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The Yucatan peninsula (YP) is part of a biogeographical area characterised by its diversity of flora and fauna, among which are the birds, mainly hummingbirds, which are indicators of the state of conservation of the ecosystems. In birds, the site establishment and construction of nest plays a fundamental role for reproduction and survival rate, the selection of materials occurs opportunistically, but birds tend to use fresh leaves of plants with antimicrobial properties or that allow the depletion of ectoparasites in their nests. In this sense, for the first time we recorded for the cinnamon hummingbird (Amazilia rutila De Lattre), the materials used for the construction of its nest and the site of establishment of the nest in the host plants in two sites of a medium sub-deciduous forest in, Mexico. We recorded the construction of nests of A. rutila in two locations in Campeche; in the first site the nest was found in a chaya bush Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst. (Euphorbiaceae); most possibly as an anti-predatory strategy for trichomes in the form of sharp hairs and spines that the plants possess in their stems and leaves. In the second site, the nest was found in a mango tree Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae). The main vegetative material identified for the construction of the nests in both locations, were made from pappus (thin and cottony filament that possess the seeds for the dispersion) from Asclepias curassavica L. (Apocynaceae).

Five new natural hybrids of Lophiaris (Orchidaceae, Oncidiinae) are described and their accompanying illustrations provided. The five new nothospecies are: Lophiaris × cicyi (L. lurida × L. tapiae) from Campeche, Mexico, L. × lindeoerstedii (L. lindenii × L. oerstedii) from Quintana Roo, Mexico, L.×lurilindenii (L. lindenii×L. lurida) from Oaxaca, Mexico, L.×crispilurida (L. crispiflora×L. lurida) from Esteli, Nicaragua, and L.× lurigenensis (L. carthagenensis × L. lurida) from northern Venezuela. Comparisons of the floral characters of the new nothospecies and their putative parents are also illustrated with maps showing their corresponding geographical distributions. The etymology, distribution, ecology, informal conservation status, and comparative differences of the nothospecies with respect to their putative parental taxa have also been discussed. These characterizations will allow taxonomists to identify areas where isolation barriers break down and provide insight into the evolutionary processes that have complicated the understanding of the relationships among species and shaped relevantmorphological features of the flowers. We have also provided a comprehensive key to identify the Lophiaris species and their corresponding hybrids.

Bernikla kanadyjska Branta canadensis (Linnaeus, 1758) jest ikoną dzikiej Ameryki i należy, zarówno do naturalnego, jak i społeczno-kulturowego, dziedzictwa Ameryki Północnej. Ten monogamiczny, gromadny i migrujący gatunek majestatycznego ptaka wodnego jest szeroko rozpowszechniony w Ameryce Północnej. Występuje w 8-10 różnych podgatunkach w szerokim spektrum naturalnych siedlisk i ekosystemów. Gatunek jest rozpowszechniony od Alaski przez Kanadę, USA aż do Meksyku. Aby uniknąć trudnych warunków zimowych, migruje z północy do południowych stanów USA i północnego Meksyku. Z powodu eksplozji wielkości jego populacji, jak również braku presji drapieżników, ptak ten w niektórych częściach kontynentu, zmienił się w lokalnego szkodnika. To krótkie opracowanie opisuje jego cykl życiowy rozmieszczenie, reprodukcję i zachowanie w środowisku.

Restoration ecology has demonstrated an astounding growth as a new discipline of applied science, since its emergence in the past decades. Future-aimed restoration should acknowledge the changing and unpredictable environment of the future, assume the dynamic nature of ecological communities with multiple trajectories, and connect landscape elements for improving ecosystem functions and structures. Ecosystem loss is depriving the world of carbon sinks, like forests and wetlands, at a time when humanity can least afford it. Ecosystem restoration aims to repair some damage done to the environment and regain ecological functionality. The United Nations (UN) recently declared 2021 to 2030 the Decade on Ecosystem Restoration- a global mission to revive billions of hectares, from forests to farmlands, from the top of mountains to the depth of the sea. The path to a more sustainable use of ecosystems must begin with the development of inclusive wealth measures which capture natural, social, human and manufactured capital and are thus more accurate ways to measure economic progress.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effect of different types of fertilizer application on the growth and flowering of ‘Puyat Durian’ (Durio Zibethenus Murr.); and determine the best fertilizer application for the optimum production of Durian. Ten (10) year old trees at Canoy Durian Farm, Pindasan, Mabini, Compostela Valley Province were tested from November 2015 to March 2016. The experiment was laid out in Randomized Completely Block Design (RCBD) with six treatments, replicated three times. The treatments were: T1- Untreated; T2-Recommended Rate- RR (based on soil analysis); T3- Optimum Rate- OR + (3kg NPK+1kg MOP); T4- OR+ GOFF; T5- RR+ GOFF; T6- GOFF (Green-shield Organic-based Fortified Foliar Fertilizer).Statistical analysis showed that there were significant differences among treatments in terms of trees with flushes and number of flowers per cluster but no significant effects were observed in canopy diameter and number of flower cluster per tree. Result of the study showed that fertilizer application increased the number of flower per cluster of 'Puyat' Durian and enhanced flushing of durian trees. The study further revealed that organic based foliar fertilizer alone enhanced flowering up to five times higher than without application (control). While numerically, GOFF (Green-shield Organic-based Fortified Foliar Fertilizer) alone had the highest number of flower cluster per tree

Arecaceae is one of the most morphologically diverse plant families in the world, represented by over 185 genera and 2600 species. The Mayan communities in the Mexican portion of the Yucatan Peninsula (YP) have made extensive use of these palm species as food, construction materials, handicrafts and medicine. Deforestation, intensive use of native palms and their products, lack of management strategies, global warming, and climate change, are negatively impacting wild palm populations in this region. We assessed the conservation status of palm species that grow in the region following the IUCN criterion B: geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) or B2 (area of occupancy) or both. Twenty palm species were evaluated and considered not threatened (with the exception of Sabal gretherae, designated as an endangered species). In some particular cases, we consider that these evaluations are too optimistic. Previous evaluations carried out by the Mexican legislation are supported, with the exception of Attalea guacuyule, Cryosophila stauracantha, Gaussia maya and Thrinax radiata. We propose that the distribution and population density of Roystonea dunlapiana and R. regia in Mexico must be assessed to confirm their conservation status at national level. In the case of S. gretherae, a systematic evaluation of its taxonomic status must be implemented.

Obecnie wymieranie owadów zapylających staje się problemem ogólnoświatowym. Jest to istotne nie tylko z punktu widzenie utraty bioróżnorodności, ale ma ogromne znaczenie dla rolnictwa i gospodarki żywnościowej świata. Tradycyjne sposoby ochrony owadów i innych zapylaczy postrzega się, albo w kategoriach ochrony gatunkowej, albo ochrony biotopowej, w ich naturalnych lub półnaturalnych siedliskach. Jednak coraz czyściej podejmuje się próby ochrony tej grupy owadów w środowiskach silnie zmienionych przez człowieka, jak na przykład aglomeracje miejskie i towarzysząca im infrastruktura. Istnieją też inne propozycje, jak na przykład zakładanie pewnego rodzaju upraw – „Ostoje Zapylaczy”, na niewielkich poletkach w sąsiedztwie pól uprawnych lub miejscach nie przydatnych gospodarczo. W obecnej sytuacji wszystkie propozycje ochrony, zarówno te starsze – klasyczne, jak i te nowe, powinny być stosowane w sposób kompleksowy, bo tylko to może przynieść poprawę sytuacji owadów zapylających.

The study aimed to determine the effects of stimulants on the growth performance of tissue-cultured 'lakatan' banana plantlets (Musa acuminata) under nursery condition; to determine the best treatment combination that will increase the growth performance of tissue-cultured 'lakatan' banana plantlets; and to determine the economic benefits of using stimulants in tissue-cultured 'lakatan' banana plantlets. The study was laid out in a Complete Randomized Design (CRD) with seven treatments and replicated thrice with eight samples per replicate. The treatments were; T1- Control (No Application); T2- Conventional Practice (CP) (5 grams N-PK every 15 days); T3- Bio-Forge (5 ml/ liter water foliar application); T4- CP + Bio-Forge (0.125 grams of N-P-K + 5 ml of Bio-Forge/ liter water); T5- CP + Stimulate (5 grams of N-P-K + 10 ml of Stimulate/ liter water); T6- Bio-Forge + Stimulate (5 ml of Bio-Forge/ L. of water + 10 ml of Stimulate/liter water); T7- CP+ Bio-Forge+ Stimulate (5 grams of N-P-K + 5 ml of Bio-Forge/ liter water + 10 ml of Stimulate/ liter water). All data were analyzed through Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and differences among treatments were computed using Honest Significant (HSD) test. The results of the study revealed that the percentage of survival and pseudostem diameter at 15 Days after planting (DAP) was not significantly affected by different treatments. Plant height, length of leaves, width of leaves, pseudostem diameter (30 & 45), number of leaves, root length and number, fresh and dry weights at 15, 30 and 45 DAP have significant effects. The T7 - (Conventional Practice + Bio-Forge + Stimulate) significantly increased plant height by 7 times, width of leaves by 3 times, stem diameter by 6 times, root number by 3 times, fresh weight by 17 times which were comparable with T6- (Bio-Forge + Stimulate), T5- (CP + Stimulate), T4- (CP + Bio-Forge) and T3- (BioForge). The T3 (Bio-Forge) had the highest leaf length increase by 10 times, root length by 100% which is comparable to T5- (CP + Stimulate), T6- (CP + Stimulate) and T7- (CP + Bio-Forge + Stimulate). While T4- (CP + Bio-Forge) had the heaviest dry weight by 28 times which is also comparable to T3 (Bio-Forge), T5 (CP + Stimulate), T6 (Bio-Forge + Stimulate) and T7- (CP + Bio-Forge + Stimulate).

The study was conducted to determine the effect of Greenshield Organic-Based Fortified Foliar Fertilizer on the growth, flowering and fruiting performance of Coffea robusta. The experiment was laid out using Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD), having six treatments and three replications. The treatments were: T1 – Untreated check (No fertilizer); T2 – RR of NPK fertilizer/ha; T3 – ½ RR NPK/ha; T4 – Greenshield Organic – Based Fortified Foliar Fertilizer at 100ml/li of water; T5 – ½ RR NPK + GOFF; and T6 – RR of NPK + GOFF. The result of the study revealed that different rates of Greenshield Organic – Based Fortified Foliar Fertilizer significantly affected the number of flowers and number of fruits, but not stem diameter. Results showed that the number of flowers at 30 Days after application was increased by T6 – RR of NPK + GOFF up to 36% higher than without applications. It also had the highest number of fruits in two weeks from flowering as much as 100% more fruits than GOFF alone and untreated. While no significant increase in terms of stem diameter was observed which ranged from 75 to 90 cm at 30 days after application.

This study aimed to characterize the bacterial and fungal contaminants of tissue-cultured 'Lakatan' banana (Musa acuminata) during initiation stage. This was conducted at the University of Southeastern Philippines, Tagum-Mabini Campus from October 2015 to February 2016. The sterilized banana explant was placed in a bottle of solidified nutrient agar medium. Detectable bacterial and fungal contaminants were isolated and sub-cultured into the fresh medium two to four days after incubation. The bacterial isolates were cultivated by streaking into fresh culture medium and incubated at 0 0 30-32 C for three days and fungi culture disk was transferred to fresh culture medium and incubated at 30-32 C for three to five days. Both bacterial and fungal contaminants were identified and characterized and assessed for extent of contamination. Results showed that the different contaminants occurred during the initiation stage of tissue-cultured 'Lakatan' banana meriplants were composed of Rhizopus sp., unidentified fungus and Gram-negative bacterium. Generally, 35% contamination was observed on this stage.

Along with recent health challenges, there is a need to develop more convenient, nutritious, ready-to-eat and tasty breadfruit products to increase available food source and minimize postharvest losses. Hence, this study was conducted at the Food Technology laboratory of the University of the South Pacific, Alafua campus to evaluate healthy product innovations from indigenous crops of the Pacific Island Countries which include breadfruit. The different gluten-free breadfruit flour products developed at the Food Technology laboratory, University of the South Pacific, Alafua campus, Apia, Samoa were breadfruit cookies, breadfruit cake and breadfruit polvoron (powdered candy). The breadfruit flour was analyzed for proximate contents and its products were tested for acceptability of taste using a nine hedonic rating scale. Proximate analysis of the breadfruit flour revealed a higher protein (6.56%), ash (4.78%) and crude fat (1.84%) but lower DM (85.29%) and crude fibre (4.10%) contents than fresh crushed breadfruit. Sensory tests revealed that thirteen percent (13%) of the 30 panels disliked (5) the product based on a ninepoint hedonic rating scale. These showed that these gluten-free breadfruit flour products are nutritious and tasty with great potential for commercialization.

The majestic Sunderbans (see Figure 1), the world’s largest mangrove ecosystem located in South Asia at the mouth of the Bay of Bengal, represent a unique ecological habitat rich in both flora and ...

In Mexico, beekeeping is one of the main activities of the agricultural sector due to its production of high quality honey which is exported to several European countries. Beekeeping is practiced by more than 40,000 producers; with around two million hives in apiaries distributed in the five honey producing regions of Mexico (North, Central and Highlands, Pacific, Gulf and Yucatan Peninsula). The Yucatan Peninsula comprising of Campeche, Quintana Roo and Yucatan, is considered as one the most important honey producing region since it contributes to about 95 % of Mexican honey production in the international markets. The region represents to 30 to 35 % of the total number of Mexican bee colonies, and beekeeping is considered as a secondary agricultural activity. With the purpose of characterizing the beekeeping activity in Campeche (in municipalities of Campeche, Champoton and Hopelchen), Yucatan Peninsula a comprehensive survey was conducted on 120 producers from July to December, 2016. The average age of beekeepers was found to be 57 years, with an average of 2.27 apiaries per producer and with 20.6 hives per apiary. The survey revealed that beekeepers devote two days a week to beekeeping and make on an average 3.67 harvests per year. Based on the survey results, it is recommended to promote generational change in the local beekeeping activity, with stronger emphasis on the young beekeepers of the region.

Pszczoły – to niezwykle różnorodna i ważna grupa owadów; około 4600 gatunków pszczół występuje w Ameryce Północnej. Dzikie pszczoły „świadczą usługi” w zakresie zapylania roślin, a ich działalność jest prawdopodobnie nawet więcej warta niż działalność pszczół miodnych na całym świecie. Są one słabo zbadane na większości obszarów, ale na terenach, dla których mamy wiarygodne dane, liczebność ich populacji obniża się. Wynika to głównie z przekształcania obszarów półnaturalnych na grunty rolne, a nowsze dane wskazują również, że pszczoły miodne mogą także wpływać na ich populacje. Aby zachować istniejące populacje pszczół, należy ustalić siedliska zapylaczy, w celu zachowania różnorodności dzikich zapylaczy w krajobrazach wiejskich i miejskich. W miarę jak populacja ludzi rośnie wraz z zapotrzebowaniem na produkcję rolną, musimy znaleźć sposoby „współpracy” z dzikimi zapylaczami i sposoby zachowania dla przyszłych pokoleń tysięcy gatunków pszczół, które żyją w Ameryce Północnej.

The rapid deforestation in the state of Tabasco due to extensive livestock farming has resulted in the decrease of the original forest cover. Only 4% of the original vegetation remains and that vegetation is concentrated in the mountainous regions of the state. This destructive process continues due to support by the current government livestock policies. Under these circumstances, the traditional silvopastoral systems of dispersed trees can present an option for reversing and mitigating deforestation practices. The objective of this study was to generate information on the tree species common to silvopastoral systems of dispersed trees in the pastures for two mountainous areas in Tabasco. In the study, 64 tree species, representing 26 plant families were identified. All species were characterized as multipurpose, with at least three reported uses and a maximum of seven for each species. In total, nine categories of local uses were identified for the trees. The main category of use was fuel (firewood), followed by timber and shade for the livestock. Although leguminous species (Fabaceae) were dominant, these species were utilized for uses other than the provision of fodder. Since 12 of the total species identified were recognized as sources of food for animals; the assumption that livestock farmers do not recognize the utility of these species for improving production yields is apparent. The results suggest that there is potential need to expand research and offer further education on the subject in Tabasco.

Body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC) are considered as the most important anthropometric indicators to investigate the risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, hypertension and other obesity-related diseases. This study assessed the relationship between blood pressure (BP) with BMI and WC in students (aged 8 - 16 years) of rural West Bengal (WB) in Eastern India. About 551 rural secondary school going students were surveyed for BP, height, weight and WC. Among them 283 were boys and 268 were girls. BMI was derived using standard formula; Pearsons’ correlation coefficient was done to assess the degree of correlation among BP with BMI and WC. A lower range of obesity was found in rural areas in both boys and girls. WC was found to be more correlated with BP than BMI. Increase of BP was found with a higher BMI and WC. Prevalence of higher BP was found among school boys than girls in rural WB.Journal of Bangladesh Academy of Sciences, Vol. 40, No. 2, 169-178, 2016

The production of native corn at regional level is greatly limited by the seasonality of rainfall, availability of adequate lands, poor fertility status of the soil, high input costs and constraints of resources of the local corn growers and/or producers. The challenges of reduced cultivable area give very little opportunity for increasing production area in a sustainable manner; it is important to note that the soil recover their fertility status through crop rotation and prolonged rest period (> 25 years) known as sequential agroforestry system or "milpa". During 2015, corn collections were performed in the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico that included five races from the Yucatan (in localities of Nohacal and Peto) and Campeche (Calakmul, Suc-Tuc, Sakabchen, I Chek) states. The races identified were: 1) Nal-Tel (gallito), 2) Dzit Bacal, 3) Xnu’uc Naal (Tuxpeño), 4) Palomero and, 5) Tabloncillo. The local varieties, Pix Cristo (Knees of Christ), Eh Hu (Purple maize) and Chac Chu’ub (Chac´s Blood or Red maize), are included within the Tuxpeño (Xnu´uk Naal) race. The land race of corn that is in imminent danger of extinction is Nal-Tel, characterized by its precocity and ability to escape periods of low rainfall; is important to rescue it for adoption to the practices of local and regional production. The adaptation of this race as a germplasm is important due to its resilience to climate change itself. Palomero, Tabloncillo, Pix Cristo, Chac Chu´ub and Eh Hu can thus be used in traditional food industry, to preserve the traditional knowledge and to provide opportunities for additional income for the local, rural communities. Yellow Palomero and Tabloncillo races are new records of germplasm for the region; and hence essential is exchanging their seeds among local producers and growers.

Rodzaj Cyperus L. (Cyperaceae) obejmuje od 750 do 950 gatunków. Występuje w ścisłym powiązaniu z ekologicznymi ugrupowaniami różnych gatunków traw. Gatunki z rodzaju Cyperus posiadają rozmieszczenie kosmopolityczne. Niektóre z nich są uważane za szkodliwe chwasty uprawowe. Jednak duża ich liczba znalazła zastosowanie w rolnictwie, ogrodnictwie oraz w przemyśle farmaceutycznym. Cyperus canus J.Presl & C.Presl (Cyperaceae) jest rośliną naturalną dla tropikalnej Ameryki i rozmieszczony jest od południowego Meksyku oraz Gwatemali do Kolumbii. Gatunek ten występuje wzdłuż brzegów jezior, strumieni i bagien, a czasami na skałach, na wysokości 200-1500 m n.p.m. W naturalnym środowisku jest rośliną dość rzadko spotykaną, ponieważ traktowany jest jako pospolity chwast. W Ameryce Środkowej, C. canus jest rośliną powszechnie stosowaną do produkcji dywanów, nosidełek dla dzieci, portfeli, teczek, kapeluszy i lin. W Gwatemali, pędy tego gatunku są używane do wyplatania koszy i torebek, do produktów codziennego użytku (śpiworów, sandałów, wachlarzy) oraz przygotowywania tradycyjnych potraw. W artykule tym opisano zastosowanie i procesy produkcji niektórych ważnych wyrobów wykonywanych z dzikorosnącego C. canus.

The orchid flora of Puebla State represents 16% of the total species present in Mexico demonstrating rich biodiversity. However, several municipalities in the north-east of Puebla area are located within a conservation priority area for its tropical montane cloud forest and tropical rain forest due to decision of the Comisión Nacional para el Conocimiento y el Uso de la Biodiversidad of Mexico. We have recorded 93 species from Cuetzalan del Progreso with 25 new records of the flora of the state. These new dditions thereby currently increase the orchid flora of Puebla to 197 species. Of these, six species are classified as threatened, three as subject to special protection by the NOM-059-SEMARNAT-2010 and one classified as least concern by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. Moreover, we recorded 37 species illegally traded in “tianguis” (informal markets) of Cuetzalan del Progreso. The orchid diversity in the fragmented forests can be harnessed in establishing a model for the sustainable management and to promote conservation action f species at some level of threat and in the restoration of areas with fragmented forests. Unfortunately, the orchid diversity has been seriously endangered by several anthropogenic factors. We have also recorded significant anthropogenic threats in this municipality for the long-term existence of the local orchid members and species with potential for commercial production. A viable approach will be to allow the introduction of in vitro germination program and organic production of orchids by local and fringe communities; this will reduce inhabitants’ dependence on the scarce forest resources, lessen illegal harvesting and trafficking of wild orchids, and at the same time provide economic development for the local communities.

Background The knowledge of native melliferous flora (MF) may contribute to identify the diversity of species available for beekeeping activities during the dry and rainy seasons of the year in the Yucatan Peninsula (YP) region. The acute shortage of food resources considerably reduce local honey production and needs to be addressed appropriately. The objective of this study has been identifying the local MF, their nectar and pollen contribution, their flowering patterns, and the criteria of the vegetation to be established adjacent to local apiaries for stable production of quality honey. The study also investigates how this approach helps to complete the annual flowering cycle required to maintain the honeybee colonies, thereby preventing swarm escapes during periods of acute food stress in the community of Xmabén, Hopelchén, Campeche, Mexico. Methodology We conducted a comprehensive survey based on interviews with 40 local beekeepers and a review of herbarium specimens (CICY) of the database of the global information network on the native MF biodiversity with high apiculture potential, the contribution of nectar and pollen they provide, and their flowering patterns. Furthermore, we documented interviews with the same beekeepers on the necessary conditions for establishing the ideal components of vegetation in areas adjacent to apiaries for high-quality honey production in the Xmabén community of Hopelchén, Campeche, Mexico. Results We have identified 56 native MF species with apiculture potential, that need to be planted around the apiaries for assisting honeybees in successfully running the beekeeping production cycle. Hence, the MF diversity of Xmabén community constitutes a valuable resource for successful beekeeping in the region and adjoining localities. We found that 22.5% of local beekeepers are dedicated exclusively to apilcilture, while 77.5% practice it as a secondary activity due to better sources of income in agriculture (60%), masonry (10%), and livestock management (7.5%). The data generated can help in further expansion of the local apiaries, beekeeping business, and in building future opportunities for the local apiculture industry. Indigenous knowledge of the beekeepers was comprehensive and corroborated the technical information on MF collected from the herbarium, further emphasizing the value of indigenous knowledge on traditional beekeeping practices. Conclusion From the perspective of human ecology, our study reveals the need of collecting, analyzing, and interpreting indigenous knowledge to facilitate traditional beekeeping practices of the region without using expensive, modern technology to solve ecosystem-based problems through long-term, sustainable, traditional, and environment friendly approaches.

Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) is an annual forge legume and a traditional spice crop. It is also well known as an aromatic and medicinal plant that has been commonly used both in Indian Ayurvedic systems as well as in the traditional Sino-Tibetan medicinal practices. The plant has a number of important medicinal properties and the medicinal properties are attributed to the wide range of phytochemicals present in the leaves and seeds of the plant, namely diosgenin (steroidal sapogenin), trigonelline and fenugreekine (alkaloids), galactomannans (complex carbohydrate), and 4-hydroxy isoleucine (amino acid), etc. Currently the crop is grown in parts of United States, Canada, Argentina, North Africa, Mediterranean Europe, Middle East, South Asia, China, and Australia. The crop is recommended for the dry and semiarid regions of Asia, Africa, and Latin America as it grow well under rainfed conditions. Fenugreek has a number of species around the globe along with a wide diversity of germplasms and cultivars reported in different producer countries. Due to its multipurpose applications, fenugreek has huge potential both in agriculture as well as in the global pharmaceutical, nutraceutical, and functional food industries.

Food security and food self-sufficiency have been a significant challenge and an important target for developing and underdeveloped nations around the planet. One of the most important target groups that does suffer from nutritional challenges in developing and underdeveloped nations are school-going children. Many of them are impacted with issues such as undernutrition and malnutrition due to several socioeconomic parameters such as education and awareness, as well as their economic and social status. The current review attempts to provide an overall picture of the nutrition related challenges of school-going children from the perspective of developing and underdeveloped nations.

The food chemistry of the foods of animal and plant origin depends on soil, water, and other environmental factors that are important in inheritance. The epigenome is made up of chemical compounds and proteins that can attach to DNA and direct such actions as turning genes on or off, controlling the production of proteins in particular cells. Epigenetic modulation can alter the composition and function of foods of both animal and plant origin, due to alteration in the nutrient content of the feed or soil and water which are important for the growth of the animal or plants, respectively. In many species of plants and animals, new phenotypes have been observed to occur rapidly in the last 100 years due to the rapid changes in the environment causing epigenetic inheritance of a phenotype. It is proposed that plants and animals with some level of genetic variations evolve via changes in gene frequency and gene sequence, induced by natural selection and/or by epigenetic regulation. Therefore, genetic variations and epigenetic modulations in the plant cell appear to be basic determinant of the nutrient content of fruits, leaves and seeds of the plant foods to be used for foods, which may be useful for development of functional foods. Similarly, nutrient content of the animal foods can also alter by feeding the mother or father for epigenetic variations and modulations which need to be targeted for inclusion of the food in functional food category. In brief, the role of interaction of gene and environment in the development of foods in general and functional foods in particular appears to be important in plants and animals to provide functional foods for humans. Feeding of functional foods to animals and change in soil to get nutrient-rich plant foods, may provide functional foods, possibly via epigenetic modulation. Epigenetic engineering should be developed as a new method for functional food production.

Home gardens represent an important agri-forestry systems widely practiced across the Yucatan Peninsula of Mexico successfully combining tree and shrubs; along with annual and perennial agricultural crop species and farm animals. They are found around houses in the rural settlements of Mexico mostly under the family management. However, the practice has been successfully extended into the urban settlements of Mexico including those in the Yucatan Peninsula as a highly popular environment-friendly, sustainable agri-horticultural practice combining indigenous plants suitable for food, fodder, fertilizer, forage and medicinal purposes. The urban home or family garden contributes significantly towards local food security and nutrition, strengthening family economy and in the conservation of regional and local agri-biodiversity; and could successfully serve as a sustainable, green, environmental model. Recently, the local Mexican administration has been promoting for developing school home gardens as strategies to raise awareness regarding conservation of regional flora and food security among school children further strengthening the concept of urban home gardens in Mexico. In this chapter, we highlight the history, development, structure, nature, species used and their uses along with importance of home gardens in Mexico with special emphasis to Yucatan Peninsula highlighting some specific peri-urban and urban case studies.

Renewable energy resources are in great urge to reduce dependability on fossil fuels as well as to minimize greenhouse gas emission. Since more than a decade, biofuel industries especially bioethanol and biodiesel have been highly expanding in conjugation with agriculture crop production. First generation biofuel production is highly relied on the agriculture crops such as corn, sugarcane, sugar beets, soybean, and canola. Therefore, inherent competition between foods versus fuels remained debatable in the society from the last few years. Current technological advances in the research and development opened an avenue for next-generation biofuel production from different feedstock such as agriculture waste products, crop residues, and cellulosic biomass from high-yielding grass species. This review explains the current status of first-generation biofuel production and their challenges at net energy benefit as well as competition of feedstock for food and fuel production. This chapter also focuses on recent advances in research and development of the second-generation biofuel production from different feedstocks. Future direction of agriculture industries and energy industries has been discussed to feed the ever-increasing world population and to fuel the world’s highest energy demanding sector, transportation.

Biofuel is an emerging agri-industry that has the potential to change the agricultural economics of both developed, as well as developing, and underdeveloped nations in the not so distant future. Biofuels are regularly replacing fossil fuels to generate power, heat, and chemicals. The extensive use of biofuels in the future for energy generation is of great interest since it has the potential to reduce the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere and could serve as an important step toward establishing energy independence and open new employment opportunities globally. It is therefore important to understand the different sources of biofuel productions for long-term and sustainable use depending upon the nature and energy dynamics of the regional demands for biofuel. This review investigates the sustainability of biofuel production from different sources and their role in energy generation.

The Orchidaceae is one of the best represented plant families in Venezuela with nearly 1506 species and 213 genera. Detailed floristics and inventories, however, are needed for different unexplored and underexplored areas of the national parks of Venezuela. The current study was conducted to develop a comprehensive inventory of Orchidaceae in Guatopo National Park (GNP), to assess diversity and distribution, to enhance our knowledge of the local flora, and to determine their conservation priorities. A total of 179 species representing 87 genera of Orchidaceae are reported here. The genera with most species are Epidendrum (18), Pleurothallis (10), Stelis (8), Maxillaria (7), Scaphyglottis (7) Dichaea (5), Maxillariella (5), Prosthechea (5), and Xylobium (5). About 13.40% of the taxa reported in the park are under some categories of the IUCN Red List for threatened species. GNP is one of the protected areas of the north-central region of Venezuela that requires further studies from the perspective ...

Biodiversity conservation and production of foods imply a hard trade-off with no simple solutions routes. However, changing conventional agrarian and animal husbandry models to an agroforestry one is an important approach for achieving a better equilibrium between both economical and conservative goals. Agroforestry systems (AFS) for tropical lands provide a renewed old approach to deal with the need for feeding a growing population while avoiding damage to ecosystems on which food production is achieved. Neotropical studies on the subject have increased since the 1980s, accumulating evidences that it is possible to consider the potential of agroforestry to improve the status of biodiversity without hampering regular agricultural production. Three countries stand out for their contributions in the Mesoamerican region: Costa Rica, Mexico and Nicaragua. Notably, the researchers of biological diversity associated with Mesoamerican agroforestry systems have turned their attention primarily on nine biological groups: ants, bats, birds, butterflies, dung beetles, mammals, soil macrofauna, terrestrial mollusks and plants. Most research in Mesoamerica, including that in Colombia and Venezuela, dealing with biodiversity in the production systems has been abandoned. But there is an increasing trend of studies on biodiversity conservation in areas under active cultivation or livestock since both include trees. It is clear that the AFS can only help in reducing the negative impacts of agriculture and livestock grazing systems on the natural biodiversity. In conjunction with the network of protected areas in the region, this synergistic effect may increase the ability of biological conservation of the territory, alongside increasing economic benefits to the local rural society.

Animal production systems in the tropics are currently based mainly on the grazing of animals in the fallow lands and pastures. Conventional livestock systems such as these are, however, strongly affected by limited precipitation. During dry periods, biomass production is reduced; this in turn affects the quality of animal diet and ultimately negatively affects livestock productivity. Often natural woody vegetation is removed to provide grazing areas. In regions where there are competing demands for natural resources, alternative approaches to livestock production which include a tree or shrub component can have many benefits both for the conservation of natural resources and for improved food security. Integration of native trees and shrubs along with grasses in the fallow pastures could improve plant productivity, nutritional quality of animal diet and help in sustaining natural biodiversity of the local ecosystems. A significant contribution to the future livestock systems could be made with the reforestation of the degraded land pastures. Reforesting would lead to increased water use efficiency, thereby reducing the impact of pests and diseases. Through sequestration of carbon they contribute towards climate mitigation in the form of methane reduction from the ruminants by improving the quality of animal diet with foliage trees and shrubs. Integration of different trees and shrub species in the livestock systems will integrate agroecosystems services for long-term ecological sustainability. Furthermore, incorporating trees and shrubs into the animal systems production will also improve habitat for the local wildlife.

Micronutrient deficiency is one of the most common and widespread nutritional issues. Among the factors mitigating the bioavailability of Zn (zinc) and Fe (iron), phytic acid plays a key role; therefore, in order to scrutinize genetic alterations ‎related to micronutrient and phytate contents, we examined the concentrations of zinc, iron, and phytic acid, as well as its mole ratio to ‎zinc in various wheat species grown in two planting seasons. The concentrations of phytic acid and its mole ratio to zinc were 0.61‒1.55 g kg−1 dry weight and 1.88‒4.17 for autumn, and 0.97‒2.02 g kg−1 dry weight and 2.10‒4.05 for spring planting. There was a significant discrepancy among wheat species; tritipyrum had the highest concentration of iron, phytic acid and its mole ratio to zinc, and T. monococcum and T. aestivum recorded reasonable zinc bioavailability. Correlation studies between grain phytic acid concentrations and other measured traits revealed various relationships, denoting an irrefutable impact of planting season and wheat ploidy levels on modification of wheat genotypes. The characters contributing more positively with principal component (PC) 1 were Zn and Fe under spring planting and Fe under autumn planting. Spike number per square meter, biological yield and grain yield in spring cultivation, and grain zinc concentration in autumn cultivation were positively correlated to principal component (PC) 2. Given that the concentration of Fe and Zn in all the studied genotypes is relatively high and due to the existence of other desirable agronomic traits, this study believes that it could possibly enhance the applicability of some of these genotypes for breeding purposes.

Sundarbans, the world’s largest mangrove biomes, have a rich biodiversity of diverse flora and fauna. Although various attempts had been made previously to explore the diversity of this World Heritage Site, information related to the diversity and ecology of macrofungi in this region is sparse. In this context, the aim of this study was to record the macrofungal diversity and describe the macrofungal communities of this ecosystem whose lifecycles are intricately woven with the mangrove ecosystem of the Indian part of Sundarbans. Carpophore surveys were conducted from June 2010 to September 2012 over 77 randomly placed quadrats (20 × 20 m2). A total of 455 carpophores belonging to 62 species across 27 families and 46 genera were recorded. Of the total number of macrofungal species listed, around 55% were saprophytic. The genera with the greatest species richness were Ganoderma and Tricholoma. Comparing the species richness estimators, the cumulative number of species over the three successive years reveale...

The diversity of macrofungi in the lateritic region of West Bengal was explored and 120 species, one subgenus and a variety, having eight ecological functions, were found to grow among three types of habitats, i.e. natural forests, plantation forests and villages. Yate’s corrected chi-square (χ2) test statistic was performed upon the 2 × 2 table (contingency table) and testing the null hypotheses of independence of observed cell frequencies of the presence/absence of a species in a given habitat type. Various degrees of specificities of macrofungi to their habitats were observed, i.e. Amanita vaginata, Astraeus hygrometricus, Laccaria laccata, Lactarius zonarius, Porphyrellus malaccensis, Russula brevipes, Russula delica, Russula emetica and Russula laurocerasi were absolutely specific for natural forests; Pisolithus arhizus and Ramaria fumigata were absolutely specific for plantation forests; Auricularia auricula, Schizophyllum commune and Termitomyces clypeatus (only association coefficient 100%) were f...

Intensified agriculture systems have had enormous negative consequences on ecosystems, particularly contributing towards unrestricted drought and desertification. In fact, the expansion of agriculture is the main cause of ecosystem degradation. The regions most vulnerable to such degradation are drylands, comprising 40 % of total land area and where 42 % of the global population resides. It is well known that climate change impact rainfed crops and water storage; which in turn impact the water availability for irrigation in dryland regions. Soils are also greatly affected by climate change: changes in rainfall and temperature affect crop growth, nutrient cycles, plant biodiversity and soil organic matter. Also, livestock production in tropical regions faces serious limitations, including inadequate management, the low quality and irregular availability of forage resources and, ultimately, the consequences of climate change. Among other reasons, low soil fertility and the irregularity of rain distribution have caused the majority of pastures to deteriorate. In general, tropical pastures are large contributors of greenhouse gas emissions, especially methane, which is associated with their high fiber content. To counter climate change requires: linking adaptation with mitigation. Silvopastoral systems are presented here as a set of strategies to enhance productivity whist reducing input costs and increasing environmental sustainability that also enhance carbon sequestration and build the resilience of the system to cope with the impacts of climate change.

Lepanthes appendiculata Ames, a new record for the orchid flora of Nicaragua is presented, with comments on its geographical distribution, floral variations, and analysis of conservation status following IUCN criteria. Additionally, we include iconography of its floral variations, habitats, and a detailed distribution map. Based on the herbarium records and iconography, we also accept and corroborate 10 species of Lepanthes Sw. in Nicaragua.

Non-judicious and over applications of different toxic, synthetic chemical fertilizers lead to several environmental hazards, causing damages to human, animal, and ecosystem health and can even result in unfavorable economic turnaround. Residual chemical fertilizers in aquatic and/or rhizosphere zones could potentially disrupt the natural ecosystem balance severely hampering both agricultural productivity and initiate several critical health issues. To avoid such environmental, agricultural, and health crises, serious attention has now been shifted toward the production of environmentally friendly biofertilizers with higher economic returns and better financial gains in comparison with conventional synthetic chemical fertilizers. Under intensive agricultural practices, application of biofertilizers is of particular importance in increasing soil fertility and ensures right movement toward sustainable agriculture. To improve the agricultural productivity and yield stability, utilization of conducive terricolous microorganisms such as rhizobacteria, as biofertilizers, has been found to be of quite important under in case of modern agricultural management. The present review was aimed to elucidate firstly the main conceptions of rhizosphere and rhizobacteria, and secondly the direct/indirect functions of rhizobacteria-mediated plant growth promotion.

The demand for livestock products is rising rapidly in tropical areas as a consequence of increased human population. As demand for food increases, deforestation and land degradation occur. Though varying by country and region, the conversion of forest into cattle pastures has been one of the main driving forces of this degradation. In various Latin American countries, the creation of livestock farms, with government support, has been the single most important source of deforestation. This expansion of cattle ranching is also one of the principle causes of the increase in greenhouse gas emissions. Agriculture releases significant amounts of CO2, CH4, and N2O into the atmosphere. For example, CO2 is released largely from microbial decay or the burning of plant litter and soil organic matter produced during agricultural processes. Recently, silvopastoral systems (SPSs) have been advocated as promising alternatives to current practices by reconciling conservation and development needs. SPS is the production of livestock on land in a system which combines multipurpose leguminous shrubs at high densities together with grasses to improve both the yield and quality of fodder, resulting in milk and meat products with a high potential to attract an organic premium. This SPS plays an important role in healthy milk and meat production. Recent research advances have proven that Leucaena grass pastures are the most productive, profitable, and sustainable pasture-fed option for agroecological cattle production. Because the levels of input have traditionally been relatively low in the production of meat and milk from extensive grassland systems, they are among the easiest to convert to organic production. However, the long-term prospects for organic systems are not clear. There is continued pressure to ensure that all livestock systems and agriculture in general develop in a way that has minimal environmental impact. The differences between organic and conventional systems may diminish over time, and the pressure in demand for organic products may slow. Compared with other sources of fodder for meat and milk production, SPSs can provide a cheap source of feed. The SPS produces double the amount of milk and meat compared to pastures in monocrops with the minimum use of external inputs. The objective of this chapter is to describe the potential of SPS for organic milk and meat production.

Sansevieria zeylanica (L.) Willd. (Asparagaceae) is a plant native to Sri Lanka, but is currently distributed in the tropics and subtropics across the world as a well-known ornamental species. In the Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico, this species grows in disturbed areas adjoining the towns and villages and has been used as a supplement to local cattle feed. However, it can yield a good quality, natural fiber from which hammocks are locally made. In the Yucatan Peninsula, particularly in the community of Euan, hammocks are being produced for almost 25 years and can be considered as an important locality for innovative use for this fiber-yielding plant. These hammocks are certainly higher in quality compared to others made with the henequen fibers, palms, cotton, and synthetic fibers. Furthermore, these hammocks are stained with natural dyes. Hence, this artistic activity that involves the novel use of an exotic plant as a source of fiber, traditional application of the native dyeing plants, and indigenous knowledge of the Mayan communities of Yucatan Peninsula should be promoted as a minor (cottage) industry that can bring economic opportunities for the people of this region.

Macrofungi are broad in diversity and play an important role in sustaining ecosystems. However, the quantity and quality of their habitat is decreasing and the threat of extinction looms over the remaining 95% of the world's undiscovered fungal species. There is an urgent need for inventorisation, monitoring and conservation of macrofungi and the habitats supporting their growth. This paper focuses on the species richness, assemblage and spatial ecology of the macrofungi whose lifecycles are intricately woven with natural Shorea robusta forests in the lateritic region of West Bengal, India. Decreasing soil productivity, poor regeneration of Shorea seedlings and subsequent habitat degradation for macrofungi are a prime cause of concern.

With a view to supplementing protein-calorie in a developing country such as Nigeria, a study was conducted to determine the suitability of a little known crop, cranberry bean (Phaseolus coccineus L.). For this purpose, proximate analyses were done on mineral and amino acid composition of raw and processed seeds (roasted, sprouted, boiled and cooked) using standard analytical techniques. The processing methods showed deviations in nutrients from the raw seeds. Crude fat was found to be reduced by different processing methods, while crude protein was enhanced by roasting and sprouting. Processing significantly (P ≤ 0.05) affected the content of some minerals in P. coccineus seed flour. Roasting and sprouting reduced potassium content by 67.4 and 47.2%, respectively, while boiling and cooking increased the same mineral by 35.0 and 24.9%, respectively. All the processing methods reduced calcium content. Generally, processed cranberry bean seed flour was found to be a good source of essential minerals, and harmful heavy metals such as lead and cadmium were not detected. The amino acid profile revealed that roasting and sprouting enhanced total amino acid (TAA), total essential amino acid (TEAA) and total sulphur-containing amino acid (TSAA), while boiling and cooking reduced TAA, TEAA and TSAA. The limiting amino acid for raw and cooked seeds was Val, whereas TSAA were limiting in roasted, sprouted and boiled seeds. Sufficient proportions of the essential amino acids were retained after processing of the cranberry bean seed to meet FAO dietary requirement, so this crop is considered to be a valuable protein source for the African diet. Key words: African, chemical composition, cranberry bean, domestic processing, flour, Phaseolus coccineus L. seed

Post-green revolution advances made in biotechnology paved the way of cultivating the high-yielding, stress and disease resistant genetically modified (GM) varieties of wheat, rice, maize cotton and several other crops. The recent rapid commercialization of the genetically modified crops in Asia, Americas and Australia indicates the potentiality of this new technology. GM crops give higher yields and are rich in nutritional values containing vitamins and minerals and can thus can help to alleviate hunger and malnutrition of the growing population in the under developed and developing countries. It could also be possible to develop more biotic and abiotic stress resistant genotypes in these crops where it was difficult to develop due to the unavailability of genes of resistance in the crossing germplasms. However, further research and investigations are needed to popularize the cultivation of these crops in different parts of the world. This review provides an insight of the impact of GM crops on contemporary agriculture across the past few decades, traces its' history across time, highlights new achievements and breakthroughs and discusses the future implication of this powerful technology in the coming few decades.

Fresh asparagus (Asparagus officinalis L.) deteriorates rapidly after harvest. Early enzymatic changes that fol- low harvesting of asparagus are important factors contributing to postharvest deterioration. We held asparagus spears at 25°C for up to 5 days after harvest and examined changes in the activities of Acid invertase (AI), Sucrose Synthase (SS), Glutamine Synthetase (GS) and Phenylalanine ammonia Lyase (PAL) in both top and bottom portions of the spears. Solu- ble AI activity increased during the first day of storage and after that it decreased gradually up to five days in both top and bottom portions. Sucrose synthase activity was higher in the bottom portion than in the top; its activity declined daily for five days. Sucrose content was negatively correlated with invertase and sucrose synthase in both portions.GS enzyme ac- tivity in both top and bottom portion declined throughout the experimental period which may be related to increased am- monia accumulation. The increase in PAL activity continued until day 3 and declined thereafter.