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Research SummaryThis paper investigates how firms select reference organizations, that is, other firms to which they compare themselves. We question the exogenous nature of references (i.e., them being defined via industry-categorizations) but suggest that, via motivations or purposes, firms endogenously select them. We evaluate our findings when analyzing proprietary data on hotels' self-selection of comparison-hotels. In support of our arguments, we find that in situations of increased uncertainty regarding firms' own relative abilities and standing, firms make adjustments to their selected references toward more similar ones. This enables them to obtain more diagnostic information about their relative abilities and this effect holds constant of (exogenous) industry-entry or exit events. Our findings contribute to an updated understanding about the role of comparison organizations in firms' decision-making.Managerial SummaryPrior work shows that comparisons with other firms (i.e., references) play an important role for our understanding of firms' decision-making. For example, performance comparisons with references can trigger search or a decision-need, ultimately, leading to acquisition-decisions, new-product-introductions, and the like. When questioning the selection of such references, prior work has typically derived them from (exogenous) industry-categorizations. We review this practice by relying on rare, longitudinal data on firms' reference self-selection. When controlling for industry level effects, we find that firms adapt references as a function of changes in their comparison needs (e.g., self-assessment). This is important because it implies an endogenous reference selection mechanism and shifts the attention from industry-categorizations toward an understanding of comparison needs and their emergence when attempting to understand firms' decision-making.

Empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that an individual’s position in an income stratum—more than the absolute income level—determines subjective well-being. However, studies on subjective well-being suffer from a critical methodological weakness: they use exogenously defined reference groups. Our study addresses this point by applying an innovative new survey instrument. We ask respondents to identify individual reference persons for income comparisons. We find that these reference persons come from a range of social groups. Interactions between personality traits and the direction of income comparisons lead to different levels of subjective well-being. This highlights the importance of collecting information on personality traits in research on subjective well-being. We conclude that questions about self-defined individual income comparisons can be a valuable and straightforward addition to future surveys.

This study aimed to analyze the speech of children, aged 9 and 11 years, about the buying behavior. In this survey, of the qualitative approach, were interviewed 53 children. The interviews were analyzed in the light of the content analysis, considering the following dimensions: consumption and their symbolic representations; reference group and, finally, the influence of the media about consumption. It was found that the consumption, for these children, is something beyond the functional characteristics of the goods and may represent happiness, good things. Still, it was possible to extract from the reports the desire to look like adults they admire, when their family members, and their idols, whether from sports, music, soap operas or movies. The habit of saving was identified in children who receive an allowance, which, in the research, comprises twelve children. All of them claim to save their allowances until they get the amount needed to buy what they want. In this way, the family influence on financial education is verified, causing their present actions to be thought from future consequences., O presente estudo teve como objetivo analisar o discurso de crianças, com idades entre 9 e 11 anos, acerca do comportamento de consumo. Na pesquisa, de abordagem qualitativa, foram entrevistadas 53 crianças. As entrevistas foram analisadas à luz da análise de conteúdo, considerando-se as seguintes dimensões: o consumo e suas representações simbólicas; grupo de referência e, por fim, a influência da mídia no consumo. Identificou-se que o consumo, para essas crianças, representa algo que excede as características utilitárias dos bens, podendo representar a felicidade, coisas boas. Ainda, foi possível extrair dos relatos o desejo de se parecerem com adultos que admiram, quando seus familiares, e seus ídolos, sejam do esporte, da música, da novela ou do cinema. O hábito de poupar foi identificado em crianças que recebem mesada, o que, na pesquisa, compreendem doze crianças. Todas elas afirmam poupar suas mesadas até conseguirem o montante necessário para comprar o que desejam. Deste modo, verifica-se a influência familiar na educação financeira, fazendo com que suas ações presentes sejam pensadas a partir de consequências futuras.

Resumo Neste artigo, objetivamos compreender o envolvimento dos grupos de referência no sacrifício percebido pelo consumidor fitness. Para isso, buscamos analisar as tipologias grupais envolvidas nesse processo sacrificante, seus modos de influência, o impacto exercido, a identidade social ofertada, bem como os papéis dos grupos sociais na (re)construção e manutenção da percepção de sacrifício pelo consumidor fitness. O estudo está alicerçado em duas teorias oriundas da Psicologia Social, são elas: a Teoria do Impacto Social e a Teoria da Identidade Social. A construção dos dados foi realizada por meio de entrevistas episódicas pessoais e o conteúdo foi analisado por meio da Análise Temática. Identificamos que os grupos de referência influenciam normativa e informativamente as esferas penosa e conchegativa do sacrifício realizado pelo consumidor e exercem papéis sociais que contribuem para que a ação sacrificante ocorra, permaneça ou não seja praticada: encorajam (encorajador) ou a inibem (inibidor), educam (educador) ou confrontam (confrontador) o sujeito fitness, auxiliando na formação da identidade social. Reconhecemos que os indivíduos podem desenvolver estratégias de mobilidade e criatividade social em suas coletividades, demonstrando que o impacto social é mutável e que os agrupamentos são permeáveis. Por fim, identificamos que os grupos podem ser tipificados para além das categorias de afiliação, aspiração e dissociação. Diante disso, observou-se, nesta pesquisa, um quarto agrupamento inédito, que foi intitulado grupo de prescrição. Assim, o artigo contribui para o desenvolvimento de pesquisas que partem do social para a esfera individual, visando ao entendimento do consumidor com base em seu contexto e relações. Resumen En este artículo pretendemos comprender la implicación de los grupos de referencia en el sacrificio percibido por el consumidor fitness. Para ello, buscamos analizar las tipologías grupales involucradas en este proceso sacrificial, sus modos de influencia, el impacto ejercido, la identidad social ofrecida, así como los roles de los grupos sociales en la (re)construcción y mantenimiento de la percepción de sacrificio del consumidor fitness. El estudio se basa en dos teorías de la Psicología Social, a saber: la teoría del impacto social y la teoría de la identidad social. La construcción de datos se llevó a cabo a través de entrevistas episódicas personales y el contenido se analizó mediante análisis temático. Identificamos que los grupos de referencia influyen normativa e informativamente en las dolorosas y agradables esferas de sacrificio que realiza el consumidor, ejerciendo roles sociales que contribuyen a que la acción sacrificial ocurra, permanezca o no sea practicada, alentándola (alentador) o inhibiéndola (inhibidor), educando (educador) o confrontando (confrontador) al sujeto fitness, ayudando en la formación de la identidad social. Reconocemos que los individuos pueden desarrollar estrategias de movilidad y creatividad social en sus comunidades, demostrando que el impacto social es cambiante y que los grupos son permeables. Finalmente, observamos que los grupos pueden tipificarse más allá de las categorías de afiliación, aspiración y disociación, identificando, en esta investigación, una cuarta agrupación inédita denominada grupo de prescripción. Así, el artículo contribuye al desarrollo de investigaciones que parten de lo social hacia lo individual, con el objetivo de comprender al consumidor desde su contexto y sus relaciones. Abstract In this article, we aim to understand the involvement of reference groups in the sacrifice perceived by the fitness consumer. We analyze the group typologies involved in this sacrificial process, their modes of influence, the impact exerted, the social identity offered, and the roles of social groups in the (re)construction and maintenance of the sacrificial perception of the fitness consumer. The study is based on two theories from Social Psychology: Social Impact Theory and Social Identity Theory. Data construction was carried out through personal episodic interviews, and the content was analyzed using Thematic Analysis. We identified that reference groups influence normatively and informatively the painful and congenial spheres of sacrifice performed by the consumer, exercising social roles that contribute to the sacrificial action to occur, remain, or not practiced, encouraging (the encourager) or inhibiting (the inhibitor), educating (the educator) or confronting (the confronter) the fitness subject, helping in the formation of social identity. We recognize that individuals can develop mobility and social creativity strategies in their communities, demonstrating that the social impact is changeable and that groups are permeable. Finally, we recognize that groups can be typified beyond the categories of affiliation, aspiration, and avoidance, identifying, in this research, a fourth unpublished grouping called the prescription group. Thus, the article contributes to the development of research that departs from the social to the individual sphere, aiming at understanding the consumer from their context and relationships.

The development of a common standard of consumption is one goal of the ongoing harmonization of the EU member states’ economies. As a result, the degree to which household deprivation affects people’s economic stress should converge. Based on comparison theory, such convergence could be one indicator for Europe growing together (‘Europeanization’). The association between deprivation and economic stress is tested across and between 28 EU countries with EU-SILC data. Moreover, it is examined whether this association changed between 2007 and 2015, as the great recession starting in 2008 affected European countries differently. The results show that, given a certain level of household deprivation, people judge their situation differently across Europe. Whereas economic stress levels are higher in relatively poor countries, the deprivation-stress link is stronger in rich countries. Across-time comparisons suggest no decline in the extent to which a country’s deprivation level moderated the effect of household deprivation on economic stress. The findings support the persistence of national reference groups against which individuals judge their own economic situation.

The study of perceived economic differences in everyday life is relevant to deepen the knowledge of how inequality shapes psychological processes. In the current research, Spanish undergraduates (N=547) were asked what their friends with the most and least money could do with their resources. Using a qualitative and quantitative approach, we performed a content analysis of the 1,085 open-ended responses given, ran latent class analyses with the coded material to identify groups of participants, and explored whether class membership was associated with their awareness of inequality and support for redistribution. Participants perceived inequality among their friends through daily indicators such as consumption, opportunities, leisure, and mental health; some participants used compensatory strategies to mitigate perceived inequality. Latent class analyses suggested that participants differed mostly in the attention paid to consumption and in the use of compensatory strategies. Exploratory analyses suggested that perceiving inequality in everyday life in terms of consumption, negative attributes towards the wealthy, or positive attributes towards low socioeconomic groups was related to acknowledging economic differences among individuals and support for redistribution. The study of perceived economic inequality in everyday life continues a new line of research with the potential to obtain results more consistent with people's experiences. OAICE-006-2017 UCR::Sedes Regionales::Sede de Occidente

This study examines students in Sweden between the ages of 20-30 and examines their purchasing behaviour regarding choice of laptops. This paper will study the effects of brand loyalty and reference group and how it affects the consumers choice of brand. This study uses a qualitative method to gather information. Nine interviews were conducted with various questions regarding brand loyalty and reference groups. This paper came to the conclusion that to some degree six people were brand loyal. Very few respondents acted in a brand loyal fashion when it came to word of mouth, where almost no consumer shared their positive experience with others despite the fact that they were happy with their purchases. Regarding the effect of reference groups on the respondents, the study found that family and friends had some influence on the consumer's choice of a brand of laptop as the respondents had the same brand as their family or friends but did not gain any information about the brands from their family or friends. Instead, it was found that the respondents turned to opinion leaders to gather information about potential laptop purchases where the consumers gained positive word of mouth which had an effect on the respondent. Negative word of mouth had an effect on consumers as they avoided certain brands because of it and was also slightly stronger than physical positive word of mouth. Denna studie undersöker studenter i Sverige mellan 20–30 år och undersöker deras köpbeteende kring val av bärbara datorer. Denna artikel har studerat effekterna av varumärkeslojalitet och referensgruppen och hur det påverkar konsumenternas val av varumärke. Denna studie använder en kvalitativ metod för att samla in information. Nio intervjuer genomfördes med olika frågor om varumärkeslojalitet och referensgrupper. Denna artikel kommer till slutsatsen att till en viss grad var sex personer varumärkeslojala. Väldigt få respondenter agerade varumärkeslojalt, när det kommer till word of mouth, där nästan ingen respondent delade sin positiva upplevelse med andra trots att de var nöjda med sina köp. När det gäller effekten av referensgrupper på respondenterna fann studien att familj och vänner hade något inflytande på konsumentens val av laptopvarumärke då respondenterna hade samma varumärke som sina vänner eller familjer trots att de inte fick information om varumärket från sina vänner och familjer. Istället visade det sig att respondenterna vände sig till opinionsledare för att samla information om potentiella köp av bärbara datorer där konsumenterna fick positiv word of mouth vilket hade en påverkan hos respondenterna. Negativt word of mouth hade en effekt på konsumenterna eftersom de undvek vissa varumärken och var också någorlunda starkare än fysisk positiv word of mouth.

Tanzanians are now enjoying a myriad of products to buy at their purchasing power disposal compared to the years prior to trade liberalization in the 1980s. This article identifies and examines key factors affecting consumer purchase behavior of local products for enhancing Small and Medium-sized Enterprises (SMEs) development in Tanzania. It also explores the influence of social, psychological, and marketing factors for local products purchase. Nonprobability sampling technique with purposive (judgment) sample was used for the study with a sample size of 150 respondents. The study was limited to the respondents within ‘working age’, that is, 15 to 64 years old in Nyamagana district, Mwanza, Tanzania, specifically on local garments consumption. Descriptive statistics was used to analyze the data. The study reveals that marketing factors are significant for consumer purchase decision of local products, and that the reference groups to which individuals belong affect their product choices and preferences as far as local products are concerned.Keywords: Local products, consumer behavior, working age, reference groups, SMEs development

International audience; In the area around Angkor, Cambodia, several ceramics kilns dating from the ninth to 15th centuries CE have been discovered since 1995. The technical, typological and compositional characterization of their production has been one of the main goals of the Cerangkor Project. Samples of green-glazed 'Kulen-type' stoneware and non-glazed stoneware produced in five kiln sites in the Angkor region were analysed chemically by wavelength-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (WDS-XRF) and also petrographically. The data indicate that some workshops used similar raw materials for the same types of ceramics, suggesting the exploitation of the same geological formations in the whole region. Several references groups were established for each type of stoneware offering an important database for future provenance studies of sherds from consumption sites.

Considerando-se a importância das relações sociais e da influência interpessoal no comportamento dos indivíduos de baixa renda, este estudo objetiva identificar e analisar os grupos de referência valorizados pelas consumidoras desse segmento em seu processo de decisão de compra. A coleta de dados fundamenta-se em uma abordagem multimétodo composta, primeiro, por entrevistas em profundidade com 12 mulheres e, depois, pela técnica de Análise Conjunta com uma amostra de 53 entrevistadas pertencentes a esse segmento. Devido à crise econômica vivida durante o período de coleta de dados, o contexto da pesquisa é delimitado a um bem que permanece atrativo nessas circunstâncias: o batom. Os resultados obtidos demonstram que as consumidoras de baixa renda valorizam a presença de diferentes grupos de referência em seu processo de decisão. Especificamente, identificam-se dois grupos de respondentes com preferências distintas quanto à participação aos seguintes grupos de referência: familiares, amigas, consultoras de venda, vizinhas/colegas, celebridades, blogueiras e mulheres com melhores condições financeiras. Considering the importance of social relations and interpersonal influence on the behavior of low-income individuals, this study aims to identify and analyze the reference groups valued by low-income female consumers in their decision-making process. A multimethod approach was employed. First, the data were collected through in-depth interviews with 12 low-income women. Subsequently, a Conjoint Analysis technique was applied with a sample of 53 female interviewees belonging to this segment. Due to the economic crisis experienced during the period of data collection, the context of the research was limited to a good that remains attractive in these circumstances: lipstick. Results showed that low-income female consumers value the presence of different reference groups in their decision-making process. Specifically, it was possible to identify two groups of respondents with distinct preferences regarding the following reference groups: family, friends, sales consultants, neighbors/colleagues, celebrities, bloggers, and women in a better financial condition. Teniendo en cuenta la importancia de las relaciones sociales y de la influencia interpersonal en el comportamiento de los individuos de bajos ingresos, este estudio tiene por objetivo identificar y analizar los grupos de referencia valorados por las consumidoras de bajos ingresos en su proceso de decisión de compra. La recolección de datos utiliza un enfoque multimétodo. En primer lugar, se recopilaron los datos se recopilaron a través de entrevistas en profundidad con 12 mujeres de bajos ingresos. Luego, se aplicó una técnica de Conjoint Analysis con una muestra de 53 entrevistadas pertenecientes a este segmento. Debido a la crisis económica vivida durante el período de recolección de datos, el contexto de la investigación quedó delimitado a un bien que sigue siendo atractivo en estas circunstancias: REAd | Porto Alegre – Vol. 25 – Nº 2 – Maio / Agosto 2019 – p. 240-266 242 el lápiz labial. Los resultados obtenidos demuestran que las consumidoras de bajos ingresos valoran la presencia de diferentes grupos de referencia en su proceso de decisión de compra. Específicamente, se identifican dos grupos de encuestados con preferencias distintas en lo que respecto a la participación de los siguientes grupos de referencia: familiares, amigas, representantes de venta, vecinas/colegas, celebridades, bloggers y mujeres con mejores condiciones financieras.

The article examines the European experience in implementing strategies for transparency and accessibility of interactions in managing culture sphere. Transparency in public administration is studied as access to information; communication; decision-making processes. The values which are to be balanced in transparent management are determined. They are: public’s right to know; good governance; the costs and risks of providing services; the right of civil servants to personal confidentiality.The new mechanisms of transparency and interaction based on new principles of network interaction are examined as collective efforts to produce and exchange information, knowledge and culture through the emergence of new virtual communication environments: social networks, mobile content, etc.Today, cultural policy at European level seeks to achieve the following priorities:- cooperation with leading organizations in the field of culture and financial investment in culture;- wide measures on preservation and usage of various European languages, dialects, traditions and histories to protect the continent's intangible heritage and identity values;- appreciation of cultural workers and support of their efforts to build a Europe that is attractive to talent and investment, creative, entertaining, entrepreneurial, which mobilizes to promote sustainable development, integrated and civic cohesion;- respond to requests from third countries for European expertise in the field of cultural exchange management and creative support;- empowering artists and cultural workers in innovation and technology in a multidisciplinary approach;- maintaining a sense of pride among European citizens for cultural heritage;- encouraging the mobility of cultural workers as an important factor in innovation in the field of culture and creative cooperation;- mobilizing the EU's diplomatic network and cultural expertise to support the EU's foreign policy and development agenda, enabling it to express cultural diversity around the world by building local capacity.Taking the case of cultural industries (economy) the intersections with other areas: culture, education, economy and urban/regional development are revealed. The key issues in the EU culture policy are examined focusing on the issues of transparency and interactions:- shaping the EU agenda by raising strategically important culture economy issues in order to create a coherent, interconnected European system;- recognition of the strategic importance of culture economy for the implementation of urban development strategy, the inclusion of ICT in innovation programs, as well as research and development programs;- promoting side effects in other industries and society;- capacity building in response to the new opportunities that digital technologies bring to the culture economy;- promotion of cross-border networks and alliances of creative centers and entrepreneurs;- the important role of culture economy in the EU's international relations, gaining access to new markets and promoting sustainable development and cultural diversity around the world.It is concluded that at present, the mechanisms of ensuring transparency are being improved in European countries: legal, institutional, organizational, informational, etc. The instrument of public control is examined through two important aspects. The further solving of these problems is the introduction of a mechanism of interaction between the authorities and reference groups in public administration. The role of public control (reference groups, info-technologies) in the mechanism of transparent culture management is analyzed.For the current situation in Ukraine, with the rapid penetration of Internet technologies in all aspects of public and private life, the transition to open public administration gives a chance to mobilize the efforts of the state and civil society in transparency and interaction., У статті досліджується європейський досвід реалізації стратегій транспарентності і доступності взаємодій в управлінні культурою. Виокремлюються цінності відповідного рівня транспарентності. Розкриваються пріоритети культурної політики на європейському рівні. Розглядаються особливості транспарентності та взаємодії на прикладі реалізації європейської політики індустрії культури та творчості. Аналізується роль громадського контролю (референтні групи, інфо-технології) у механізмі транспарентного управління культурою.

People who deviate from the established norms of their social group can clarify group boundaries, strengthen group cohesion, and catalyze group and broader social change. Yet social psychologists have recently neglected the study of deviants. We conducted in-depth interviews of Princeton University upperclassmen who deviated from a historical and widely known Princeton norm: joining an “eating club,” a social group that undergraduates join at the end of their sophomore year. We explored the themes of these interviews with two rounds of surveys during the semester when students decide whether to join an eating club (pilot survey, N = 408; and a random subsample of the pilot survey with 90% takeup, N = 212). The surveys asked: what are the social and psychological antecedents of deviance from norms? The data suggest that deviance is a pattern: compared to those who conform, students who deviate by not joining clubs report a history of deviance and of feeling different from the typical member of their social group. They also feel less social belonging and identification with Princeton and its social environment. Students who deviate are lower in self-monitoring, but otherwise are comparable to students who conform in terms of personality traits measured by the Big Five, and of their perception of the self as socially awkward, independent, or rebellious. While some of these findings replicate past research, worth further exploration is the role of previous experience with deviance and its meaning for individuals as they decide whether to deviate.

Investments to reduce the spread of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in the European Union have been made, including efforts to strengthen prudent antimicrobial use. Using segmented regression, we report decreasing and stabilising trends in data reported to the European Surveillance of Antimicrobial Consumption Network and stabilising trends in data reported to the European Antimicrobial Resistance Surveillance Network. Our results could be an early indication of the effect of prioritising AMR on the public health agenda., Germán Peñalva was supported by El Plan Nacional de Investigación Científica, Desarrollo e Innovación Tecnológica 2013–2016 and Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Subdirección General de Redes y Centros de Investigación Cooperativa, Ministerio de Economía, Industria y Competitividad, Spanish Network for Research in Infectious Diseases (REIPI RD16/0016/0001) - co-financed by European Development Regional Fund “A way to achieve Europe”, Operative program Intelligent Growth 2014–2020, and received a grant from the Spanish Society of Infectious Diseases and Clinical Microbiology (SEIMC) for a three-month study visit at ECDC during which the analysis was performed.

This paper uses peer comparisons to analyze the impact of different types of inequalities (i.e., within-group, between-group and overall inequality) and reference income on subjective happiness. This study contributes to an emergent strand of research in which both relative levels of economic resources and the income distribution are regarded as determinants of individual happiness. The empirical findings show that overall and within-group inequality negatively affect individual happiness, inequality between reference groups does not affect happiness, and a higher average income of the reference group increases individual happiness. We examine whether people’s aversion to inequality is conditional on their income position within reference group and institutional differences across European countries. These tests indicate that an increase in inequality or a decrease in average income decreases the happiness of both the rich and the poor. Regarding the differences across countries, people who live in more mobile societies with better welfare systems (e.g. Social-Democratic countries) are less adversely affected by inequality than people living in countries with low social mobility and ineffective systems of social protection (e.g. the Mediterranean countries). The analysis is based on data from the European Quality of Life Survey.

Hijab and mutually non- compliance with respect to the effects and consequences that would entail, could be the attitude of people. For this reason, understanding people's attitudes towards Islamic dress and associated factors in its formation is necessary and important. The integrated approach, the theory of socialization, social learning and value proposition Homans to have been used as theoretical framework. Therefore, the main objective of this paper is to examine the attitudes of students towards Islamic dress (hijab) and social and cultural factors affecting it. The study of social survey and research data has been gathered using the technique. Reliability and Validity of research, according to the results of Cronbach's alpha is approved. The study consisted of all students in the academic year 93-1392 Kashan University are using Cochran sampling formula set 398 as the sample size and using a quota method and were randomly selected and examined. Based on the analysis, the positive experience of the hijab, with 65 percent of the direct and indirect impact is the most positive effect on students' attitudes toward the veil. Family variables associated with the veil 0.21, nonconformity with social norms by 0.17-, 0.16- and attitudes towards gender equality with authoritarian parenting style has been effective 0.13- next rank.

Consumer behavior belongs within the scope of delicate issues in theoretical marketing concepts of marketing. The main reason for such treatment of specific issues derives from human individuality in the decision making process for purchasing. From the complexity of human nature, arise challenges in their efforts to look at the internal motives of consumers, their psychological elements and conditions, the internal psychological determinants of behavior, but also the influence of culture, social class, family, lifestyle, as external sociological determinants, regardless of the particular autonomous characteristics of being socially exposed to certain environmental impacts that are undoubtedly of great importance to one’s behavior as a consumer. On the other hand, there is a series of hidden motifs for which their oversight is necessary because they are crucial to the decision-making process. Having this in mind, the researchers focused their objectives on analyzing the determinants of consumer behavior in the decision-making process to be marketed.Various sources of data have been used in the analysis and the theoretical processing of the work. Most of them have a secondary character and include domestic contemporary literature and foreign literature related to this issue.The basic concept of this paper, besides the introductory part and the conclusions, is also composed of interrelated parts. Given the analysis of different sociological determinants such as culture, social classes, reference groups and so on we understand their impact and their importance in bringing decisions in the market for personal consumption.

This Study Was Aimed To Analyze And See The Effect Of Income, The Reference Group, The Economic Literacy And Teacher Certification To Consumption Behavior Of Elementary, Junior, And Senior Secondary School Teachers In The Gunung Talang District. The Population In This Study Includes All Of Elementary, Junior, And Senior Secondary School Teachers In The Gunung Talang District., The Sampling Used Stratified Cluster Sampling Method With The Number Of Respondents Has 206 People. The Tool Analysis Was The Path Analysis. The Results Showed That: 1) Income Gives Significant Influence To The Consumption Behavior Of Elementary, Junior, And Senior Secondary School Teachers In The Gunung Talang District. 2) The Reference Group Gives Significant Influence To The Consumption Behavior Of Elementary, Junior, And Senior Secondary School Teachers In The Gunung Talang District. 3) Economic Literacy Gives Significant Influence To The Consumption Behavior Of Elementary, Junior, And Senior Secondary School Teachers In The Gunung Talang District. 4) Teacher Certification Gives Significant Influence To The Consumption Behavior Of Elementary, Junior, And Senior Secondary School Teachers In The Gunung Talang District.

This paper presents the results of a research about the differences of behavior between two generations. Pairs of consumers consisting of a young consumer and one of his/her parents were questioned about different aspects of life. By applying the Euclidian Metric, the similarities and differences were determined for the examined issues. The results of the research show that for traditional product groups like medical services, education system, the consumers of the two generations have a similar behavior. For product groups related to the online environment such as social networks, mobile/smart phones, the consumers of the two generations show higher differences. Higher differences can be also observed for social groups, as the young generation has an inclination for doing spare time activities with their friends, such as going out, going on holiday. The results of the research have an impact on the way in which consumer’s reference groups are going to be used in marketing communication campaigns.

จุฬาลงกรณ์ธุรกิจปริทัศน์, 42, 165, 68-92

This doctoral research was developed under the Project Education and Women Educators in Paraíba in the Twentieth Century: practices, readings and representations, of the Group of Study and Research on the History of Education in Paraíba – HISTEDBR/PB, bound to the Graduate Program in Education (PPGE), Federal University of Paraíba (UFPB). The general objective of this study is to comprehend the life path of religious woman and educator Maria Fernandes de Queiroga (Sister Ana), unveiling the characteristics of her educational praxis as well as her personal and professional identity. The thesis we defend is that Sister Ana had an outstanding professional work, especially in training teachers in the city of Catolé do Rocha, state of Paraíba, Brazil, and surrounding cities while the Course of Pedagogy was offered in the Normal School Francisca Mendes (NSFM). For over half a century she has been the guardian of that school and of confessional values and educational knowledge learned by living with several reference groups, especially the Franciscan Sisters of Dillingen (Germany). Sister Ana has also fostered these values and knowledge through her educational praxis. The study covered the time frame between 1949, when Sister Ana started her studies in the Regional Normal Course in the then Normal School Dona Francisca Henriques Mendes, and 2019, when she gives administrative and pedagogical assistance to NSFM, and dedicates herself to other educational and religious activities. This study relies on the theoretical references of the New Cultural History, on the (auto)biographical approach and the methodological support of Oral History. The study used oral sources: Sister Ana’s memories narrated by herself and interviews with teachers who were her students; and written sources and pictures: textbooks, (auto)biographical texts, official documents of the school as well as books, photos and other materials regarding the history of Sister Ana, of Catolé do Rocha, of the Franciscan Sisters of Dillingen, and of the CNFM. Thus, based on a thorough investigation, analysis and interpretation of the sources, the (auto)biography of Sister Ana was constructed by the resignification generated in the disclosure of her own memories, with a special focus on her educational praxis, which is certainly associated with her personal life experience. RESUMEN Desarrollada en el contexto del Proyecto Educación y Educadoras en la Paraíba del siglo XX: prácticas, lecturas y representaciones, del grupo de Estudios e Investigaciones sobre la Historia de la Educación de la Paraíba- HISTEDBR/PB, vinculado al programa de Posgrado en Educación (PPGE) de la Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), esta investigación de doctorado tiene como objetivo general comprender la trayectoria de vida de la educadora y religiosa Maria Fernandes de Queiroga (hermana Ana), desvelando los detalles de sus praxis educativa y de su constitución de identidad personal y profesional. La tesis defendida es, de que la hermana Ana tuvo una actuación profesional de destaque, sobre todo, en la formación de profesores en la localidad de Catolé do Rocha-PB y de otras ciudades ubicadas alrededor, mientras la carrera pedagógica se hizo presente en el Colegio Normal Francisca Mendes (CNFM), aún constituyéndose, a más de medio ciclo como guardiana de este colegio, así también como de los valores confesionales y de los conocimientos educativos aprendidos por medio de la convivencia con varios grupos referenciales, sobre todo las hermanas Franciscanas de Dillingen (Alemania), al mismo tiempo en que viene ejerciendo el rol de la propagación de esos valores y conocimientos por medio de su praxis educativa. El recorte temporal abarca el tiempo entre 1949, cuando la hermana Ana empieza sus estudios en el Curso Normal Regional, que hasta entonces se llamaba Escuela Normal Dona Francisca Henrique Mendes, hasta el año de 2019 en que, además de prestar asesoría administrativa y pedagógica en el CNFM, aun se ocupa con otras actividades educacionales y religiosas. La investigación se orienta por los referenciales teóricos de la Nova Historia Cultural, se inserta en el abordaje autobiográfico y toma por suporte metodológico la Historia Oral, utilizándose de fuentes orales: Las narrativas de memoria de la biografiada y entrevista con profesoras que fueron sus alumnas; fuentes escritas e ilustrativas: cuadernos, textos autobiográficos, documentos oficiales del colegio y libros, fotografías de otros materiales referentes a la historia de la hermana, la historia de Catolé do Rocha, de las hermanas Franciscanas de Dillingen y del CNFM. En este sentido, con base en una minuciosa investigación y en el análisis e interpretación de las fuentes, la (auto)biografía de la hermana Ana fue construida a partir de la reformulación advenida de la revelación de sus propias memorias, con enfoque principal para su praxis educativa, la cual está vinculada ciertamente a sus experiencias de vida personal. Nenhuma Desenvolvida no âmbito do Projeto Educação e Educadoras na Paraíba do Século XX: práticas, leituras e representações, do Grupo de Estudos e Pesquisas sobre a História da Educação da Paraíba – HISTEDBR/PB, vinculado ao Programa de Pós-Graduação em Educação (PPGE) da Universidade Federal da Paraíba (UFPB), esta pesquisa de doutoramento tem por objetivo geral compreender a trajetória de vida da religiosa e educadora Maria Fernandes de Queiroga (Irmã Ana), descortinando as especificidades de sua práxis educativa e de sua constituição identitária pessoal e profissional. A tese defendida é a de que Irmã Ana teve uma atuação profissional destacada, sobretudo, na formação de professores da localidade de Catolé do Rocha-PB e de outras cidades do seu entorno, enquanto o Curso Pedagógico se fez presente no Colégio Normal Francisca Mendes (CNFM), constituindo-se, ainda, há mais de meio século, enquanto guardiã do referido colégio, assim como dos valores confessionais e saberes educacionais apreendidos por meio da convivência com diversos grupos-referência, sobretudo as Irmãs Franciscanas de Dillingen (Alemanha), ao mesmo tempo em que tem exercido o papel de divulgadora desses valores e saberes por meio de sua práxis educativa. O recorte temporal compreende o período entre 1949, quando Irmã Ana inicia seus estudos no Curso Normal Regional na então Escola Normal Dona Francisca Henriques Mendes, até o ano de 2019 em que, além de prestar assessoria administrativa e pedagógica no CNFM, se ocupa ainda com outras atividades educacionais e religiosas. A pesquisa orienta-se pelos referenciais teóricos da Nova História Cultural, se insere na abordagem (Auto)biográfica e toma por suporte metodológico a História Oral, utilizando-se de fontes orais: as narrativas de memória da biografada e entrevistas com professoras que foram suas alunas; fontes escritas e imagéticas: cadernos, textos (auto)biográficos, documentos oficiais do colégio e ainda livros, fotografias e outros materiais referentes à história da biografada, à história de Catolé do Rocha, das Irmãs Franciscanas de Dillingen e do CNFM. Nesse sentido, com base em uma minuciosa investigação e na análise e interpretação das fontes, a (auto)biografia de Irmã Ana foi construída a partir da ressignificação advinda da revelação de suas próprias memórias, com enfoque principal para a sua práxis educativa, a qual certamente está vinculada às suas experiências de vida pessoal.

The article considers the problem of creating a multi-agent models integrating heterogeneous prior knowledge about the subject of research in order to ensure the possibility of combining the analytical information from different domains in intellectual information systems. The solution of this problem is demonstrated by the example of the method of students cognitive personality traits researches results integration and artificial intelligence technologies to create cognitive styles of diagnostic systems with the further individual paths, education models and reference groups development, based on the theory of multi-agent systems. The considered models’ investigation was conducted based on apparatus simulation of Petri nets.

Subjective views of the extent of inequality and preferences for redistribution depend on how people perceive the true income (wealth) distribution. We present a novel formal framework in which individuals look at reference groups when guessing the extent of inequality and derive its implications for four dimensions of inequality perceptions. First, we show that the presence of reference groups that put more weight on the own income class leads low (high) income individuals to overestimate (underestimate) their own position. Second, the framework implies that subjective estimates of the average income increases with the own income position. Third, it predicts that people in different income deciles will assess the "distributional shape" of society (e.g. pyramid or diamond) differently. Fourth, the subjective extent of inequality is lower for high-income individuals. While the previous literature has treated these aspects of inequality separately, our model demonstrates that they are connected and follow from a unified framework of reference group formation. This allows us to study these and to reconcile conflicting findings from the literature. We confront these predictions with survey data from 40 countries and find strong support for the model.

MCom (Marketing Management), North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2019 Numerous studies have been conducted on consumers' buying behaviour, socio-demographics as well as the psychographic dimensions of married people and traditional familial set-ups. Marketers and organisations have, however, overlooked the increasing and profitable Singletons consumer segment. Based on the literature review, it was found that Singletons have financial freedom and greater spending power because as they do not have family constraints and responsibilities. It is of great importance for marketers to identify Singleton consumers and to gain greater insight into this segment. Such knowledge will enable marketers to provide products and services that address the specific needs, wants and preferences of Singletons. This study investigated various concepts including buying behaviour, reference groups, segmentation and lifestyle segmentation in order to identify and describe Singletons. Studying the buying behaviour of Singletons, asking questions such as how, what, where, when and why consumers purchase and consume various products or services, will help marketers to develop appropriate marketing strategies. Effectively segmenting a market will also enable marketers to position their products so that they appeal to the targeted consumer segment. This study hopes to assist marketers and organisations in their efforts to devise marketing strategies that target the Singleton segment more effectively. In order to determine the influence of reference groups and lifestyle on the buying behaviour of Singletons as the primary objective of this study, 12 secondary research objectives were formulated. Various statements pertaining to reference groups were provided by the SUSCEP scale, which were used to determine their effect on the buying behaviour of Singletons. To determine the lifestyle of Singletons, the AIO-approach was used by measuring six lifestyle dimensions in terms of fashion consciousness, cost consciousness, health consciousness, recreations, E-shopping and career orientation. The study used a descriptive research design. Respondents were selected using convenience sampling and the data was collected using a self-administrated questionnaire. A sample size of 207 was realised from respondents in the Johannesburg and Pretoria areas of Gauteng province. The results of the study indicate that Singletons' experience moderately low reference groups effect as well as having a moderately low level of fashion consciousness. Moderately high levels of cost consciousness, health consciousness, recreation, recreation, E-shopping and career orientation were found among the respondents. The study also determined the underlying relationships between the various lifestyle dimensions, as well as the relationships between reference groups and the six lifestyle dimensions. The significant differences in terms of the perceptions of Singletons towards reference groups and the lifestyle dimensions with regard to their demographic differences in terms of age, monthly income, highest level of education and gender were determined. It is recommended that marketers and organisations should focus their efforts and resources on adjusting their marketing strategies so that these are in line with the preferences of Singletons with regard to the lifestyle dimensions of cost consciousness, health consciousness, recreation, E-shopping and career orientation. Marketers can consider the effect of reference groups and lifestyle, along with the difference in perceptions based on the demographic differences to develop effective and efficient marketing strategies and product offerings for Singletons. Recommendations for future research include considering a larger sample size, examining the effect of reference groups and lifestyle of Singletons in a wider geographic area, conducting a comparative study of Singletons in different geographical areas. In order to gain greater knowledge of the lifestyle of Singletons, a wider variety of AIO-statements can be measured. Furthermore, external influences such as culture, family and social class can be used to determine the buying behaviour of Singletons. To improve external validity, a longitudinal research design can be incorporated. Finally, research can be conducted by focusing on one lifestyle dimension and gaining a more profound understanding of a specific dimension (e.g. cost consciousness), and how Singletons perceive these dimensions. Masters

We use survey data to demonstrate that individuals extrapolate from their peer groups when forming estimates about aggregate economic outcomes (e.g. the aggregate homeownership rate). In a first approach, we follow the previous literature and construct hypothetical peer groups using information on the location, age and education of respondents. We confirm that the observed homeownership rates in these "constructed peer groups" affect respondents' subjective estimates of national homeownership rates. In a second approach, we extend the previous literature and utilize direct information provided by survey participants about the characteristics of their peer groups. We show that these "self-assessed peer groups" are even better predictors for how survey respondents assess aggregate economic outcomes. We show that the same mechanisms are at work for estimates of the national unemployment rate and exploit variation in respondents' interest in economic matters to demonstrate that agents rely more on peer group information if they are less knowledgeable. Finally, we provide evidence that (biased) subjective perceptions affect individuals' investment intentions.

Digitālo tehnoloģiju un sociālo tīklu ieviešanas dēļ informācijas apmaiņa sabiedrībā kļuvusi daudz intensīvāka, cilvēkiem ir plašākas iespējas izteikt savu viedokli un ietekmēt citu cilvēku uzvedību, kā rezultātā referento grupu, it īpaši sociālo mediju viedokļu līderu (influenceru), ietekme uz patērētāju palielinās. Līdz ar to Bakalaura darba mērķis ir, pamatojoties uz references grupu ietekmes teorētisko aspektu salīdzinošu izpēti, analizēt un novērtēt referento grupu, it īpaši sociālo tīklu viedokļu līderu (influenceru), ietekmes tendences uz Latvijas Y un Z paaudžu patērētāju uzvedību, piedāvājot Latvijas uzņēmumiem rekomendācijas mārketinga darbības un konkurētspējas uzlabošanai. Bakalaura darbā veikta analīze par referento grupu būtības interpretāciju un ietekmi, sociālo mediju viedokļu ietekmētāju (influenceru) darbību kā aktuālu tendenci virtuālajā vidē un paaudžu Y un Z uzvedības īpatnībām, veikta aptauja „Referento grupu ietekme uz patērētāju uzvedību sociālo tīklu viedokļu līderu kontekstā”, izstrādāti priekšlikumi Latvijas uzņēmumu mārketinga darbības un konkurētspējas uzlabošanai. Bakalaura darbā ir 72 lpp., 12 tabulas, 14 attēli, 6 pielikumi, izmantotās literatūras un avotu saraksts ar 40 nosaukumiem. Atslēgvārdi: referentā grupa, sociālo mediju viedokļu līderi, Y un Z paaudžu uzvedība, The deployment of digital technologies and social networks has led to a more intensive exchange of information in society, a wider opportunity for people to express their opinions and influence the behaviour of other people, thereby the impact of reference groups, especially social media opinion leaders (influncers), on consumer behaviour is increasing. Therefore, the aim of the Bachelor’s thesis is to analyse and assess, on the basis of a comparative study of theoretical aspects of the impact of reference groups, impact trends of reference groups, especially influencers, on the behaviour of Latvian Y and Z generations, by offering recommendations to Latvian companies to improve marketing activities and competitiveness. The Bachelor’s thesis has carried out an analysis of the interpretation and impact of the nature of the reference groups, the activities of influencers as an ongoing trend in the virtual environment and the behavioural characteristics of generations Y and Z, the questionnaire „Impact of Reference Groups on the Behaviour of Latvian Consumers in the Context of Social Media Opinion Leaders” has been conducted and recommendations to Latvian companies to improve marketing activities and competitiveness have been developed. The work consists of 72 pages, it contains 12 tables, 14 illustations, 6 appendixes, the sources of literature used consist of 40 units. Keywords: reference groups, influencers, generation Y and Z

This case study describes the challenges faced by Sergio Lyra, CEO of Team Nogueira, a network of gymnasiums founded by the brothers Rodrigo and Rogério Nogueira, two of the greatest fighters in the history of Mixed Martial Arts (MMA), who had transformed their training center into a gym, and later into a franchise network. In 2015, Team Nogueira had more than thirty academies throughout Brazil. However, the slowdown in the popularization of the sport, coupled with the economic crisis that plagued the country and the retirement of the brothers that gave its name to the network created a scenario of uncertainties and concerns. This case serves as a background for the discussion on the application of marketing in the sporting context, allowing discussion about the challenges related to the alignment between segmentation, target market selection and positioning. Therefore, the case is recommended for Fundamentals of Marketing or Sports Marketing classes in undergraduate and postgraduate courses, in sessions dedicated to the discussion of segmentation, competitive positioning or marketing strategy. Este caso para ensino descreve o desafio de Sergio Lyra, CEO da Team Nogueira, rede de academias de ginástica fundada pelos irmãos Rodrigo e Rogério Nogueira, dois dos maiores lutadores da história do Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) mundial, que haviam transformado seu centro de treinamento em uma academia e, posteriormente, em uma rede de franquias. Em 2015, a Team Nogueira contava com mais de trinta academias por todo o Brasil, no entanto, a desaceleração da popularização da modalidade, aliada à crise econômica que assolava o país e à aposentadoria dos irmãos que davam nome à rede, criavam um cenário de incertezas e preocupações. Esse caso serve de pano de fundo para a discussão sobre a aplicação do marketing no contexto esportivo, permitindo a discussão sobre os desafios relacionados ao alinhamento entre segmentação, seleção do mercado-alvo e posicionamento. Portanto, o caso é recomendado para a disciplina de Fundamentos de Marketing ou Marketing Esportivo em cursos de graduação e pós-graduação, nas sessões dedicadas à discussão sobre segmentação, posicionamento competitivo ou estratégia de marketing.

Temeljni problem istraživanja je utvrđivanje značaja referentnih grupa na ponašanje potrošača pri kupnji glazbenih instrumenata. Naglasak je na različitim utjecajima referentnih grupa na pojedinca pri kupovini glazbenih instrumenata. Ciljevi rada su utvrditi koje referentne grupe i na koji način utječu na ponašanje potrošača pri kupovini glazbenih instrumenata, te slijedom dobivenih rezultata pružiti odgovarajuće smjernice marketinškim stručnjacima, odnosno praksi. Istraživanje je pokazalo da on-line grupe imaju najistaknutiji informacijski utjecaj na potrošače pri kupnji glazbenih instrumenata. Pokazalo se i da prijatelji imaju najizraženiji informativni. Kod obitelji pokazalo se da je najistaknutiji normativni utjecaj. Sveukupno dominantna skupina koja utječe na ponašanje potrošača pri kupnji glazbenih instrumenata su prijatelji. Na osnovu ovih rezultata izvedene su smjernice marketinškim stručnjacima. U zaključku su dane daljnje smjernice za buduća istraživanja. The main research problem was to determine the impact of reference groups on consumer behavior while shopping for musical instruments. The emphasis was on different types of reference group influences on consumer behavior. The main goals of this study were to determine which reference groups and in what way impact consumer behavior while buying musical instruments, and also to give guidelines to marketing experts. Research shows that on-line groups have foremost informational influence on consumers while buying musical instruments. In addition, the results indicate that friends also have biggest informational impact on consumers, while family’s influence foremost is normative. In whole group of friends are the most dominant reference group influencing consumer behavior. Proposition were further deducted from this results. In conclusion were given tips for researches in future.

The objective of the research was to use the data about coal seam, obtained at the stage of exploration, to predict spontaneous combustion of coal. As a result of studying the geological structure of coal seams, physical-chemical research and analysis of statistical data on the spontaneous combustion of coals, geological factors of spontaneous combustion of coal and the boundary values of their parameters varying degrees of danger of spontaneous combustion for a number of basins and deposits were established. The basis of the authors’ methodology is based on ranking the data model and on the idea to classify this data by «proximity» to the reference groups of observations. The transition from the original data of the coal seam to rank scale was carried out using standards (boundary values) of levels of danger of spontaneous combustion of coal. The obtained data were used to construct maps of the prediction of spontaneous combustion of coal fields in «Raspadskaya» mine in Kuzbass.

The study aimed to explore the organization of the perception of social objects associated with everyday life topics and its relationship with the importance ascribed to them by different social groups. The convenience sample was composed by 315 undergraduate university students from 3 universities from the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Santa Catarina and Rondônia. The participants completed an online questionnaire evaluating the importance granted by 7 social groups (e.g., family, colleagues) to 9 social objects (e.g., work, marriage). A non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis was performed, based on Euclidean distances calculated using the mean scores associated with each object map. The perceptual map thus produced revealed 2 dimensions: one containing professional and affective objects and another that includes topics connected with the future. The article discusses the pertinence of including some of the reference groups studied in research of social representation and the limitations of the study.

The objective of our research is to examine the relative significance of reference groups on salespersons’ performance, as compared with institutional and personal factors. Previous arguments concerning salespersons’ intentions, behavior, and performance seem to have been developed in isolation, each focusing on its original key determinant(s). Our challenge, then, is a synthesis of existing determinants of desirable sales output with our original focus on salespersons’ reference groups. Our exploratory qualitative research implies that there is no universal stimulus that directs salespeople in a desirable direction. In seemingly arbitrary ways, they value certain compensation levels, lifestyles, or sales behavior, while they interact with others to set their own codes of conduct. In other words, institutional factors may be effective to draw effort from some salespersons, but not from others. We have completed a questionnaire survey of Japanese salespersons and a two-step analysis. The first step is a regression analysis to examine whether the reference group factors are comparable and compatible with institutional and personal factors. The second step is a semantic equation modeling to identify “undesirable” relationships between “desirable” consequences after integrating various dependent variables into four components through an exploratory factor analysis. Our results indicate that the existence of role models in one’s workplace increases satisfaction and self-fulfillment activities without raising perceived performance that lowers loyalty.

International audience; Terra sigillata from the Henchir Es-Srira archaeological site in central Tunisia was analysed by X-ray fluorescence (XRF), and chemical data were statistically treated by multivariate (principal component and cluster) analyses, which defined a geochemically homogeneous reference group. According to our results, potsherds from Henchir Es-Srira are compositionally compatible with the six reference samples from the same site already published in the literature, and form a single group. A larger reference group is now well established for this site. In addition, comparisons with previous data from other sites in both northern and central Tunisia show that terra sigillata from Henchir Es-Srira is chemically more similar to that of the northern sites than the central ones. Neutron activation analysis (NAA), an extremely valuable tool for provenance studies, was also performed on a set of selected potsherds from Henchir Es-Srira and clay materials collected nearby, with the aim of identifying the possible clayey raw materials used for this ceramic production. Comparisons of both bulk chemical composition and trace and rare earth element (REE) patterns show that most of the objects were locally produced from a Neogene base-clay, probably collected from the “Saouaf Formation”.

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«Prevalence of musculoskeletal disorders in subjects not exposed to biomechanical overload». Background: Data on the prevalence of work-related musculoskeletal disorders (WMSDs) in groups of unexposed subjects may serve for comparison in studies on risk/damage in groups of exposed subjects and for the planning of preventive interventions. Objectives: To assess the musculoskeletal health status in a group of working subjects not exposed to biomechanical overload. Methods: Medical histories were collected by occupational health physicians as part of an active health surveillance program. An ad hoc questionnaire was administered to the subjects to detect musculoskeletal disorders. Results: The sample consisted of 1023 subjects (605 females and 418 males) with a mean age of 40 years. The prevalence of acute low back pain and disc hernia was 4% and 5.6% respectively; 4.3% of subjects were affected by at least one disorder of the upper limbs while the prevalence of knee disorders was 1.7%. Standardized data proved to be in line with previous studies with the exception of a greater prevalence of shoulder disorders and disc hernia. Conclusions: WMSDs occur ubiquitously across the general working population unexposed to biomechanical overload. Such findings represent a valid reference for groups of exposed working subjects, in that any excess of such disorders/pathology may be due to specific work conditions.

This study investigates food fears that are ingredient-based, focusing on the case of high-fructose corn syrup. The results of a national phone survey of 1008 U.S. mothers offer five preliminary sets of observations: first, consumers with a fear of a specific ingredient – such as high-fructose corn syrup – may exaggerate and overweigh perceived risks. Second, such consumers may often receive more information from the internet than from television. Third, they may be partly influenced by their reference group. Fourth, ingredients associated with less healthy foods mainly hurt evaluation of foods perceived as relatively healthy. Fifth, food fears may be offset when an ingredient’s history, background, and general usage are effectively communicated. These findings suggest new insights for understanding how public health, industry, and consumer groups can more effectively target and address ingredient fears.

International audience; African Red Slip (ARS) ware (sigillata africana) from three archaeological sites in northern (Oudhna, Sidi Khalifa) and central Tunisia (Henchir el Guellel) was studied by X-ray fluorescence and statistical treatment of chemical data in order to define homogeneous reference groups. The specimens from Henchir el Guellel are clearly different from those of the other two sites, which are compositionally more similar, due to their geographical vicinity. ARS ware from Sidi Khalifa is chemically very homogeneous, whereas that from Oudhna clusters into two distinct groups. The chemical correspondence with literature reference groups, based on both kiln wastes and sherds from archaeological surveys, defines new reference groups, statistically more numerous and representative. Comparisons of chemical data by neutron activation analysis on selected potsherds and clays from the surroundings of each site also identified the probable base-clays used to produce the ARS ware of Oudhna, Sidi Khalifa, and to advance some hypothesis on that used in Henchir el Guellel, thereby overcoming difficulties in assessing chemical contents of elements due to levigation processes.

The examination of protein and cellular blood composition of residents living in two of the most polluted districts of Almaty city, did not indicate any blood system changes. All researched indicators matched up with physiological forms, and in some cases, the reference group indicators were outpaced. Significant changes of red cells have been detected at osmotic resistance of membrane of red blood cells among residents of above said Almaty’s districts. The resistance of red cell membranes of Auezovsky district residents was lower than of Alatauksky district residents. The hemolysispercent washigherby 5-9 %. The hemolysispercent among people aged 50 was significantly higher (by 10-20 % and more).

The main objective of our research was to suggest recommendations for Czech producers of clothing for brand building and marketing communication strategies with Czech consumers in age group 13 to 19 years, therefore, our goal was to analyze consumer behavior of Czech youth when buying and using clothing and to analyze factors influencing their behavior, with the emphasis on reference groups and these results are presented in this paper. The target group (consumers 13–19 years old) was selected because it’s often been neglected in recent marketing researches. The research consisted of primarily qualitative research (n = 96) in the form of in-depth interviews and pilot quantitative research (n = 200) in a form of online survey. The data collection was conducted in time period March 17–April 22, 2011. On the basis of data analysis, authors suggested general recommendations for improving marketing communication strategy of fashion producers in the Czech Republic. The results hint differences in the buying behavior of clothing between respondents in the age 13–15 and 16–19 years. The group of 13–15 years old teenagers doesn’t consider clothing brands as a very important criterion when choosing particular piece of clothing, while for the older group brands matter. The 16–19 year old ones are significantly more influenced by their friends and opinion leaders, while the for the younger group this influence comes not from their peers, but mostly parents.

Income inequality has risen sharply in the United States over the past forty years, yet there remains substantial uncertainty about the consequences of income inequality on social life. This dissertation advances research on these consequences by focusing on mechanisms through which inequality may matter and on the methods by which the effects of income inequality are determined.I primarily draw on data from the 1973–2014 General Social Surveys linked to administrative data of the demographic and economic characteristics of each respondent’s state. This includes state-level income inequality, for which I utilize a new annual series based on household income tax returns. I also conduct an online survey experiment that manipulates perceptions of state-level income inequality.First, numerous scholarly accounts posit that as income inequality rises, individuals will be less satisfied with their own finances as they feel increasingly deprived relative to others—driving individuals to try to spend more as they engage in positional competition and increasing their anxieties as position in the income distribution becomes ever more crucial. I find that higher state-level income inequality decreases financial satisfaction overall, and that this effect is especially pronounced for those in the middle of the income distribution. Counterfactual simulations suggest rising inequality explains a substantial portion of the over-time decline in financial satisfaction.Second, concerns about rising income inequality are frequently linked to discussions about opportunity and mobility, yet little research explores if and how this inequality affects people’s economic optimism, something with far reaching implications for life satisfaction, public opinion, and real economic mobility. Both the survey analysis and the experiment show that higher income inequality decreases economic optimism. The survey shows that the rate of change in inequality moderates the effect of the level of inequality, and that household income further moderates the effects of the level and change in income inequality on economic optimism. There was no evidence of this moderation in the experiment. Key differences between the two methodological approaches are discussed.Third, although both popular and scholarly accounts have argued that income inequality reduces trust, some recent research has been more skeptical, noting these claims are more robust cross-sectionally than longitudinally. Furthermore, although multiple mechanisms have been proposed for why inequality could affect trust, these have rarely been tested explicitly. I find little evidence that states that have been more unequal over time have less trusting people. There is some evidence that the growth in income inequality is linked with a decrease in trust, but these effects are sensitive to how time is accounted for. While much of the inequality and trust research has focused on status anxiety and feelings of relative deprivation, this mechanism receives the weakest support, and mechanisms based on societal fractionalization and exploitation receive stronger support.Finally, social comparisons of income have far-reaching consequences for individual decision-making and public policy, yet there persists a significant gap between “true” relative income and what Americans perceive. Although one compelling explanation is that reference groups affect what people perceive as “average,” there is little consensus about who people compare themselves with. Previous research has proposed reference groups based on both geographic proximity and on sociodemographic similarity, but few studies have considered multiple reference groups systematically or simultaneously. I find that the effect of reference group income depends on both egoist and fraternal comparisons: higher median incomes of large reference groups and those with weak status hierarchies increases perceived relative income, while higher median incomes of small reference groups and those with strong status hierarchies decreases perceived relative income. These results have important implications for how reference groups are used in research on neighborhood effects, residential segregation, and income inequality.

Considerando-se a importância das relações sociais e da influência interpessoal no comportamento dos indivíduos de baixa renda, este estudo apresenta como objetivo identificar e analisar os grupos de referência valorizados pelas consumidoras de baixa renda em seu processo de decisão de compra. Para a coleta de dados, utilizou-se uma abordagem multimétodo fundamentada, primeiro, em entrevistas em profundidade com 12 mulheres e, depois, na técnica de Análise Conjunta com uma amostra de 53 entrevistadas pertencentes a esse segmento. Devido à crise econômica vivida atualmente, mostrou-se necessário delimitar o contexto da pesquisa a um bem que permanecesse atrativo nessas circunstâncias: o batom. Trata-se de uma categoria de produto de alto envolvimento, capaz de representar o segmento de cosméticos como um todo, associando-se à autoestima, à sensação de bem-estar e ao reconhecimento social. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que as consumidoras de baixa renda valorizam a presença de diferentes grupos de referência em seu processo de decisão. Especificamente, identificaram-se dois grupos de respondentes com preferências distintas quanto aos grupos de referência. Diante disso, ressalta-se que as principais contribuições desta pesquisa foram a observação de perfis diferentes dentro do segmento de baixa renda, o desenvolvimento do conhecimento sobre o processo de decisão de compra dessas mulheres e a identificação de apelos de grupos de referência que as empresas podem usar para atrair consumidoras de baixa renda. Considering the importance of social relations and interpersonal influence on the behavior of low-income individuals, this study aims to identify and analyze the reference groups valued by low-income female consumers in their decision-making process. A multimethod approach was employed. First, the data were collected through in-depth interviews with 12 low-income women. Subsequently, a conjoint analysis technique was applied with a sample of 53 female interviewees belonging to this segment. Due to the current economic crisis, it was necessary to delimit the research context to a product that remained attractive in these circumstances: lipstick. It is a high involvement product category, capable of representing the segment of cosmetics as a whole, being related to self-esteem, a sense of well-being and recognition. Results showed that low-income female consumers value the presence of different reference groups in their decision-making process. Specifically, it was possible to identify two groups of respondents with distinct preferences regarding the reference groups. Therefore, the main contributions of this research were the observation of different profiles within the low-income segment, the development of knowledge about the decision-making process of these women, and the identification of reference group appeals that companies can use to attract low-income female consumers.

The present study is an effort to explore the influence of income and occupation on consumers’ susceptibility to reference group demands on brand choice decisions and to verify the relevance of reference groups in the Indian context. Using an adapted version of questions developed by Bearden et al. (1989) data was collected from a heterogeneous sample which was subjected to ANOVA. The findings of the study are sure to benefit both the researchers as well as the marketing professionals.

L’auteur s’interroge sur la valeur explicative de l’idée de société globale en contexte de société de droits au moment où l’économie se mondialise. Étudiant divers aspects de ce contexte sous le rapport entre souveraineté de l’État et souveraineté du marché, il attire l’attention sur l’émergence à travers l’expérience de la vie sociale d’un schème explicatif concurrent, l’idée de société virtuelle. Appuyé sur la notion d’effet pervers, empruntée à l’analyse de système, et sur celle de l’Autre généralisé, issue de l’étude de la socialisation, il suggère en conclusion comment l’interrogation initiale pourrait trouver réponse dans les pratiques de la morphologie sociale., The author examines the explanatory value of the idea of society as an organic whole in the current era of post-modern societies and economic globalization. Analyzing various aspects of this context from the perspective of the relationship between state sovereignty and market sovereignty, the author focusses attention on a new idea of society emerging in contemporary social life — the virtual society. Drawing on the notions of unintended consequences, as employed in systems analysis, and the Generalized-Other, common to studies of socialization, he concludes by suggesting how an examination of the above question could profit from morphology analysis., El autor se interroga sobre el valor explicativo de la idea de sociedad global en el contexto de una sociedad de derecho y de la mundialización de la economía. Se estudian diversos aspectos de dicho contexto en función de la relación entre soberanía estatal y soberanía de mercado y se señala la emergencia, a partir de la experiencia de la vida social, de un esquema explicativo alternativo: la idea de sociedad virtual. Basándose en la noción de efectos perversos, noción que ha sido tomada del análisis de sistemas y del «Otro generalizado», proveniente del estudio de la socialización, el autor sugiere en conclusión que la interrogación inicial podría encontrar una respuesta en las prácticas de la morfología social.

Die vorliegende Studie analysiert, wie innerbetriebliche Referenzgruppen und der regulatorische Fokus von Kommunikationsbotschaften die Bereitschaft zur Teilnahme an betrieblichen Freiwilligenprogrammen beeinflussen. Die Ergebnisse einer experimentellen Studie zeigen, dass sich der Referenzgruppeneinfluss sowie der regulatorische Fokus von Kommunikationsbotschaften unterschiedlich auf verschiedene Facetten der individuellen Handlungsintention niederschlagen. Ferner wird auch gezeigt, dass die Referenzgruppeneinflüsse mit dem chronischen regulatorischen Fokus sowie mit dem regulatorischen Fokus von Kommunikationsbotschaften interagieren können. Handlungsempfehlungen für die Gestaltung der Kommunikation mit Mitarbeitern und Ansatzpunkte für die zukünftige Forschung werden diskutiert. This study investigates how organizational reference group influences and regulatory focus affect the willingness of individuals to participate in employee volunteering programs. The results of an experimental study reveal that organizational reference group influences and the regulatory focus of communication messages have an impact on different aspects of the willingness of individuals to participate in employee volunteering programs. Moreover, the current study shows that the effects of organizational reference groups interact with two facets of the regulatory focus. Implications for employee communication and avenues for future research are discussed.

The components of demo-social macroeconomic level but especially in the continental context were decisive action on both exponents of the supply and the demand; the businessman need to know features, character and effects of these variables on the functionality they produce while the European market and national. From the range of the demo-social components, I referred to the social classes, the reference groups, the area of residence, taking into consideration reality that these components carries on business in general, particularly on the consumer, a long-term determination so, their knowledge as fair provides managers can develop policies and strategies consistent with these conditions.

Important forms of online consumption legitimisation now occur outside the brand sphere. This study examines underlying socio-psychological processes that underpin consumption legitimisation in ephemeral, diverse SNS; outlining socialisation and adaptive behaviours of members who use virtual reference groups to identify legitimate consumption choices. Adopting a netnographic approach, this paper reports on an investigation of selected Mumsnet interactions over a three month period. Analysis of social interactions on a thematic reference group on baby weaning offered insights into unique socialisation cues that influence consumption legitimisation practices arising in mundane conversations. Group rules associated with consumption are frequently implicit in member posts, notable in consumption confessionals when un-approved consumption choices are reported. The consumption codes embedded in member narratives are multi-layered, often enacted through social performance and self-referencing. Powerful narratives centred on babies who ‘eat absolutely everything’, as a form of member self-affirmation, lead to social anchorage with this thematic virtual reference group. Marketers need to a) fully recognise the complexity of online consumption codes and pay greater attention to the social psychology that underpins online consumption referencing; b) acknowledge that consumption advocacy occurring in ephemeral SNS is less about brand consciousness and more about search for social anchorage.

The article sheds light on older women's body images and problematizes assumptions that women's aging is more painful and shameful than men's aging since men are not expected to live up to youthful beauty norms, the so-called double standard of aging hypothesis. Based on 12 qualitative interviews with women from the age of 75 from the Swedish capital area, I argue that older women have access to a double perspective of beauty, which means that they can relate to both youthful and age-related beauty norms. The results also illustrate that women's body image is created in a context where previous body images are central and that this time perspective can contribute toward a positive body image. Further, the results show how age codings of appearance-related qualities create a narrow framework for older women's body images and point to the benefits of shifting the analytical focus toward a material-semiotic body where corporeality and discourse are seen as interwoven.

The understanding of the influencers in consumption of products and beauty services in tweens`market can offer subsidies to marketers and society better understand children consumer`s behavior. The characteristics of children's market and children as consumers, the beauty-related consumption as well the reference groups are addressed in this dissertation. Thus, this qualitative study aimed to identify the influencers of tweens for consumption of products and beauty services, identifying which products and services that tweens consume, understanding which motivations that lead tweens to use such products and services as well as identifying which groups that influence these tweens to consume these products and also identifying what kind of influence individuals / social groups engage these tweens as regards the above consumption. In this dissertation 30 subjects were selected, such as psychologists, teachers, mothers of tweens and tweens between ten and 12 years, all residents in the city of Maringá, Paraná. Data were obtained through interviews with semi-structured script and projective techniques using photos. The interviews were recorded and transcribed. Using the content analysis made possible to find that the participation of influencers` consumption of tweens for products and beauty services occurs through some groups, such as relatives - mostly mothers - school friends, ballet friends, church friends who attend, and especially through famous people who they identify with in programs, sitcoms and soap operas on TV and following their "idols" in social networks. What motivates this consumption is that tweens have the need to express subjectively, to insert themselves into groups, build their identity, adding up the fact that they are susceptible because of the need to gain acceptance, wishing to be well regarded by their peers. Therefore, they use these products and beauty services as a form to develop such aspects. A compreensão dos influenciadores no consumo de produtos e serviços de beleza no mercado das tweens pode oferecer subsídios para que os profissionais de marketing e a sociedade melhor entendam o comportamento do consumidor infantil. As características do mercado infantil e da criança como consumidora, o consumo relacionado à beleza bem como os grupos de referência são abordados nesta dissertação. Diante disso, este estudo qualitativo objetivou identificar os influenciadores das tweens para o consumo de produtos e serviços de beleza, identificando quais os produtos e serviços que as tweens consomem, entendendo quais as motivações que levam as tweens a usarem tais produtos e serviços, bem como identificando quais os grupos que influenciam essas tweens a consumirem esses produtos e ainda, identificando que tipo de influência os indivíduos/grupos sociais exercem nessas tweens no que tange ao consumo supracitado. Na presente dissertação foram selecionados 30 sujeitos como psicólogas, professoras, mães de tweens e tweens entre dez e 12 anos, todas residentes na cidade de Maringá, estado do Paraná. Os dados foram obtidos por meio de entrevistas com roteiro semiestruturado e técnicas projetivas com uso de fotos. As entrevistas foram gravadas e transcritas. Com o uso da análise de conteúdo foi possível descobrir que a participação dos influenciadores de consumo das tweens por produtos e serviços de beleza se dá por meio alguns grupos tais como de familiares na maioria das vezes mães, amigas da escola, amigas do ballet, amigas da igreja que frequentam, e sobretudo das pessoas famosas que se identificam em programas, seriados e novelas da TV e seguindo seus ídolos nas redes sociais.O que motiva esse consumo é que essas tweens têm a necessidade de se expressarem subjetivamente, se inserirem em grupos, construírem sua identidade, somando-se ao fato de que são suscetíveis por conta da necessidade de adquirirem aceitação,desejando serem bem vistas por seus pares. Para tanto usam esses produtos e serviços de beleza como meio para desenvolverem tais aspectos. 111 f

Using human brands (also termed “celebrities”) as product endorsers is a popular marketing tool. Although human brands are traditionally regarded as aspirational others, a concept based on reference group literature, no research has examined whether adopting a reference group framework is of theoretical or substantive value when predicting a human brand’s endorsement potential. I explore this issue, arguing that the traditional conceptualizing of human brands as purely aspirational, while not incorrect, is restrictive. How consumers interact with human brands and who they classify as such is evolving, and the result is that consumers see some human brands as similar others and even friends, concepts linked with membership groups. In this thesis, I propose and find support for the premise that predicting a human brand’s endorsement potential is best done by assessing both the aspirational and membership elements of the human brand, an approach which offers several benefits. To begin, it facilitates a deeper exploration of why reference group ratings matter. I demonstrate that reference group ratings exert their effects via affiliation motives, finding that whereas aspirational ratings positively predict both intrinsic and extrinsic affiliation motives, membership ratings almost exclusively predict intrinsic affiliation motives. Sex moderates this effect, with females more influenced by intrinsic motives and males more influenced by extrinsic motives. Finally, I demonstrate that human brands can strengthen their reference group ratings by increasing their self-disclosure levels, which benefits their persuasiveness as endorsers. I test my propositions across four studies, using a mix of survey and experimental methodologies.

The study aimed to explore the organization of the perception of social objects associated with everyday life topics and its relationship with the importance ascribed to them by different social groups. The convenience sample was composed by 315 undergraduate university students from 3 universities from the Brazilian states of Minas Gerais, Santa Catarina and Rondônia. The participants completed an online questionnaire evaluating the importance granted by 7 social groups (e.g., family, colleagues) to 9 social objects (e.g., work, marriage). A non-metric multidimensional scaling analysis was performed, based on Euclidean distances calculated using the mean scores associated with each object map. The perceptual map thus produced revealed 2 dimensions: one containing professional and affective objects and another that includes topics connected with the future. The article discusses the pertinence of including some of the reference groups studied in research of social representation and the limitations of the study. El objetivo del estudio fue explorar la organización de la percepción de objetos sociales vinculados a temas de la vida cotidiana y su relación con la importancia atribuida a estos por parte de distintos grupos sociales. Participaron 315 universitarios de una muestra de conveniencia de 3 universidades brasileñas de Minas Gerais, Santa Catarina e Rondônia, quienes completaron un cuestionario por Internet, en el que debieron evaluar la importancia otorgada por 7 grupos sociales (e.g., familia, compañeros de universidad) a 9 objetos sociales (e.g., trabajo, matrimonio). Se realizó un análisis de escalamiento multidimensional no métrico, basado en distancias euclidianas calculadas a partir de las puntuaciones medias vinculadas a cada mapa objeto. El mapa perceptual obtenido permitió identificar 2 dimensiones: una que contiene objetos de tipo profesional y afectivo y otra que incluye temas relacionados con el futuro. Se discute la pertinencia de la inclusión de algunos de los grupos de referencia estudiados en las investigaciones de las representaciones sociales y las limitaciones del estudio.

The purpose of this thesis was to gain a better understanding of the relatively new concept of Brand Hate. More specifically, how Brand Hate can occur in people with no to little experience with certain brands, so called non-customers. We want to believe that humans are a rational being that takes decisions based on all the available information and does not jump to conclusions before all options have been exhausted. But upon closer examination theoretical concepts such as brand love can be found. A concept that argues that users of a brand utilize the brand itself in order to internally identify values he or she holds, as well as showcasing those values and personality traits externally to others. With this theory as a basis the relatively new concept of Brand Hate was born. The new concept, posits that there has to be another side of the brand love, where people actually hate or dislike the brand. Up to this point very little research has been done within the area, and that is where the authors of this thesis saw an opportunity to fill a research gap. There has been no previous research attempting to understand WHY these negative feelings comes to present themselves within people. But as soon as the work on the thesis had started another opportunity presented itself, it seemed as though people hate or dislike brands that they themselves does not even use. As a result non-customers became the focal point of investigation of this thesis. The research itself included three different focus groups, with in total nineteen respondents that discussed a wide variety of topics. During the sessions the discussions touched upon what brands they disliked, why they disliked them and how the respondents identified with other groups of people. This gave the authors the ability to gain a deeper understanding of the psychological reasoning behind why certain brands the respondents did not use were severely hated or disliked. The findings from the research seem to point in one very specific direction, group identification is an integral reason why non-customers started to hate or dislike brands. No matter how good companies are creating an appealing brand, that same brand will always risk to become distorted, as a result of the different targeted user groups. This research shows that people let their emotions and prejudices come between what they perceive a brand to be, and what companies want them to be. The result is people prematurely judging brands based upon the customers of that brand. If the respondents did not like the user group of a certain brand, that same brand would be inscribed with all the negative connotations with the user groups, thereby distorting the public brand image far from what the companies might intend them to be.

M.A. (Sociology) Please refer to full text to view abstract