; Foucault’s analysis also sheds light on the concurrent neglect of Saussure’s Nachlass. Lacan’s psychoanalysis provides a representative example of how structural scientists tended to appropriate the Course in the humanities.

According to the structuralist interpretation, Saussure’s linguistics is to be credited chiefly for its influential conception of an arbitrary linguistic sign. However, the thesis of linguistic arbitrariness, according to which signification is an internal property of the language system, offers an initial and provisional understanding of linguistic signification that is, ultimately, revised in the course of Saussure’s lectures. Even though a reader of the Course may glean some of the complications befalling the linguistic sign from the later chapters, the reader is unlikely to perceive them as organic developments of the initial discussion of the linguistic sign from the more influential Chap. 1. The architecture of parts and chapters suggests that each presents an element of a complete doctrine, whereas Saussure presents testable, evolving, and revisable hypotheses in his lectures. The lecture notes demonstrate that, ultimately, Saussure does not support the structuralist view of the sign. While language is arbitrary and unmotivated by natural laws, it is constrained by social conventions as they evolve over time. Language is situated in the sociohistorical world of cultural signification from the start.

The editorial organization of the contents of the Course in General Linguistics contributed to establishing the primacy of the language system (la langue) by situating it above the empirical plurality of world languages (les langues). La langue is defined by means of dogmatic, axiom-like statements with little empirical justification or background early on in the book. A survey of concrete data pertaining to linguistic diversity is found only toward the end, and it seems to offer a series of contingent variations on the basic theme of a pre-existent language structure. The validity of such a central language structure is assumed a priori, and the diversity of linguistic practices around the world is considered a posteriori as a set of factual consequences. This presentation is fueled largely by the editors’ methodological commitments, especially Sechehaye’s self-avowed “taste for great abstractions,” and it is at odds with a more nuanced view developed in Saussure’s Nachlass. In the student lecture notes, the order of presentation moves from a detailed survey of several languages (les langues) to a concluding, hypothetical notion of language (la langue) as such. La langue is a generalization from out of a vast linguistic plurality and not an a priori axiom.

According to the dominant structuralist view, a language system (la langue) can be approached on its own, independently of speech (la parole) as well as the plurality of world languages (les langues). Bally and Sechehaye established this presumed autonomy of the language system by means of dubitable editorial strategies. They inserted an apocryphal statement, according to which language (la langue) is a single and simple object of linguistic study, into the conclusion of the Course in General Linguistics, and they subsequently cited it in dedicated book reviews and specialized essays in linguistics. This so-called famous formula became a structuralist motto. It created an impression of a seamless transition from Saussureanism to structuralism. Furthermore, the editorial presentation of Saussure’s argument in the Introduction to the Course tends to overstate the distinction between la langue and la parole such that la langue alone is deemed an object worthy of scientific interest.

Saussure’s Nachlass challenges the official Saussurean doctrine from the Course in General Linguistics with its hierarchical oppositions between la langue and la parole and synchrony and diachrony. It underscores the inescapably dual character of language that intersects relative stability with temporal change. This inescapable duality can be rendered more concrete by studying linguistic creativity. Called “analogical innovation” (or “creation”), linguistic creativity consists in a production of innovative forms of expression on the basis of established ones. Importantly, while the doctrinal view chases creativity outside of the language system, which is thought to be relatively autonomous and fixed, Saussure considers innovation an intrinsic feature of language (la langue) itself. Linguistic innovation cannot be discounted as a contingent empirical process. It is intrinsic to the functioning language system, and it furnishes a cardinal principle of general linguistics. Furthermore, linguistic innovation illustrates how the speakers’ expressions (la parole) affect and alter the language system from within, as if rewriting its code. The dual essence of language—the intersection of stability and change—becomes grounded in speech practices that borrow existing linguistic resources and return them in a slightly revised format.

The influential account of the arbitrary linguistic sign in the Course in General Linguistics is ultimately revised in the course of Saussure’s lectures in favor of a differential conception of signification, one which is situated within the sign system from the start. The systemic understanding of language remains, however, incomplete without considering the role that the speech community plays within the signifying process. Language is received from others, especially prior generations, and present social interactions consecrate linguistic change. Consequently, there is no language without society, and there is no society without language—they are co-constitutive factors of cultural signification. Focusing solely on the social dimension of language, however, risks that we disregard the temporal factor or regard language at a single point in time only. Language is always already historical. The sociohistorical dimension of the language system partially transpires in the Course, where it is acknowledged that language (la langue), considered independently of the social world, would be made “artificial”; this complicates the order of the hierarchical dichotomies (la langue and la parole, synchrony and diachrony) from the “Saussurian doctrine.”

Multi-target-directed ligands seem to be an interesting approach to the treatment of complex disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease. The aim of the present study was to find novel multifunctional compounds in a non-imidazole histamine H3 receptor ligand library. Docking-based virtual screening was applied for selection of twenty-six hits which were subsequently evaluated in Ellman’s assay for the inhibitory potency toward acetyl- (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE). The virtual screening with high success ratio enabled to choose multi-target-directed ligands. Based on docking results, all selected ligands were able to bind both catalytic and peripheral sites of AChE and BuChE. The most promising derivatives combined the flavone moiety via a six carbon atom linker with a heterocyclic moiety, such as azepane, piperidine or 3-methylpiperidine. They showed the highest inhibitory activities toward cholinesterases as well as well-balanced potencies against H3R and both enzymes. Two derivatives were chosen - 5 (IC50 = 0.46 μM (AChE); 0.44 μM (BuChE); Ki = 159.8 nM (H3R)) and 17 (IC50 = 0.50 μM (AChE); 0.76 μM (BuChE); Ki = 228.2 nM (H3R)), and their inhibition mechanism was evaluated in kinetic studies. Both compounds displayed non-competitive mode of AChE and BuChE inhibition. Compounds 5 and 17 might serve as good lead structures for further optimization and development of novel multi-target anti-Alzheimer’s agents.

The Course in General Linguistics had a significant legacy within post-structuralism, notably in Derrida’s deconstruction. Even though post-structuralism did not share the scientific aspirations of its predecessor, and did not seek to establish a new school of thought on the foundation of a Great Book, the Course continued to exercise an ideological function as “Saussure’s work” all the same. This chapter focuses especially on Derrida’s influential reception in Of Grammatology. It highlights a tension between Derrida’s general critique of the civilization of the book and his exclusive reference to the volume of the Course in a deconstructive reading of Saussure’s linguistics. Saussure’s unpublished writing may better illustrate Derrida’s call for open-ended textuality and his intellectual biography may serve as a testimony to the end of the book.

A critical study of the Course in General Linguistics is here expanded to include Derrida’s influential interpretation of this canonical text. It develops a critique of the philosopher’s own critical reading of Saussure’s linguistics, and it reveals a profound rapprochement between their respective views. The chapter re-examines relevant sections of the Course, approaching them through the lens of their deconstructive reading by Derrida in Of Grammatology (2016) and Glas (1986), and considering them in conjunction with relevant sources from Saussure’s Nachlass. The goal is not simply to dismiss Derrida’s insightful reading of Saussure. Instead, it turns out that general linguistics and deconstruction are closer than usually thought, and they can be productively combined in contemporary studies of cultural signification. For both Derrida and Saussure, cultural signification is mediated by the plexus of differences within the language system, and it is shaped by the so-called extralinguistic world.

The Course in General Linguistics has played a foundational role in the development of structural methods within the humanities (philosophy, anthropology, linguistics, psychoanalysis, and literary theory). Its main premise is that cultural signification can be studied in terms of relatively autonomous and self-organizing sign systems situated within the social world. Because of its broad focus on signification, the Course made it possible to study the ensemble of human culture in a systematic, comprehensive, and rigorous manner. The Course introduces a basic set of oppositional pairings between the signifying and the signified facets of a sign, between the language system (la langue) and speech (la parole), and between synchrony and diachrony. This approach allows for the study of any human phenomenon on the basis of a rule-governed system of contrastive and combinatorial relations between signifying elements. However, in the last sixty years, scholars have challenged the legitimacy of the Course itself. Previously, the Course was believed to be a simple recast of Saussure’s lectures on general linguistics, but the combination of critical works and direct access to Saussure’s private manuscripts allows for the Course to be called into question and examined anew.

According to the official view of Saussure’s linguistics later enshrined in structuralism, the proper object of study is language viewed as a system (la langue). This view is established in the Course in General Linguistics in part by overstating the separation between la langue and la parole to create an impression of a quasi-natural, steep hierarchy that elevated the former above the latter. A similar argument can be made regarding synchrony and diachrony. While the editorial presentation partially agrees with the source materials in that it ties synchrony and diachrony to the two available perspectives on language (langage), it overstates the separation between synchronic and diachronic study. It construes their relation as a hierarchical dualism rather than as an essential duality, and it problematically attributes a properly scientific status to synchrony alone. As a result, the conceptual complexity of Saussure’s reflections on linguistic methodology is sacrificed for the sake of a more manageable, yet ultimately reductive, scientific program. The interrelation between synchrony and diachrony is cast as an essential horizontal duality in the linguist’s Nachlass; language study is here characterized by self-reflexivity and conceptual complexity.

The dominant structuralist and post-structuralist legacy of the Course in General Linguistics imposed an understanding of Saussure’s linguistics as a chiefly system-based approach where speech is a secondary and derivate fact. If language operates as a relatively autonomous system of rules and relations, we can dispense with invoking the daily activity of expression and communication. Language is primarily an object that does not need speaking subjects. This concluding chapter tracks an alternative legacy of Saussure’s linguistics in contemporary philosophy that agrees with his stated emphasis on speech practice and language change. This interpretation is found in Maurice Merleau-Ponty’s phenomenology. Specifically, Merleau-Ponty’s interpretation of the Course as a “synchronic linguistics of speech” is congruent with Saussure’s definition of language as a phenomenon contingent on the activity of speaking subjects in the Nachlass. Ultimately, subject- and structure-based approaches to cultural signification can be integrated, and the perceived antagonism between phenomenology and structuralism (and post-structuralism) softened.

Socialisation of private law in the second half of the 19th century brought about a new approach to a civil process and its purpose. The main characteristics of the evolution of the civil procedure in the 19th and 20th centuries was limited autonomy of the parties to a process. This limitation was introduced to ensure fair, expedient and cost-effective judgment. A tendency to replace the principle of an adversarial trial with elements of an inquisitorial trial was observed in civil law as well as common law systems. Relevant changes were fi rst made in the Franz Klein Austrian code of civil procedure, followed by departures from the formal truth in the civil process implemented in the system in Germany, Hungary, the Swiss cantons of Zurich and Bern, in Poland, and later, in the second half of the 20th century, also in France. In the common law system, the reform of 1999 ascertained judges a number of discretionary powers to help them establish the facts in a civil proceeding. Those changes added the public element in the civil procedure, but the very idea of a private process and the protection of private interests has been maintained. The totalitarian regimes which emerged in some European states considerably distorted the process of shaping the relationship between the state and the individual. In the socialist civil proceeding, the principle ne eat iudex ultra petita partium was replaced with ex offi cio ultra petita, which was a novelty characteristic of the civil procedure of totalitarian states. The departure from an adversarial principle in the socialist civil process was not much different from the general tendencies observed in the civil procedure in West European states. After the political transformations and change of the regime, former states of the Eastern Bloc sought to signifi cantly increase the autonomy of the parties in a civil process. However, as experience of the Western European states shows, certain public elements must be taken into account in a civil procedure if the European Convention on Human Rights is to be observed.

The aim of present study was to investigate the effect of different dietary oils and the dietary energy restriction on the activity of enzymes participating in the process of arachidonic acid synthesis and on fatty acid profile in serum. It was also evaluated how diet modification affects the weight of animals and weight of the specific organs: liver, kidney and spleen. Wistar male rats were divided into 6 groups according to the diet fed (control, sunflower oil, olive oil, rapeseed oil, fish oil and a group of dietary energy restriction - DER group). The enzyme activities were established indirectly in liver microsomes. To this aim the method of high performance liquid chromatography with UV/VIS detection was used. In addition, the indices of ∆6-desaturase (D6D) and ∆5-desaturase (D5D) were determined. Significant differences in the concentrations of fatty acids and enzyme activity were observed. The results concerning desaturases show the negative correlation between n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids intake and enzymes activity. The highest D6D activity was observed in microsomes obtained from sunflower oil fed rats and the lowest D6D activity was in the DER group. D5D index did not differ much depending on the diet. Among groups supplemented with oils the higher mean values of the weight of liver were observed in the group supplemented with rapeseed oil. Consumption of diets supplemented with edible oils of different fatty acid profile influence both serum fatty acid composition and the activity of ∆6- and Δ5-desaturase.

Stawarska 2015 The Course in General Linguistics presentes contemporary scholars of Saussure’s linguistics with a performative paradox: as in the case of any other Great Book, a critical study of this posthumously ghostwritten text contributes to its canonization. That is why one can offer a scholarly critique of the Course without diminishing the established legacy of this foundational text. The contribution of this essay is indeed chiefly critical: I reconstitute the process of ghostwriting – and reviewing – the Course by its two editors, Charles Bally and Albert Sechehaye, in order to raise doubts about book’s being a reliable statement of Saussure’s linguistics. I argue specifically that the received “official doctrine” articulated in the Course and appropriated within structuralism, which is based upon a set of oppositional and hierarchical pairings between la langue and la parole, synchrony and diachrony, is rendered suspect in light of the book’s complicated editorial history. This “official doctrine” emerged out of an institutional interest to establish general linguistics as a recognizable academic discipline with proper object and method; its enduring status as an unrivaled truth of Saussurianism can be deciphered by investigating the interrelation between dominant discourses and social relations of power.

In this essay, I challenge the egocentric tradition which privileges the standpoint of an isolated individual, and propose a speech-based dialogical approach as an alternative. Considering that the egocentric tradition can be deciphered in part by analyzing the distortions undergone by pronominal discourse in the language of classical philosophy, I reexamine the pragmatics of ordinary language featuring the pronoun I in an effort to recover a more relational understanding of persons. I develop such an analysis of the deep grammar of pronominal discourse under the heading of ‘I–you connectedness’. I–you connectedness emphasizes the communicative structure of experience, in particular the phenomenological importance of the addressee, the inseparability of ‘I’ and ‘You’, and the nature of the alternation between them. I–you connectedness is the best thematized within living speech, which is invariably oriented towards an interlocutor, and animated by mutual address. Yet, I–you connectedness extends beyond living speech to other modalities of meaning, notably thinking and writing, where one notes a similar orientation to a living, imagined, or virtual addressee. I–you connectedness extends, therefore, beyond discursive experience, and captures the deep dialogic dimension of meaning in pre-linguistic and extra-linguistic life. I briefly consider its implications for theoretical and practical issues within robotics and AI.

Multi-target-directed ligands seem to be an interesting approach to the treatment of complex disorders such as Alzheimer's disease. The aim of the present study was to find novel multifunctional compounds in a non-imidazole histamine H

The Russo-Japanese War, fought between 1904 and 1905, started a period of wars in the 20th century. As a result of the First World War, as many as four empires collapsed and, at the same time, revolutions took place in at least three of them; namely in Russia, German Reich, and the Ottoman Empire while the Hapsburg Empire was affected by the revolution only to a certain extent. As a matter of fact, the First World War did not finish on the 11th of November 1918. Russia – both “white” and “red” – and Turkey resumed their military conflict after the 11th of November 1918. The war ended in March 1921. The so-called Treaty of Versailles which brought an end to World War I constituted an explosive growth of international public law. Its main aim was to preserve international peace and safety; however, it was unsuccessful in this respect. Moreover, the idea of self-determination theoretically gained great importance. New states appeared on the map in Central and Eastern Europe – specifically between Germany and Russia – which did not exist before 1914. And so the end of World War I had to result in the expansion of the reach of democracy. Furthermore, after the Second World War, the principle of international responsibility for war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide (Latin genocidium) was partially realized. Nevertheless, it did not pertain to the USSR, which was one of the victors. The first half of the 20th century can be called an era of revolution. The revolutions created the most criminal and genocidal totalitarian systems in the history of mankind. The bond between the totalitarian countries and the civilized world was broken, among others, in regard to law. For example, after the First World War, there was enormous development in labour law which veered towards positive changes for workers. On the other hand, it was common in the totalitarian systems to use slave labour and it was done on a large scale. The end of both world wars in the 20th century resulted in political changes and, consequently, also in changes in the area of criminal law and civil law. The emergence of new states after World War I also led to the process of law codification. Furthermore, this process also took place after the Second War when the states of the so-called Soviet Bloc created their own codes based on Soviet models. As a result of both wars, numerous problems arose which were connected with, for example, war reparations, compensation, territorial changes, justification of ownership transformation, family law as well as marriage law institutions, and others. The Cold War – a confrontation between the communist system and the liberal western system – essentially began together with the beginning of the communist system already in 1917. It only acquired a new dynamic after the Second World War. The Cold War soon spread throughout Asia, Latin America and the Third World countries. The USSR lost the Cold War and in consequence it brought freedom to numerous enslaved countries and nations. Naturally, independence meant new forms of government which were followed by the creation of civil and criminal law systems.

The state of current research in the field of criminal law in the first decade of the Polish People’s Republic undoubtedly testifies to the striking scale of punitiveness of the criminal law in the years 1944—1955. Expecting great social resistance during the implementation of the so-called agricultural reform, the first and fundamental element of the expropriatory action in the first years of the Polish People’s Republic, the People’s Government penalised the acts directed against this reform, placing them among crimes against the state, i.e. “counter-revolutionary crimes.” The most bizarre provision due to the disproportionality of the protected interest to the penalty was Article 7 of the Decree of 12 December 1944 on the taking over of certain forests by the State Treasury, which provided for the death penalty for thwarting or hindering the implementation of the transition of forests and forest lands to State ownership, or for incitement to acts directed against this transition or acts consisting in public praise for them. Nowadays, there is no doubt that a characteristic element of ownership transformations related to the so-called agricultural reform was the instrumental use of the law, including breaking the law (also the new one). There is also no doubt that the decree on implementing the agricultural reform violated elementary legal and justice principles adopted in the European legal culture.

The objective of the present study was to determine the influence of dietary supplementation with pomegranate seed oil (PSO) and/or an aqueous extract of dried bitter melon fruits (BME) on breast cancer risk and fatty acid profile in serum of female rats with chemical carcinogen-inflicted mammary tumours. Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 96) were fed control diet or experimental diets supplemented with 0.15 ml PSO/day, BME or jointly PSO and BME. After 21 weeks mammary tumours were subjected to histopathological examination and in serum fatty acids, 8-isoprostaglandin F2α content and indices of desaturases activity were analysed. Supplementation of the diet with PSO and BME did not inhibit the breast cancer formation. Conjugated linolenic acids (CLnA), present in PSO, were converted into cis-9, trans-11 conjugated linoleic acid (CLA), however, its content was lower in groups treated with a carcinogen. A similar tendency was observed for the content of SFA, MUFA, PUFA, 8-iso PGF2α and the activity of Δ6-desaturase. Enhanced pro-carcinogenic effect of 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA), caused by applied supplements, may be a result of their influence on DMBA metabolism.

'Between Noise and Silence: Listening to the Modern City' chapter by James G. Mansell & Magda Stawarska-Beavan\ud \ud Libraries, as ‘sanctuaries of quiet’, are unique places, both culturally and acoustically: they soundproof our thoughts from the distraction and the noise outside their walls. But they also co-erce us intobehaving quietly, amplifying the sounds we make beneath their domed acoustic chambers.\ud \ud Manchester Central Library’s main reading room, placed on the top floor and filled with natural light, was designed to impose a state of quiet on the reader, with every small sound amplified by the unique acoustic of the domed roof.\ud \ud The amplification of the personal sounds of page turning, typing, coughing etc. turns the ‘silent’ reader immersed in their private experience, into a performer within the public space of the reading room.\ud \ud Using audio-visual recording, I investigate how the acoustic environment and the architecture of a building can affect our behaviour in a public space. James Mansell situates the building and its acoustic design in the historical context of early twentieth-century Britain’s ‘Age of Noise’, examining the Library as a ‘sanctuary of quiet’ in the soundscape of the modern industrial city. His research reveals the intentions and experiences of the library soundscape, placing it in the wider sound history of twentieth-century Manchester. Today’s library – embedded with technology – is full of discreet, barely audible sounds, which reveal its inner life.\ud \ud My recordings delve into the different gradients of sound and silence, capturing the acoustic properties of the physical structure of the building, the sonic environment of the library created by its users, its technology and the noise of the city seeping in. Presenting the audio and visual body of my research gathered in the building and its surroundings, I explore the unique soundscape of the library – both protecting and controlling – and its relationship to the city whose voices it reverberates. \ud \ud Drawing us back in time, Mansell situates these sounds in wider histories of urban subjectivities and listening. Together, we seek to explore the possibilities of artist-historical cross working, to investigate new ways to excavate the sounds of urban space through architectural resonance and through, archival remembrance.\ud \ud Is today’s library still the oasis of quiet in the noisy city it was intended to be when it was built in the 1930s? Has the role of the library reading room changed with the changes of our reading habits?

The purpose of this work was to evaluate the effect of the nanosized or microsized zinc (Zn) particles on fatty acid profile, enzyme activity and the level of cholesterol, squalene and oxysterols in rats with breast cancer. Rats (female, n = 24) were divided into the following groups: control, and two test groups, whose diets were enriched with either Zn microparticles (342 nm) or Zn nanoparticles (99 nm). All rats were treated twice with the carcinogenic agent, 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene. In rats whose diet was enriched with zinc (especially in the form of nanoparticles), the number and sizes of tumors were lower. Diet supplementation also significantly reduced the cholesterol (P = 0.027) and COPs (cholesterol oxidation products) levels (P = 0.011) in rats serum. Enriching the diet with Zn microparticles decreased the Δ6-desaturase activity (P &lt, 0.001). Zn influences fatty acids’ profile in rats’ serum as well as inhibiting desaturating enzymes. A reduced amount of pro-inflammatory arachidonic acid derivatives may be the expected effect.

‘Inner listening: Translating the City’\ud In this paper, I would like to discuss how through the experience of urban soundscape one can read the city from someone else’s perspective and attempt to claim ownership and a sense of belonging to the place. \ud I will address this by close exploration of the To Followproject 2017 (presented in theSounds Like HerExhibition curated by Christine Eyene) which combines a video Who/Werprojection with 4 channel audio, with a series of handmade silkscreens prints.\ud TheTo Followproject enquires into the complex processes of inner listeningwhile experiencing the soundscape of the city, this led to an intense series of creative dialogues with an Austrian playwright, Wolfgang Kindermann, who produced three narrative texts in response to my urban field recordings, encouraging a questioning of the real and imagined histories of place.\ud The departure point for this piece is an examination of the familiarity and strangeness of a city’s soundscape, as experienced both by an insider and a stranger to the city. What is the native prepared to share and what can the stranger hear and see more clearly because of its unfamiliarity. How much are the exchanges designed to gain advantage one over the other.\ud The split screen video is an exploration of the power struggle between moving and still image; inner thoughts versus observed action. Reported and imagined text appear to leak into each other’s aural territory while presenting the complexities of European language; the spoken German text is heard at the same time as the English translation but is spoken with a Polish accent thereby necessitating an even more intense listening process. The language, gender, the tone and the rhythm of voices are different. Interwoven together, they create a vocal sonic ‘tapestry’.\ud To Followis in dialogue with the historic work by Vito Acconci Following Piece(1969) in which the artist followed, in the streets of New York city, a randomly selected person in a public place until they entered a private place. Similarly, To Followthrough the experience of the drifter/follower and the person being followed, examines the layers of ourselves.

Developing a system of appeals in court proceedings, both in criminal and civil cases, is a matter of particular interest for legal reformers, especially in times of political breakthroughs. Admission of a full appeal, its limitation, or lack stems from the structure of the judiciary. Among priority tasks of the Codification Commission of the Second Republic of Poland was designing a system of appeals that would serve best the re-established Polish state. This article highlights the commission’s deliberations during work on the first Polish code of penal proceedings and during its far-reaching amendments. It discusses the standpoints of opponents and supporters of maintaining appeals from district court rulings decided by a judicial panel. Those problems have not lost their relevance. Until this day changes in a criminal lawsuit primarily attempt to streamline and accelerate penal proceedings. Under changing conditions, the search continues for the correct and adequate proportions between the protection of the defendant’s rights and the value of discovering the truth, the need for protecting public safety, fighting increasing crime, and protecting the victim’s interests.

In this essay I address Derrida’s influential readings of the Course in General Linguistics attributed to Ferdinand de Saussure (but ghostwritten after his death) in Of Grammatology and Glas. I complicate Derrida’s charge of phonocentrism, that is, the charge that Saussure privileges the medium of sound and/or speech as a site of unmediated signifying presence, by re-examining the relevant sections from the Course in light of the materials related to Saussure’s linguistics from the Nachlass, some of them recently discovered. I document especially the extent of editorial involvement in the sections discussed by Derrida that deal with the purportedly ‘natural’ expressions like onomatopoeias and interjections, and with the relation between speech and writing. I make the case that ultimately Derrida’s charge that Saussure’s linguistics is burdened by an allegiance to the metaphysics of presence carries limited force, and that Derrida’s and Saussure’s understanding of signification turn out to be closer related than previously thought: they share the view that entrainment and contamination are inevitable.

SAUSSUREANISM AND STRUCTURALISMWithin twentieth-century philosophy and the human sciences, the Course in General Linguistics attributed to Ferdinand de Saussure functions primarily as a site of the official doctrine closely associated with structuralism, that is, as a statement of the familiar oppositional pairings between the signifier and the signified, la langue and la parole, synchrony and diachrony. Barthes argued that a reliance on these oppositional pairings in the process of mapping out the many aspects of human reality (such as kinship arrangements, neurotic symptoms, literary genres) may in fact be a hallmark of structuralist activity, one which distinguishes it from the other traditions of inquiry (Barthes 1972, 213). Structuralism can therefore be defined as direct application of the 'Saussurean doctrine' to the many fields of study dealing with cultural signification in a social context. Considering the hold that structuralism had on Saussure's linguistics within the twentieth-century European philosophy and related fields, it is usual to consider these oppositional pairings as a distinctive feature and a shared trait of Saussureanism and structuralism. They figure as the general principles that were applied to linguistic study in the Course in the 1910s, and then extended to the broader field of philosophy and the human sciences within post-Second World War French structuralism (and then challenged within post-structuralism, notably by Derrida).This assumed continuity between a 'proto-structuralist' doctrine and structuralism properly so-called can also be rendered by the fact that it is usual in the scholarship to define structuralism proper as an intellectual movement with a distinctive Saussurean lineage, and to exclude the strands of structuralist scholarship that do not share in the Saussurean legacy. Hence, it is usually allowed that the term "structuralism" covers a large and varied territory of knowledge, and arguably one finds structuralist elements throughout the written history of Western philosophy in the many attempts to characterize objects in terms of a combination of structural elements within a system (Culler 2006, 5). However, it is standard to qualify as structuralism in the proper sense of the term the movement that displays a direct lineage to Saussurean linguistics as presented in the Course only; a number of scholarly works devoted to structuralism testify to this trend. Culler notes that "the term structuralism is generally used to designate work that marks its debts to structural linguistics and deploys a vocabulary drawn from the legacy of Ferdinand de Saussure. . . . There are many writings, from Aristotle to Noam Chomsky, that share the structuralist propensity to analyze objects as the products of a combination of structural elements within a system, but if they do not display a Saussurean ancestry, they are usually not deemed structuralist" (Culler 2006, 5). Sturrock states that, "The founding father of structural linguistics in Europe, and the man frequently looked on as the patron of the whole Structuralist movement, was the Swiss linguist Ferdinand de Saussure" (Sturrock 2003, 26). And Dosse observes that structuralism's (in the proper sense) "central core, its unifying center, is the model of modern linguistics and the figure of Ferdinand de Saussure, presented as its founder" (Dosse 1997, 43). (The structuralist "return to Saussure" would belong to the period's prevailing theme of "returning" to foundational figures, like Marx and Freud [Dosse 1997, 43]). In sum, structuralism's identity is widely recognized as closely bound up with its historical foundation in the Great Book authored by Ferdinand de Saussure.The shared Saussurean/structuralist commitment to the familiar oppositional pairings between the signifier and the signified, la langue and la parole, synchrony and diachrony was made possible by the production, replication, and reception of the Course as a site of the official doctrine. …

This article is an introduction to the primary source document – The resolution of the Extraordinary VI All-Russia Congress of Soviets On strict observance of the law. My comments about this resolution relate in particular to understanding the development of the socialist legality in Soviet Russia and other aspects, which are related to attainment of total power by the Bolsheviks. I have paid particular attention to the system of People’s Control Commissions, state control and its evolution from the October Revolution to the establishment of the prosecutor’s supervision.