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The rapid changes in our surroundings during the Holocene challenge the human body. The current study, carried out on the terminal Pleistocene-Holocene populations of the Levant, presents several examples of how changes in the habitation and diet have affected the disease patterns and the gross morphology of long bones and mandibles. Our major findings were that the prehistoric Natufian (67%) and the protohistoric Chalcolithic (80%) populations exhibited a much higher rate of ear inflammation (otitis media) than all other populations: Neolithic, Roman/Byzantine, and Ottoman (50% ± 5%). A general continuous significant decrease in the relative femoral bone cortical area from the Natufian (77.8%) to present times (64.7%) was noticed (the Chalcolithic population was the exception). Mandibular shape has changed considerably, mainly between the pre-agricultural population (the Natufian) and the succeeding ones (i.e., the ramus became taller and narrower, the coronoid higher and pointed, the mandibular notch narrower and deeper, and the body more triangular). Possible behavioral, economic, and environmental factors associated with these changes are discussed. Résumé. Les changements rapides de notre environnement au cours de l’Holocène mettent le corps humain au défi. L’étude actuelle, menée sur les populations du Pléistocène final et de l’Holocène du Levant, présente plusieurs exemples sur la manière dont les changements d’habitat et de régime alimentaire ont affecté les schémas pathologiques et la morphologie brute des os longs et des mandibules. Nos principales conclusions ont révélé que les populations préhistoriques du Natoufien (67 %) et celles protohistoriques du Chalcolithique (80 %) présentaient un taux d’inflammation de l’oreille (otite moyenne) beaucoup plus élevé que toutes les autres populations : néolithique, romaine/byzantine et ottomane (50 % ± 5 %). Une diminution générale continue et significative de la surface corticale relative de l’os fémoral entre le Natoufien (77,8 %) et l’époque actuelle (64,7 %) a pu être observée (la population chalcolithique étant l’exception). La forme de la mandibule a considérablement changé, principalement entre la population pré-agricole (le Natoufien) et les suivantes (c.-à-d., le ramus est devenu plus grand et plus étroit, le processus coronoïde plus haut et plus pointu, l’encoche mandibulaire plus étroite et plus profonde et le corps plus triangulaire). Les facteurs comportementaux, économiques et environnementaux possibles associés à ces changements sont discutés.

International audience

International audience

Marom and Rak claim, on the basis of a few mandibular features, that the Nesher Ramla (NR) Homo is a Neanderthal. Their comments lack substance and contribute little to the debate surrounding the evolution of Middle Pleistocene Homo . Limitations and preconceptions in their study prevented them from achieving resolution beyond a dichotomous interpretation of the NR as either a Neanderthal or a modern human.

Middle PleistoceneHomoin the LevantOur understanding of the origin, distribution, and evolution of early humans and their close relatives has been greatly refined by recent new information. Adding to this trend, Hershkovitzet al.have uncovered evidence of a previously unknown archaicHomopopulation, the “Nesher RamlaHomo” (see the Perspective by Mirazon Lahr). The authors present comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analyses of fossilized remains from a site in Israel dated to 140,000 to 120,000 years ago indicating the presence of a previously unrecognized group of hominins representing the last surviving populations of Middle PleistoceneHomoin Europe, southwest Asia, and Africa. In a companion paper, Zaidneret al.present the radiometric ages, stone tool assemblages, faunal assemblages, and other behavioral and environmental data associated with these fossils. This evidence shows that these hominins had fully mastered technology that until only recently was linked to eitherHomo sapiensor Neanderthals. Nesher RamlaHomowas an efficient hunter of large and small game, used wood for fuel, cooked or roasted meat, and maintained fires. These findings provide archaeological support for cultural interactions between different human lineages during the Middle Paleolithic, suggesting that admixture between Middle PleistoceneHomoandH. sapienshad already occurred by this time.Science, abh3169 and abh3020, this issue p.1424and p.1429; see also abj3077, p.1395

The past year was a historical milestone in the Steinhardt Museum development, with the begin­ning of the move into the new building and opening our galleries to the general public. This process began decades ago, most formally with a science policy decision made by the Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities in 1986, to consider our collections as National Collections, a National Museum of Natural History in the making. We have finalized Phase I of the Steinhardt Museum development and now face challenges of Phase II — the continuing development of our public programs and scientific and professional ca­pabilities, while strategically advancing the organizational and financial structure of the Stein­hardt Museum. The Steinhardt Museum comprises three major divisions. The Public Division was very active with finishing the exhibitions, developing an application and educational materials for museum visitors, and training guides, ushers and cashiers to work with the public. July and August saw a trial run with limited numbers of visitors and in September we opened the museum for all who purchased tickets on-line. The interest in the museum was gratifying, exceeding our most op­ti­mistic expectations, with the tickets sold out weeks ahead. Very positive responses were received from the public representing all sectors of the Israeli society; we feel privileged to share our trea­sures and knowledge with all. The Collections & Research Division has developed dramatically over the past few years — now comprising ca. 5.5 million specimens, over 40 expert collections managers, taxidermists and tech­nical assistants, 24 curators, 5 associate curators and a number of active curators emeriti. The Israel Taxonomy Initiative and the Aliya from the former USSR have contributed highly qua­lified museum professionals, in particular expert taxonomists, to this division, and the relevant aca­demic units have hired excellent young faculty members who serve as curators and develop collections-based research programs. Consequently, the rate of our collecting and the numbers of graduate students and international colleagues who use the collections for research have in­creased substantially. The staff members were entrusted with an arduous task of transferring the col­lections to the new museum building and reorganizing the collections in the storage facilities; they have been dealing with this admirably. Two special projects in the Collections & Research Division — the Israel Taxonomy Initiative and the Ancient DNA Program — continued to perform well, and the joint molecular systematics laboratory moved from cramped quarters to a spacious lab in the new museum building that would allow its development and use by all collections-based researchers. The Applied Policy-Relevant Research Division comprises three centers supported and co-ma­naged by the Ministry of Environmental Protection, the Israel Nature and Parks Authority and KKL-JNF: The Israel National Center for Aquatic Ecology, the Open Landscape Institute (with part­nership also of the Society for the Protection of Nature in Israel) and HaMaarag – Israel National Nature Assessment Program. The experts working in these centers have added a new dimension to the research carried out in the museum, and we trust that the synergy between them and the Collections & Research Division of the museum will continue to add depth to the museum’s mission and activities. The Applied Policy-Relevant Research Division also comprises special projects and services provided by the museum to governmental and other agencies: The Entomology Lab for Applied Ecology, the Feather Identification Lab, Agricultural Biodiversity and Marine Biodiversity, which produce knowledge required to support important activities of the Plant Protection and Inspection Services of the Ministry of Agriculture, monitor and survey arthropods, monitor bird-strikes for the Airports Authority and the Israeli Air-Force, and do forensic work and monitor marine nature reserves for the Israel Nature and Parks Authority. It was a very intensive, uneasy yet rewarding year, and we are privileged to have a dedicated hard-working team that meets challenges successfully and good-humoredly. We are also fortunate to have excellent colleagues in all relevant agencies and organizations who work with us, to attain the common goal of recording Israel’s biodiversity, studying it and sharing our knowledge and trea­sures with decision-makers and with the general public.

The Qesem Cave Middle Pleistocene hominin site has yielded a well preserved lower second deciduous molar (dm 2 -QC2), among several other human dental remains. It has been previously described by Hershkovitz et al. using traditional methods. In this study, we used multiple approaches in order to characterize the outer and inner morphology of dm 2 -QC2, namely a descriptive investigation of the inner morphology, analysis of the dental tissues, and comparative 3D geometric morphometric investigation of various aspects of the dental crown based on data gathered from μCT images. Dm 2 -QC2 was compared to a sample of 44 specimens, including recent and fossil modern humans, Neanderthals, and Homo erectus . Our comprehensive quantitative investigation agrees with Hershkovitz et al. with regard to the mixed morphology of this specimen. Dm 2 -QC2 allies morphologically with Neanderthals and Skhul X for its squared cervical outline, but is intermediate between modern humans and Neanderthals for its mildly distally expanded crown outline. Dm 2 -QC2 falls within Neanderthal variability in having relatively high dentine horns with inwardly bent tips. It is peculiar for its mesio-distal elongation of the occlusal marginal ridge at the enamel–dentine junction. The relative enamel thickness delivers different results if measured at the mesial section (intermediate but closer to modern humans) or at the entire crown (close to the Neanderthal distribution). In terms of size, dm 2 -QC2 and Qafzeh 15 are among the largest specimens in our sample. Dm 2 -QC2 shows a mosaic of features, with a prevalence of those typical or at least frequent in Neanderthals. Among the latter, the mid-trigonid crest and taurodontism are only slightly expressed. On the basis of this isolated dental evidence, and considering the paucity of information available on human evolution in the Levantine Middle Pleistocene, we do not attempt a taxonomic classification of this single tooth. However, dm 2 -QC2 indicates that Neanderthal features were already present in the Middle Pleistocene Levant. We cannot rule out the possibility that the dm 2 -QC2 population contributed to later Levantine or other Eurasian populations, but this is too speculative given the information currently available.