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The world population is anticipated to increase by close to 2 billion by 2050 causing a rapid escalation of food demand. A recent projection shows that the world is lagging behind accomplishing the "Zero Hunger" goal, in spite of some advancements. Socio-economic and well being fallout will affect the food security. Vulnerable groups of people will suffer malnutrition. To cater to the needs of the increasing population, the agricultural industry needs to be modernized, become smart, and automated. Traditional agriculture can be remade to efficient, sustainable, eco-friendly smart agriculture by adopting existing technologies. In this survey paper the authors present the applications, technological trends, available datasets, networking options, and challenges in smart agriculture. How Agro Cyber Physical Systems are built upon the Internet-of-Agro-Things is discussed through various application fields. Agriculture 4.0 is also discussed as a whole. We focus on the technologies, such as Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) which support the automation, along with the Distributed Ledger Technology (DLT) which provides data integrity and security. After an in-depth study of different architectures, we also present a smart agriculture framework which relies on the location of data processing. We have divided open research problems of smart agriculture as future research work in two groups - from a technological perspective and from a networking perspective. AI, ML, the blockchain as a DLT, and Physical Unclonable Functions (PUF) based hardware security fall under the technology group, whereas any network related attacks, fake data injection and similar threats fall under the network research problem group., Comment: 45 pages, 27 Figures

In Table 2, the unit for nitrogen, phosphate, and potash should have been Mg instead of g (Figure Presented).

This PowerPoint summarizes the research and training activities of SANREM’s regional project in India and Nepal. The presentation includes results from agronomic studies in both sites, as well as gender-related analysis, cognitive modeling, and impacts on health and nutrition. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

The soils in the hilly terrains of North Central Plateau agro-climatic zones of Odisha are subjected to various kinds of soil degradation due loss of forest cover, accelerated soil erosion, shifting cultivation and intense mining activities, thus rendering them unproductive. The farmers of this zone are traditionally growing maize as the only rainfed crop under high tillage without any scientific agro-techniques. Conservation agriculture production system (CAPS) involving minimum tillage, legume based intercropping and a follow up cover crop has been thought of as the best possible long term solution for this region that not only maintains the quality of environment but also conserves the natural resources keeping it buffered against risks. To study the impact of maize based cropping system with cover crops under conventional and minimum tillage practices, a field experiment has been initiated on the sandy clay loam soils of Regional Research and Technology Transfer Station, OUAT at Kendujhar district during 2011-12. Conventional (CT) and minimum (MT) tillage with maize (M) and maize + cowpea (M+C) were taken in main plots during wet season and horse gram (H), mustard (M) and no cover crop (NCC) in sub-plots during dry season. Soil samples were collected before and at the end of the cropping cycle to study the impact of treatments on soil BD, pH, OC and available N, P and K. The practice of MT reduced the BD in the tune of 1.4% over the initial status of 1.22 Mgm-3 and increased the OC, available N and P by 4.9%, 2.7% and 2.0%, respectively (initial contents: 6.9 g kg-1, 271 kg ha-1 and 15.6 kg ha-1) stabilizing the pH and available K of the soils. Growing maize with cowpea as intercrop (M+C) enhanced the OC and available N contents of the soils by 2.6% and 1.4%, respectively over the initial values of 6.6 g kg-1 and 267 kg ha-1 and favourably maintained the other soil properties. Inclusion of cover crops either maintained or marginally enhanced these basic soil indices. Practice of minimum tillage with maize cowpea intercrop and follow up horse gram as cover crop (MT-M+C-H) seems to have a positive influence on soil properties as indicated by the initial trends viz. decrease in BD (-2.5%), build up of OC (+8%), available N (+5%) and P (+3.6%), stabilizing effect on pH and available K, at the end of first cropping cycle. The positive impact of the same CAPS practiced by twenty participating farmers in the tribal village Tentuli during 2011-12, was also observed on the soil attributes viz. BD (-2.7%), OC (+10.8%), available N (+6.5%), P (+7.8%) and K (+3.1%). LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

The smallholder farmers in the tribal areas of Odisha State, India have struggled to produce adequate crop yields under their current low input, continuous mono-crop farming system. The introduction of a Conservation Agriculture Production System (CAPS) has been proposed as a method to mitigate degradation of soils occurring under current farming practices and to improve crop yields while minimizing the use of additional inputs. The objective of this project was to develop an alternative cropping system to provide sustainable income and crop yields for the tribal farm families in the district of Kendujhar, Odisha State, India. Three approaches for maize production were introduced, incorporating the primary principles of CAPS: minimum tillage, crop rotation, and continuous soil cover. The CAPS treatments included combinations of no-till, maize-cowpea intercrop, and relay-cropping with a cover crop. The methodology followed an integrative, sequential approach to evaluate the agronomic, environmental and economic effects of different CAPS treatments on farm households. A complete randomized block design experiment with eight treatments and three replications was conducted from June to December 2010 to evaluate changes in yield, labor, and input costs for different CAPS approaches. A socioeconomic survey was conducted in the village to assess the farmer practices, inputs, labor demands, and crop yields. The results were then incorporated into a representative farm household model to evaluate the impact of these treatments on potential farm income. Results of the experimental plots showed that no-till maize intercropping with cowpea had the best outcome as the highest yielding CAPS scenario with the greatest prospect for income generation and sustained household food security. This approach, with its emphasis on the integration of site-specific crop production outputs, labor demands, and market analysis, will help to introduce the concept of CAPS to farmers, while developing sustainable farming systems and securing livelihoods for rural India. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

The tribal villages within the district of Kendujhar, in the state of Odisha, India, suffer from marginal land conditions that are having an increasing impact on agricultural productivity. The majority of the population in this area consists of small-holder, subsistence farmers, who produce crops (mainly mustard and maize) on an average of two hectare sized plot. Research results presented here has been focused on the impact of practising Conservation Agricultural Production Systems (CAPS). Specifically: minimum tillage and intercrop to increase the food security and livelihood in this area. Results from structured socio-economic surveys provided the comparative economic analyses of different CAPS necessary prior to implementation to determine the impact of three integrative CAPS and one control (no CAPS) treatment program. Prioritization of these four CAPS systems was completed using the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) to quantify farmers’ preference from a pre-determined set of criteria (objectives) to quantify tradeoffs that farmers considered to be important. These objectives were: Profit, Labor Saving, Yield and Soil Environmental Benefits. This study delineates potential implications and provides insight for natural resource managers regarding the short and long-term tradeoffs these smallholder farmers are willing to make with the selected CAPS. It is also intended as a positive catalyst for environmental awareness, agricultural technology transfer, and extension research in developing countries. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

The dissemination of information from professional to farmer regarding new and innovative agricultural practices has never been so important. With increasing global pressures of population, limited natural resources and climate change, marginal land conditions are having an increasing impact on agricultural productivity. As professionals are working on developing innovative solutions via Conservation Agricultural Production Systems (CAPS), capacity building and information dissemination have become a more significant topic in research and practice today. In the Northern tribal villages of India and the mid-hills of Nepal, smallholder, subsistence farmers, are struggling to produce crops on their minimal 2-hectare on average plots. Due to their isolation, reliance on traditional knowledge and practices, and increasing environmental and external pressures, farmers are limited in new knowledge and approaches to enhance agricultural productivity. This paper reviews 2 specific case studies (Lai et al., 2011, unpublished results; Reed et al., 2012, unpublished results) on the utilization of the Analytical Hierarchy Process to quantify and prioritize farmers’ and then professionals’ mental perceptions. Specifically, of their preference of introduced CAPS programs as they relate to specific criteria (Profit, Labor Saving, Yield and Soil Environmental Benefits) and the goal of improved income. Discussion and enhancement via literature reveals the tradeoffs of what farmers consider to be important for technology adoption next to the professionals’ who developed them. This paper highlights the mental perception gaps between professionals and farmers and the limitations to farmer adoption to better understand why farmers do not adopt in order to provide recommendations to extension professionals, NGOs, scientists and government looking to explore within this field. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

Low crop yields due to continuous monocropping and deteriorating soil health in smallholder farm fields of tribal villages in India have led to a quest for conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS). This objective of the study was to assess the combined effect of reduced tillage, intercropping and residue management on 1) crop yield, 2) farmer’s profitability, and 3) soil physico-chemical properties. Selected treatments included an introduction of intercropping of maize with cowpea (Vigna unguiculata). Mustard (Brassica juncea L.) was grown as a post-rainy season cover crop in all the trial plots but there was no residue retention in control plots. The experiment was laid out in randomized block design with four treatments viz., T1: Conventional tillage with sole maize (CT-M) as control, T2: Conventional tillage with maize + cowpea (CT-M+C), T3: Minimum tillage with sole maize (MT-M), T4: Minimum tillage with maize + cowpea (MT-M+C). In the 2011/2012 cropping season, there was a significant interaction effect of tillage and intercropping on maize yield (P = Abstract published in the proceedings of the International Conference on Frontiers in Conservation Agriculture in South Asia and Beyond (F-CASA), Kathmandu, Nepal, 26, March 2013. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

A field experiment on “Influence of Maize-based conservation agricultural practices (CAPs) on productivity, profitability and soil fertility” conducted during the rainy and post rainy season of 2011-12 in rainfed uplands of Odisha, India revealed that growing Maize with cowpea under minimum tillage could produce 50.1 qha-1 of grain yield being comparable to sole maize under conventional tillage (52.1qha-1). But the yield of green pods from cowpea grown in association with maize under conventional tillage invariably remained superior to its yield under minimum tillage producing 32.3% higher yield than minimum tillage (12.4 q ha-1). The system productivity expressed as maize equivalent yield (MEY) revealed that growing maize+cowpea under minimum tillage followed by toria as cover crop (99.08 qha-1 MEY) was similar to maize+cowpea under conventional tillage followed by toria (101.33 qha-1 MEY). Minimum tillage-Maize+cowpea followed by horse gram (83.04 qha-1 MEY) and Conventional tillage-Maize+cowpea followed by horse gram (83.80 qha-1 MEY), though had productivity next to the former two treatments, were also similar. But all these treatments were significantly superior to growing sole maize under conventional tillage without any cover crop (52.10 q ha-1 MEY). The gross return, net return and return per rupee invested from maize+cowpea intercropping either under conventional tillage or under minimum tillage were similar but superior to growing sole maize under these two contrasting tillage situations. Moreover, toria as a cover crop in post rainy season was adjudged as the best in comparison to horse gram and no cover crop for all these economic parameters. The soil fertility parameters viz. pH, BD and Organic Carbon revealed that the practice of Minimum tillage reduced the BD to the tune of 1.4% over the initial status (1.22 Mgm-3) and increased the Organic Carbon by 4.9% (initial contents: 6.9 g kg-1). Thus growing maize+cowpea under minimum tillage followed by toria is superior in terms of productivity, profitability and soil fertility. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

A summary of 2011-2012 trial plot results in terms of yield and profitability. Tillage and intercropping had no significant effect on maize yield (4890 kg ha 1) in the first year. The highest maize yield was recorded in maize+cowpea under minimum tillage (5610 kg ha 1). Economic return in case of intercropping was 38% higher than that of sole cropping, across both the tillage types. Though there was no significant effect of CAPS on soil properties in the first experimental year, trends were positive for soil pH, bulk density, and soil carbon. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

Tribal farming in Kendujhar district of Odisha, India is primarily based on traditional shifting cultivation which is becoming unsustainable - resulting in natural resources degradation, reduced production efficiency, and threatened food security. As maize (Zea mays L.) was the primary field crop grown by the tribal farmers, maize-based Conservation Agriculture Production Systems (CAPS) were taken as an innovative approach for conserving resources, enhancing productivity and sustaining livelihood through minimum soil disturbance, permanent organic soil cover, and adoption of diversified crop rotation. An on-station experiment was conducted in Kendujhar during June 2011 to March 2012 to estimate the effect of CAPS on yield and soil properties. The experiment was laid in a split plot design with four treatments and three replications. The treatment combinations comprised of two factors each at two levels: tillage (minimum and conventional), and cropping system (maize and maize+cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)). The maize seed yield both in conventional and minimum tillage were comparable, though it was highest in maize+cowpea under minimum tillage (5610 kg/ha). Maize+cowpea intercropping produced comparable seed yield (4955 kg/ha) to that of sole maize cropping (4825 kg/ha). As cowpea was an additional output without any reduction in maize seed yield and had high market value, maize+cowpea intercropping under minimum tillage recorded a highest net profit of $655/ha. Though there was no significant effect of CAPS on soil properties in the experimental year, it can be assessed over multiple years. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

This study compares farmer and professional mental perceptions, in the village of Tentuli, India, of their preferences of specific conservation agricultural production systems and objectives as they relate to the goal of improved income. The analytical hierarchy process is used to compare mental perceptions of various agricultural technology characteristics. Results reveal that farmers prefer intercrop/ plow with yield, while professionals prefer intercrop/ minimum tillage with profit as the most preferred objective. Results can be used to support and promote collaborations amongst stakeholders and farmers to reduce perception gaps and provide recommendations towards other agricultural efforts in extension, government and agribusiness. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

Marginal land use and subsequent natural resource degradation is a common issue among tribal villages in the Kendujhar district of India. In this study, Conservation Agriculture (CA) technologies at an experimental site, specifically the practices of intercropping and minimum tillage, were compared to conventional tillage practices of three tribal villages (145 households total) in this district. The impacts of CA implementation on gender, labor, and economic (yield and profitability) factors compared to conventional tillage practices were evaluated and used to make recommendations for future policy initiatives. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

Tribal farming systems in India and Nepal, which rely on traditional shifting cultivation, are unsustainable, resulting in the degeneration of natural resources and lowered production efficiency. Conservation agriculture production systems (CAPS), which stresses minimal soil movement, retention of adequate levels of crop residues on the soil surface, and crop rotation, offers a long-term solution to boost yields and conserve the environment. This presentation introduces the first year results of on-station CAPS trials and experimental farm plots in Odisha, India and announces the trials in progress in Nepal. The objective of the studies in India was to evaluate the feasibility of introducing CAPS to farmers in Kendujhar, a district of Odisha. The researchers conducted participatory studies and analytical hierarchy process before conducting on-farm research. This research involved the application of maize+cowpea intercropping, mustard cover cropping, and minimum tillage. In Nepal, they experimented with a rotation of maize with black gram, millet, or black gram + Millet under strip or conventional tillage. The Economic, gender, networking, and capacity building analyses conducted at each location are also described. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

This poster presents the results from implimenting CAPS methods in tribal villages located in Odessa State, India. It gives socio-economic data for households in the study villages as well as project objectives and methods. It presents the results of the experimental plots and socio-economic survey data. Finally, it gives conclusions and implications for future research. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

Metadata only record This poster introduces the Long Term Research Activity (LTRA) 11, a research activity within the SANREM CRSP program during Phase IV. The objectives of this LTRA are to introduce and promote Conservation Agriculture practices at the tribal and household level in Odisha, India, and monitor the economic, environmental, and social impacts. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

Small-holder farms in rural India struggle with reduced maize yields due to traditional farming methods. The introduction of modern conservation agriculture practices can provide higher yields and household income while boosting soil productivity. This poster abstract presents the results of CAPS implementation on experimental plots in tribal villages located in the Indian state of Odessa. LTRA-11 (CAPS among tribal societies in India and Nepal)

This thesis presents an account of three related investigations on synaptic transmission in the sympathetic ganglion of the frog. Part I is concerned with the mode of action of the transmitter, its identity and the modifications in transmission caused by various drugs. Parts II and III are concerned with the spontaneous and the evoked release of the transmitter from, the presynaptic nerve.