Search

Recombinant TNF-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) is considered a powerful and selective inducer of tumor cell death. We hypothesize that TRAIL’s potential as anticancer agent can be enhanced further by promoting its accumulation in tumor tissue. For this purpose, we developed TRAIL complexes that bind to angiogenic endothelial cells. We employed an avidin– biotin pretargeting approach, in which biotinylated TRAIL interacted with RGD-equipped avidin. The assembled complexes killed tumor cells (Jurkat T cells) via apoptosis induction. Furthermore, we demonstrated that the association of the RGD-avidin-TRAIL complex onto endothelial cells enhanced the tumor cell killing activity. Endothelial cells were not killed by TRAIL nor its derived complexes. Our approach can facilitate the enrichment of TRAIL onto angiogenic blood vessels, which may enhance intratumoral accumulation. Furthermore, it offers a versatile technology for the complexation of targeting ligands with therapeutic recombinant proteins and by this a novel way to enhance their specificity and activity.

Targeting of antifibrotic drugs to hepatic stellate cells (HSC) is a promising strategy to block fibrotic processes leading to liver cirrhosis. For this purpose, we utilized the neo-glycoprotein mannose-6-phosphate-albumin (M6PHSA) that accumulates efficiently in HSC during liver fibrosis. Pentoxifylline (PTX), an antifibrotic compound that inhibits HSC proliferation and activation in vitro, was conjugated to M6PHSA. We employed a new type of platinum-based linker, which conjugates PTX via coordination chemistry rather than via covalent linkage. When incubated in plasma or in the presence of thiol compounds, free PTX was released from PTX-M6PHSA at a sustained slow rate. PTX-M6PHSA displayed pharmacological activity in cultured HSC as evidenced by changes in cell morphology and reduction of collagen I production. PTX-M6PHSA and platinum coupled PTX did not induce platinum-related toxicity (Alamar Blue viability assay) or apoptosis (caspase activation and TUNEL staining). In vivo distribution studies in fibrotic rats demonstrated specific accumulation of the conjugate in nonparenchymal cells in the fibrotic liver. In conclusion, we have developed PTX-M6PHSA employing a novel type of platinum linker, which allows sustained delivery of the drug to HSC in the fibrotic liver. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In this study the possibility to deliver the acid-sensitive enzyme alkaline phosphatase (AP) from calf intestine (CIAP) to the intestinal system by oral administration was investigated. Tablets were prepared and in vitro evaluated. Final proof of concept studies were performed in rats. This acid labile enzyme is potentially useful in the treatment of sepsis, a serious condition during which endotoxins can migrate into the blood stream. The CIAP was freeze-dried with inulin and subsequently compacted into round biconvex tablets with a diameter of 4mm and a weight of 25-30mg per tablet. The tablets were coated with an enteric coating in order to ensure their survival in the stomach. In vitro evaluation of tablets containing alkaline phosphatase from bovine intestine (BIAP) was the first step in the development. It was found that tablets without enteric coating dissolved rapidly in 0.10M HCl with total loss of enzymatic activity of the alkaline phosphatase. Tablets that were coated were stable for at least 2h in 0.10M HCl, but dissolved rapidly when the pH was increased to 6.8. Furthermore, it was shown that the enzymatic activity of the released BIAP was fully preserved. The in vivo test clearly showed that the oral administration of enteric coated tablets resulted in the release of enzymatically active CIAP in the intestinal lumen of rats. The location of the enhanced enzymatic activity of AP in the intestines varied with the time that had passed between the administration of the tablets and the sacrificing of the rats. Also, the level of enzymatic activity increased with an increasing number of tablets that were administered. © 2003 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Background/Aims: In acute liver failure, hepatocytes are exposed to various cytokines that activate both cell survival and apoptotic pathways. NF-kappaB is a central transcription factor in these responses. Recent studies indicate that blocking NF-kappaB causes apoptosis, indicating the existence of NF-kappaB-regulated anti-apoptotic genes. In the present study the relationship between NF-kappaB activation and apoptosis has been investigated in hepatocytes. Methods: Primary rat hepatocytes were exposed to a cytokine mixture of tumor necrosis factor alpha, interleukin-1beta, interferon-gamma and lipopolysaccharide. Modulation of signalling pathways was performed by using dominant negative adenoviral constructs. Apoptosis and NF-kappaB activation were determined by caspase-3 activity, Hoechst staining and electrophoretic mobility shift assay, respectively. Furthermore, expression and regulation of apoptosis-related genes were investigated. Results: (1) Inhibition of NF-kappaB activation results in apoptosis. (2) Inhibitor of apoptosis protein (IAP) family members, inhibitor of apoptosis protein1 (cIAP1), and X-chromosome-linked IAP, are expressed in rat hepatocytes. cIAP2 is induced by cytokines in an NF-kappaB-dependent manner and overexpression of cIAP2 inhibits apoptosis. (3) The anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 family member A1/Bfl-1 and the pro-apoptotic members Bak and Bid are induced by cytokines and NF-kappaB-dependent. (4) Nitric oxide inhibits caspase-3 activity in hepatocytes. Conclusions: In inflammatory conditions, hepatocyte survival is dependent on NF-kappaB activation and cIAP2 contributes significantly to this protection. (C) 2002 European Association for the Study of the Liver. Published by Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Background/Aims: Drug targeting to hepatic stellate cells (HSC) may improve the pharmacological effects of antifibrotic drugs. Recently, albumin substituted with 28 mannose 6-phosphate moieties (M6P(28)-HSA) was found to distribute selectively to HSC in fibrotic rat livers. To assess whether this albumin can be used as a carrier for intracellular drug delivery, we explored the cellular handling of M6P(28)-HSA in HSC. Methods Reults: Application of competitive substrates for the M6P/IGFII receptor or other receptors showed that the binding of M6P-HSA to the M6P/IGFII receptor is specific. Binding was strong to activated HSC, but not to quiescent HSC. Furthermore, M6P28-HSA was extensively internalized by these cells. Using monensin, a specific inhibitor of the lysosomal pathway, proof was obtained that M6P-HSA is endocytosed via this route. The experiments performed with tissue slices, prepared from rat and human livers, revealed a specific binding and uptake of M6P(28)-HSA in both normal and cirrhotic livers. In livers from cirrhotic patients, HSC contributed predominantly to the uptake of this neoglycoprotein. Conclusions: Based on our in vivo data demonstrating the HSC-selectivity and on our in vitro data demonstrating binding and rapid internalization in activated HSC, we conclude that M6P28-HSA is applicable as a stellate cell-selective carrier for antifibrotic drugs that act intracellularly. This may have implications for the design of new strategies for the treatment of liver fibrosis.

We developed and tested a novel method for perfusing parts of human liver to study uptake and handling of drug-targeting preparations. These preparations, designed for the treatment of liver fibrosis in man, have been extensively studied in animals, but little is known about the uptake and handling by human livers. Human liver tissue was obtained from livers procured from multiorgan donors and from cirrhotic livers of patients. To assess tissue viability, perfusate glutamate-oxalacetate-transaminase (GOT), glutamate-pyruvate-transaminase (GPT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were determined. To assess tissue functionality, the uptake of taurocholic acid and phase I and II metabolism of lidocaine and 7-hydroxycoumarin were determined. Uptake of a drug-targeting preparation was studied with Dexa(10)-HSA, which is designed for targeting of dexamethasone to nonparenchymal cells in the liver. During a 90-min perfusion period, no elevation of either GOT, GPT, or LDH was found. Both healthy control livers and cirrhotic livers showed phase I and II drug metabolism and functional taurocholic acid uptake. Studies with Dexa(10)-HSA revealed that 60 min after administration, 40% of the dose had been taken up by control livers and only 5% by cirrhotic livers. In control livers, Kupffer and endothelial cells had taken up Dexa(10)-HSA, whereas in cirrhotic livers only Kupffer cells were responsible for the uptake. Viability parameters and liver function tests clearly showed the applicability of this method. In the perfusion set-up, we showed uptake of the drug-targeting preparation Dexa(10)-HSA by healthy and cirrhotic human liver tissue, although the distribution patterns differed. This demonstrates the need to study new concepts in (diseased) human tissue.

Increased expression of alkaline phosphatase (AP) in the liver is a hallmark of cholestasis but the pathophysiological role of this is not clear. We argue that deprotonation of carboxyl groups at the active site of the enzyme may be a prerequisite for optimal AP activity. Such a creation of negative charged groups can he achieved at high pH levels, but may also be directly provided by exposure of AP to polyanionic molecules. Endotoxin is a phosphorylated substance with multiple negatively charged residues. Phosphate groups determine many biological activities of this molecule. Therefore, we tested whether AP is able to dephosphorylate endotoxin at a physiological pH level. Phosphatase activity was histochemically studied in livers from normal and bile duct ligated rats as well as in the intestine. Enzyme activity was studied at pH 9.0 according to standard procedures and at pH 7.3 using endotoxin from E.coli as substrate. Furthermore the effect of AP upon the toxicity of endotoxin was assessed in vivo. In these studies, endotoxin preparations were administered intradermally to endotoxin sensitisized rats. Part of these preparations were pretreated with AP with or without the AP inhibitor levamisole (n=6 per group). Subsequently, the dermis was removed and neutrophil influx was measured. Our results show that hepatic and intestinal AP is endowed with endotoxin dephosphorylating activity at pH 7.4. Experiments also demonstrate that endotoxin pre-incubated with AP induced a much lower neutrophil influx as compared to endotoxin pre-incubated with vehicle (p

Increased expression of the enzyme inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase (iNOS) has been observed in models of acute liver inflammation. Since in recent reports an influence of Nitric Oxide radicals (NO) on fibrosis was proposed, we studied the hepatic expression of iNOS after bile duct ligation, a model of chronic liver inflammation leading to fibrosis. Using a polyclonal antibody against iNOS, we investigated iNOS expression with Western blot analysis and immunohistochemical methods. Using Western Blot analysis, we demonstrated the induction of iNOS in the first and second week after ligation. Immunohistochemistry confirmed these results. One day after ligation of the bile duct, the inflammatory cells in the portal areas of the liver started to express iNOS. Four days after ligation, groups of hepatocytes became also iNOS positive. In addition, a typical pattern of MOS staining was found in these fibrotic livers. Cells around necrotic areas showed a clear expression and were identified as hepatocytes and inflammatory cells. After seven days the expression of iNOS gradually declined and virtually no staining was observed after two weeks. In conclusion, the enzyme iNOS is expressed in hepatocytes and inflammatory cells of bile duct ligated livers, especially in the early stage of fibrosis. In the later stages of the fibrotic process, when collagen accumulation increases, the expression of the enzyme disappeared.

We have coupled the anti-inflammatory drug naproxen (Nap) covalently to human serum albumin (HSA) to deliver this drug selectively to non parenchymal cell types of the liver during endotoxin induced hepatic inflammation. Liver endothelial cells and Kupffer cells play an important role in the pathogenesis of acute and chronic inflammatory liver diseases. Targeting Nap to these cells might increase the efficacy of this drug in the treatment of these diseases and reduce its side effects. During acute inflammation in male rats, induced by endotoxin, livers showed an increased uptake of Nap when coupled to HSA as compared to free Nap. 3 hours after administering 24 mg/kg Nap(23)-HSA 28% of the dose was found in the liver versus 1.1% of a therapeutic dose of 50 mg/kg Nap (p In conclusion, during endotoxin induced inflammation the distribution of Nap as a Nap(23)-HSA conjugate to the liver is enhanced as compared to free Nap. Moreover, Nap liberated from the albumin carrier by proteolytic degradation exhibits a longer residence time in the liver, as compared to free Nap.

Although both ecto-ADPase and prostacyclin (PGI2) inhibit platelets and neutrophils, their action in acute glomerulonephritis is unknown. We tested the PGI2 analog Iloprost and 2chloroadenosine (2Cl-ADO), an analog of adenosine, the end product of nucleotidase activities, during anti-Thy1 nephritis. Rats received anti-Thy1 immunoglobulin G (5 mg/kg body weight, intravenously) and subsequently one subcutaneous injection of either 2Cl-ADO (10 mg/kg body weight; (n = 6) or Iloprost (1 mg/kg body weight; n = 6). Control rats received anti-Thy1 immunoglobulin G with saline (n = 6) or saline alone (n = 6). After 24 hours, kidneys were processed for light-microscopical evaluation. Proteinuria was studied in additional rats. Results showed that both drugs inhibited intraglomerular platelet activation (P < 0.005). 2Cl-ADO also reduced intraglomerular O2- production of neutrophils (P < 0.05), in contrast to Iloprost. Intraglomerular immunoglobulin G deposition, complement activation, neutrophil influx, and myeloperoxidase release were not affected by 2Cl-ADO or Iloprost. However, proteinuria was completely prevented by both drugs. It is concluded that PGI2 and nucleotidases are potentially able to attenuate this form of nephritis by inhibiting platelet activity, whereas nucleotidases also inhibit neutrophil activity in vivo.

Extracellular adenine nucleotides are considered mediators of inflammation because they modulate functions of neutrophils and platelets. Until now, this role for adenine nucleotides has not been studied in vivo. In particular in the rat kidney, where ATP- and ADPase activity is present in the glomerular basement membrane, studies about the role of nucleotides may increase our understanding of the dynamics of glomerulonephritis (GN). Therefore, we examined effects of adenine derivatives ATP-gamma-S, ADP-beta-S and 2chloro-adenosine (2chloro-ADO) in vitro and during anti-Thy 1 GN. The in vitro results show that ADP-beta-S and ATP-gamma-S are not degraded by glomerular nucleotidases but, on the other hand do stimulate O2- production of peritoneal exudate cells (PEC). In contrast, 2chloro-ADO significantly inhibits O2- production of peritoneal exudate cells. For in vivo studies rats were rendered nephritic by intravenous injection of monoclonal anti-Thy 1 IgG (5 mg/kg body weight). Subsequently, rats were treated with saline (group 1, N = 10), 2chloro-ADO (group 2, N = 10), ADP-beta-S (group 3, N = 10) or ATP-gamma-S (group 4, N = 10). All analogs (10 mg/kg body weight) were administered both at t = 0 and t = 12 hour. After 24 hours, rats were sacrificed and kidneys were examined histochemically. In an additional group of nephritic rats (N = 5) proteinuria was studied after 2-chloro-ADO treatment. Results show increased intraglomerular platelet aggregation in nephritic rats treated with ADP-beta-S, whereas 2chloro-ADO inhibits aggregation significantly as compared with nephritic rats receiving saline. The percentage of granulocytes producing O2- is significantly increased in glomeruli after treatment of nephritic rats with ATP-gamma-S, whereas cell influx itself is not changed. In contrast, 2chloro-ADO inhibits intraglomerular O2- production, which is associated with the complete inhibition of proteinuria in the early phase of anti-Thy 1 GN. These data demonstrate significant pro-inflammatory activities of extracellular adenine nucleotides during anti-Thy 1 GN suggesting an anti-inflammatory role for glomerular ATP/ADPase, which in concert with 5'nucleotidase converts ATP and ADP to antiinflammatory ADO.

We have demonstrated that reduced glomerular adenosine diphosphatase (ADPase) activity within the rat kidney is associated with an increased thrombotic tendency. To establish a possible causal relationship between these intraglomerular events, experiments were conducted to inhibit adenosine diphosphate (ADP) degradation without influencing other glomerular prothrombotic or antithrombotic mechanisms. Concurrently, we studied intraglomerular platelet aggregation. Two ways of selective inhibition of glomerular ADPase activity were applied: (1) by competitive substrates (ie, uridine diphosphate [UDP]), and (2) by the nondegradable ADP analogue ADP-beta-S. Both strategies were used during ex vivo alternate perfusion of kidneys with platelets and ADP (to test intraglomerular thrombotic tendency). Each group (n = 6) received different substrates or a combination of substrates. A significant increase in platelet aggregation was observed in kidneys after perfusion with platelets and ADP together with the competitive substrate UDP as compared to perfusions with platelets and ADP alone (78.5% +/- 9.8% v 27.9% +/- 11.4% glomeruli staining positive for platelets, P less than .005). In contrast, UDP alone had no effect on platelet aggregation. Other nucleoside polyphosphates (guanosine diphosphate and inosine triphosphate) were also effective as competitive substrates in the ex vivo perfusion model (n = 4). None of these substrates was capable of increasing ADP-induced aggregation when studied in vitro. In addition, ADP- beta-S also increased platelet aggregation in the perfusion model as compared with native ADP (P less than .005). These results show that selective reduction of ADP degradation in intact kidneys strongly promotes the intraglomerular proaggregatory condition. It can be concluded that glomerular ADPase exerts potent antithrombotic activity within the normal rat kidney.

It has been proposed, predominantly from ex vivo studies, that glomerular ADPase may function as an antithrombotic principle within the rat kidney. Therefore, intraglomerular platelet aggregation was studied in vivo in rats after impairment of glomerular ADPase activity using local X-irradiation (20 Gy). Biochemical assays in suspensions of glomeruli obtained from rats 24 hours after local X-irradiation (group I) demonstrated a significant reduction in ADPase activity as compared to sham treated rats (group II; p

The extracellular presence of adenosine polyphosphatase was investigated in a number of rat tissues. The enzyme was demonstrated in basement membranes of epithelial cells of duodenum, urinary bladder, tongue, choroid plexus, submandibular salivary gland, lung and kidney, as well as in basement membranes of capillaries in these tissues. Furthermore adenosine polyphosphatase was demonstrated on collagen fibrils and in the cytoplasm of fibroblasts of all investigated tissues. It appears that the presence of adenosine polyphosphatase in basement membranes is a widespread phenomenon. Since extracellular ADP and ATP are known to promote respectively platelet aggregation and inflammation, the presence of extracellular ADP and ATP-hydrolyzing activity might contribute to inhibit these processes.

We developed and tested a novel method for perfusing parts of human liver to study uptake and handling of drug-targeting preparations. These preparations, designed for the treatment of liver fibrosis in man, have been extensively studied in animals, but little is known about the uptake and handling by human livers. Human liver tissue was obtained from livers procured from multiorgan donors and from cirrhotic livers of patients. To assess tissue viability, perfusate glutamate-oxalacetate-transaminase (GOT), glutamate-pyruvate-transaminase (GPT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were determined. To assess tissue functionality, the uptake of taurocholic acid and phase I and II metabolism of lidocaine and 7-hydroxycoumarin were determined. Uptake of a drug-targeting preparation was studied with Dexa(10)-HSA, which is designed for targeting of dexamethasone to nonparenchymal cells in the liver. During a 90-min perfusion period, no elevation of either GOT, GPT, or LDH was found. Both healthy control livers and cirrhotic livers showed phase I and II drug metabolism and functional taurocholic acid uptake. Studies with Dexa(10)-HSA revealed that 60 min after administration, 40% of the dose had been taken up by control livers and only 5% by cirrhotic livers. In control livers, Kupffer and endothelial cells had taken up Dexa(10)-HSA, whereas in cirrhotic livers only Kupffer cells were responsible for the uptake. Viability parameters and liver function tests clearly showed the applicability of this method. In the perfusion set-up, we showed uptake of the drug-targeting preparation Dexa(10)-HSA by healthy and cirrhotic human liver tissue, although the distribution patterns differed. This demonstrates the need to study new concepts in (diseased) human tissue.

We developed and tested a novel method for perfusing parts of human liver to study uptake and handling of drug-targeting preparations. These preparations, designed for the treatment of liver fibrosis in man, have been extensively studied in animals, but little is known about the uptake and handling by human livers. Human liver tissue was obtained from livers procured from multiorgan donors and from cirrhotic livers of patients. To assess tissue viability, perfusate glutamate-oxalacetate-transaminase (GOT), glutamate-pyruvate-transaminase (GPT), and lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) levels were determined. To assess tissue functionality, the uptake of taurocholic acid and phase I and II metabolism of lidocaine and 7-hydroxycoumarin were determined. Uptake of a drug-targeting preparation was studied with Dexa(10)-HSA, which is designed for targeting of dexamethasone to nonparenchymal cells in the liver. During a 90-min perfusion period, no elevation of either GOT, GPT, or LDH was found. Both healthy control livers and cirrhotic livers showed phase I and II drug metabolism and functional taurocholic acid uptake. Studies with Dexa(10)-HSA revealed that 60 min after administration, 40% of the dose had been taken up by control livers and only 5% by cirrhotic livers. In control livers, Kupffer and endothelial cells had taken up Dexa(10)-HSA, whereas in cirrhotic livers only Kupffer cells were responsible for the uptake. Viability parameters and liver function tests clearly showed the applicability of this method. In the perfusion set-up, we showed uptake of the drug-targeting preparation Dexa(10)-HSA by healthy and cirrhotic human liver tissue, although the distribution patterns differed. This demonstrates the need to study new concepts in (diseased) human tissue.

Acute liver failure can develop as a consequence of viral hepatitis, drug- or toxin-induced toxicity or rejection after liver transplantation, whereas chronic liver injury can be due to long-term exposure to alcohol, chemicals, chronic viral hepatitis, metabolic or cholestatic disorders. During acute and chronic liver injury, liver cells are exposed to increased levels of cytokines, oxidative stress and bile acids. This may result in cell damage followed by necrotic and apoptotic cell death of hepatocytes and proliferation of stellate cells. Eventually, this may lead to loss of liver function. Effective therapies for acute and chronic liver diseases are not available. Hepatocytes, the parenchymal cells of the liver, are well equipped with protective mechanisms to prevent cell death. As long as these protective pathways can be activated, the balance will be in favour of cell survival. However, the balance between cell survival and cell death is delicate and can be easily tipped towards cell death during liver injury. Therefore, insight into the cellular mechanisms leading to cell death is of relevance to understand liver diseases. This can result in identification of novel intervention targets in order to prevent cell death. The aim of this thesis is to investigate apoptotic mechanisms in acute and chronic liver injury in order to develop strategies to protect hepatocytes against apoptotic cell damage. In contrast to the loss of hepatocytes, chronic liver injury is associated with the proliferation and activation of hepatic stellate cells. These cells play a pivotal role in liver fibrosis. Thus, contrary to the prevention of cell death in hepatocytes, induction of apoptosis in activated stellate cells may constitute a relevant therapeutic strategy during chronic liver diseases. An important anti-apoptotic mechanism is the activation of the transcription factor NF-κB which results in the activation of anti-apoptotic genes. This thesis describes the role of NF-κB in the protection against apoptosis in hepatocytes during acute liver injury (chapter 3 in vitro and chapter 4 in vivo) and chronic liver injury (chapter 5). Furthermore, NF-κB-regulated Inhibitor of Apoptosis Protein2 (cIAP2) is highlighted as a new target of therapy. In chronic cholestatic liver diseases, the accumulation of bile acids in the liver is thought to play a role in causing hepatocyte damage. This thesis describes the extent of apoptotic cell death in hepatocytes in an experimental model of extrahepatic cholestasis and the ability of these cells to adapt to bile acid-induced apoptosis (chapter 5). Patients with cholestatic liver disease are often treated with ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA), but its protective mechanism of action is not well defined yet. Chapter 6 of this thesis describes the possible mechanisms behind the anti-apoptotic action of taurine-conjugated UDCA. Liver injury eventually results in excessive deposition of extracellular matrix referred to as fibrogenesis. In this process, the activation and proliferation of stellate cells (fibroblasts-like cells) is a key event. Therefore, the stellate cell is an attractive target for anti-fibrotic therapies. One promising approach is the induction of apoptotic cell death in activated stellate cells. However, it is crucial that this induction should be selectively aimed at stellate cells while leaving hepatocytes unaffected. Therefore, a gene delivery tool which selectively targets to activated stellate cells is developed and tested (chapter 7). This will allow cell selective gene modulation in this important cell type during chronic liver diseases accompanied by fibrosis. This thesis describes some of the mechanisms leading to apoptotic cell death during liver disease and provides tools to selectively interfere with this process.