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Many customary Māori textiles are produced from harakeke fibres (muka) which are extracted from New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) and some are dyed with paru (black) iron-tannate dyes. These tannate-dyed textiles degrade via iron catalysed oxidation and acid catalysed hydrolysis. To mitigate this degradation, conservators can potentially use various types of natural and synthetic consolidants; however, there is a lack of systematic study of the interaction between muka and consolidants. As part of a larger research project investigating the efficacy of six consolidants for treatment of deteriorated black-dyed muka in Māori textiles, the penetration of different consolidants applied to muka was investigated. By using Raman microscopy combined with chemometrics, this study was able to aid in selection, and concentration of, consolidants for use in the larger project. Six different consolidants; sodium alginate, zinc alginate, Paraloid B-72™ (ethyl-methyl methacrylate), TRI-Funori™ (seaweed extract, polysaccharide), Klucel G™ (hydroxypropyl cellulose), and Methocel A4C™ (methylcellulose) were applied at three concentrations (0.5, 1.0, and 2.0% w/v) to muka. The consolidated samples were sectioned and analysed using Raman microscopy mapping with a 532 nm incident laser. Relative intensity levels of the signals from the fibres and the consolidants were used to generate maps of the chemical composition across the fibre. Univariate analysis (with unique band integrals) and multivariate analysis (true component analysis) of the chemical images was able to distinguish the penetration pattern of consolidants, Paraloid B-72™, TRI-Funori™, and Klucel G™ into the fibres. The analysis of Methocel A4C™ was not possible because the spectral characteristics were too similar between the two. Sodium and zinc alginate consolidated samples tended to burn and no useful data could be collected. The consolidants accumulated in the intercellular spaces/middle lamella of the fibre's morphological structure and did not appear to penetrate into the fibre cell walls. The results from the study demonstrated the usefulness of Raman microscopy for understanding the properties and behaviour of consolidants applied to important cultural materials.

Centro de Investigación Forestal (CIFOR), In a range of plant species, the distribution of individual mean fecundity is skewed and dominated by a few highly fecund individuals. Larger plants produce greater seed crops, but the exact nature of the relationship between size and reproductive patterns is poorly understood. This is especially clear in plants that reproduce by exhibiting synchronized quasi-periodic variation in fruit production, a process called masting., The study was supported by the Polish National Science Centre (2017/24/C/NZ8/00151), the Polish State Committee for Scientific Research (6 P04G 045 21, 3 P04G 111 25), the Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education (N304 362938), the US National Science Foundation (DEB 165511, DEB-02-40963, DEB-05-15756, DEB-10-20889, DBI-9978807, DEB-0642594, DEB-1556707), the Wilkes University Fenner Endowment, USDA/NIFA grant 2017-03807, the Hatch Act (225165) through the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture, PROPINEA (CC-16-095, AGL-2017-83828-C2), FORASSEMBLY (CGL2015-70558-P), BEEMED (SGR913) and a Marsden Fund grant (UOC1401)., 9 Pág.

Due to good density specific mechanical properties and low carbon footprint, natural fibre-reinforced plastic composites made from fleeces and felts are frequently used as automotive interior parts. The industry targets further mass reduction. Following a biomimetic technology-pull approach, natural fibre-reinforced polypropylene plates with improved lightweight potential were produced using compression moulding. Best results were obtained for a sandwich structure with thin, unidirectional flax fibre layers surrounding a needle felt based core. It was inspired by the carapace structure of the red-eared slider Trachemys scripta elegans. The lay-up performed well, not only with a high density specific flexural stiffness of 2.33 GPa1/3 cm3/g and strength of 9.46 MPa1/2 cm3/g and energy dissipation but also through less abrupt failure due to an asymmetric orientation of unidirectional fibres in the two face sheets. Combined with a mass-reduced needle felt as a core, this concept displays a promising and unconventional approach for further mass reduced, sustainable interior panels used as non-visible and visible design elements in the vehicle.

The introduction of natural fibers as a filler in a natural rubber (NR) matrix can be of relevance for their eco-friendly and sustainable nature as the substitute for carbon-based fillers. In this work, short Phormium tenax fibers were introduced in random orientation into a NR matrix in different lengths (6, 10, and 14 mm) and various amounts (10, 20, and 30%, taking 100 as the NR weight). The composite was fabricated using a two-roll mill according to American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) D3184-11 standard. Several properties were determined, namely tensile and tear characteristics, hardness, and abrasion resistance. The results suggest that the shortest fiber length used, 6 mm, offered the best combination between loss of mechanical (tensile and tear) properties and hardness and the most acceptable resistance to abrasion, with the properties increasing with the amount of fibers present in NR. As a consequence, it is indicated that a higher amount of fibers could be possibly introduced, especially to achieve harder composites, though this would require a more controlled mixing process not excessively reducing tensile elongation at break.

This article reports testing of the efficacy of five consolidants (sodium alginate, zinc alginate, Paraloid® B-72, TRI-Funori™, Methocel® A4C) used by conservators for consolidation. The consolidants were tested for potential use on deteriorated black-dyed plant fibres, specifically paru-dyed muka (iron-tannate dyed fibre from harakeke; New Zealand flax, Phormium tenax), building on previous experimental work. Paru-dyed test fibres were pre-aged (light, with UV) to simulate museum artefacts, and then consolidated, after which their colour stability, strength retention, and acidity were measured. Consolidated test fibres were then artificially light-aged (UV-filtered) to test the stability of the consolidants over time (10 MLux hours; UV-filtered light), with colour stability, strength retention, and acidity re-measured after this ageing stage. A full factorial experimental design with four factors was used for testing: dye type, consolidant type, consolidant concentration, and accelerated light-ageing. Data were analysed using generalised linear models (GLM) coupled with analysis of variance (ANOVA) and simple effects procedures to test for interactions between factors and determine significant differences. Overall, this study found that using criteria of pH, strength, colour stability, and visual properties, that 0.5% w/v Methocel® A4C™ in H2O and TRI-Funori™ 0.5% w/v in H2O were recommended for further exploration for use on deteriorated paru-dyed muka.

This work aimed in preparing nanocelluloses from a unique source of cellulose, viz. phormium (Phormiun tenax) fibers, by different techniques; and evaluate their physicochemical and structural properties. It was possible to obtain cellulose nanofibrils with different sizes (diameter, length and aspect ratio), morphology, crystallinity and surface charge by mechanical disintegration of bleached and refined phormium fibers previously modified or not with enzymatic and oxidative treatments with endoglucanases and 2,2,6,6-tetramethylpiperidine-1-oxyl (TEMPO), respectively. But it was not possible to prepare nanocrystals by acid hydrolysis, even when trying to modify the reaction conditions, possibly due at least partially to the presence of residual hemicelluloses and lignin. Process efficiency seemed to depend variably on the initial state of phormium (Phormiun tenax) fibers and the presence of other components such as lignin and hemicelluloses. These nanofibers could be used for different purposes in different areas according to their physicochemical characteristics., Centro de Investigación y Desarrollo en Criotecnología de Alimentos

International audience; Cultivars with variegated foliage could be difficult to obtain in large-scale production of true-to-type plants. To determine the micropropagation potentialities of ornamental variegated monocotyledons in an industrial and commercial context, to define the stability of their variegated phenotypes, and to understand how and when off-type plants appear, the shoot tips of a variegated cultivar of three different species : Yucca gloriosa 'Variegata', Phormium tenax 'Jessie' and Cordyline australis 'Pink Passion' were introduced in vitro for propagation. The propagation rates and the variegation stability were estimated by separately monitoring each plant obtained during the several successive subcultures. During the in vitro process, samples were periodically fixed and studied by staining histological sections of the shoot tips. Leaf tissues were studied by light and confocal microscopy.After three-four subcultures, the multiplication rates obtained were stabilized at around 2.5-3 for Yucca, 1.4-1.7 for Phormium, and 1.2-1.7 for Cordyline. The number of off-type plants obtained after six multiplication cycles was around 10 % for Yucca, 25 % for Phormium and 60 % for Cordyline. The histology study showed that the axillary bud meristems (AxM) are totally (Yucca and Cordyline) or partially (Phormium) repressed by shoot apical meristem (SAM) in PGR-free medium. In the presence of BAP or BAP and NPA, only AxM were observed for Yucca, Phormium mainly developed AxM and some adventitious bud meristems (AdM), and Cordyline developed both AxM and AdM. The leaf section observations revealed that the three variegated cultivars turned out to be three periclinal chimeras.This histological study carried out on these cultivars highlights major differences in the development and in vitro multiplication behavior of three different genera belonging to the order Asparagales (clade monocotyledons). The variegation stability of these chimeric cultivars depends on their propensity to propagate by adventitious meristems.

A yellows disease of strawberry plants was identified in propagation beds in New Zealand. Affected plants were flatter to the ground, showed purpling of older leaves, reduced leaf size, yellowing of younger leaves, and sometimes plant death. A phytoplasma was observed in the phloem of affected plants. The 16S rRNA gene of the phytoplasma was amplified by polymerase chain reaction from symptomatic plants and from one asymptomatic plant, but not from 36 other asymptomatic plants. Nucleotide sequence analysis of the 16S rRNA gene showed that the phytoplasma is closely related or identical to the phytoplasma associated with the yellow leaf disease of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax).

Black-dyed artefacts are found in museums worldwide, many produced using an iron-tannate compound. Deterioration of iron-tannate dyed artefacts is an international preservation issue: in New Zealand the deterioration of paru (iron-tannate) dyed Māori textiles is widespread. This article reports experimental work testing the efficacy of sodium alginate, a consolidant developed for deteriorated paru-dyed muka (fibre from harakeke; Phormium tenax). The colour stability, strength retention, and acidity of paru-dyed muka consolidated with sodium alginate (0.25, 0.5, and 1% w/v in water) was tested pre- and post-artificial light ageing. This study found that sodium alginate had no negative effect on paru-dyed muka and in some cases provided benefit. Interestingly, the colour of paru-dyed muka is substantially more stable in UV-filtered light than previously recognised. Also microfading results were in agreement with visual assessments of colour change at 1 Mlux hour exposure, providing confidence in this relatively new technique to assess colour change.

The complex structure of natural bio-organic matter has inspired scientists to utilise these as templates to design ‘biomorphic materials’, which retain the intricate architecture of the materials while acting as a useful bioactive material. Biomorphic hydroxyapatite-based fibres were synthesised using Harakeke leaf fibre as a template, which constitutes a powerful method for manufacturing bioactive ceramic fibres. Furthermore, in creating the hydroxyapatite-based fibres, a natural source of calcium and phosphate ions (from bovine bone) was utilised to create the digest solution in which the leaf fibres were immersed prior to their calcination to form the inorganic fibres. Chemical, thermogravimetric and microscopic characterisation confirmed that the final product was able to successfully replicate the shape of the fibres and furthermore be transformed into calcium deficient, bone-like hydroxyapatite.

Black-dyed artefacts are found in museums worldwide, many produced using an iron-tannate compound. Deterioration of iron-tannate dyed artefacts is an international preservation issue: in New Zealand the deterioration of paru (iron-tannate) dyed Māori textiles is widespread. This article reports experimental work testing the efficacy of sodium alginate, a consolidant developed for deteriorated paru-dyed muka (fibre from harakeke; Phormium tenax). The colour stability, strength retention, and acidity of paru-dyed muka consolidated with sodium alginate (0.25, 0.5, and 1% w/v in water) was tested pre- and post-artificial light ageing. This study found that sodium alginate had no negative effect on paru-dyed muka and in some cases provided benefit. Interestingly, the colour of paru-dyed muka is substantially more stable in UV-filtered light than previously recognised. Also microfading results were in agreement with visual assessments of colour change at 1 Mlux hour exposure, providing confidence in this relatively new technique to assess colour change.

To study how pollinator composition and abundance influence reproduction of Phormium tenax, we compared pollen deposition by bees and birds to unvisited flowers, and plant reproductive success and outcrossing rates in populations on island and mainland sites that vary in bird abundance. Bees deposited pollen on stigmas if stigmas were close to the anthers but deposited little pollen on stigmas of emasculated flowers, suggesting that they are largely depositing self pollen. Birds deposit pollen on both intact and emasculated flowers with well-exserted stigmas, suggesting they are depositing more outcross pollen. High frequencies of bird claw marks on inflorescences were associated with high fruit set, but not seed set. Seed set and seed outcrossing rates were positively correlated with the number of unique maternal allozyme genotypes in a population and seedlings also showed higher outcrossing rates than seeds, suggesting that genetic diversity, selfing and inbreeding depression limit reproductive...

This work investigates the use of micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) for identification of New Zealand plant leaf material from artefacts. Micro-CT was explored as a result of difficulties in preparing transverse sections from aged plant material artefacts to compare with reference slides for microscopic identification of plant species. Plant names in te reo Māori (Māori language) are followed by the English name and botanic name, and are subsequently referred to by Māori names. The three plants investigated (harakeke, New Zealand flax, Phormium tenax, J. R. Forst & G. Forst; tī kōuka, cabbage tree, Cordyline australis, (Forst.f.) Endl,; kiekie, Frecinetia banksii A.Cunn.) were/are commonly used by Māori for the manufacture of objects often found in cultural institutions. Contemporary and historical specimens (from artefacts) of plant leaf material were investigated. Contemporary specimens were viewed using micro-CT and showed identifiable features compared with micrographs of transverse section...

This study reports the synthesis and mechanical properties of new inorganic polymer (geopolymer) composites unidirectionally reinforced with 4–10 vol.% natural cellulose-based fibres (NZ flax, phormium tenax). The geopolymer matrix was derived from dehydroxylated kaolinite-type clay. The mechanical properties of the fibre-reinforced composites improve with increasing fibre content, achieving ultimate flexural strengths of about 70 MPa at 10 vol.% fibre content. This represents a significant improvement on the flexural strength of the unreinforced geopolymer matrix (about 5.8 MPa), and all the composites show graceful failure, unlike the brittle failure of the matrix. Scanning electron microscopy was used to study the morphology of the fibre-matrix regions and a combination of thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and thermal shrinkage measurements of these composites suggests that despite the formation of microcracks due to water loss from the geopolymer matrix, the fibres are thermally protected by the matrix up to 400 °C. The flax fibres do not appear to be compromised by the alkaline environment of the matrix, suggesting new possible applications for these low-cost simply prepared construction materials.

The effect of different treatments on the mechanical (tensile), thermal behavior (TGA), FTIR, and morphology of Phormium tenax fibers has been studied with the aim to investigate methods to improve their compatibility with polymer matrices. Applied treatments included sodium hydroxide (NaOH), silane (APTES, 3-aminopropyltriethoxysilane), and the combined application of silane treatment after NaOH. The effectiveness of the treatments in the removal of non-structural matter from the fibers was confirmed by FTIR investigation and TGA measurements, suggesting also that the alkali treatment has a strong effect on their thermal behavior. The study of tensile properties of the fibers performed using Weibull statistics indicates that the tensile properties are somewhat reduced by chemical treatment. The morphological investigation of treated fibers through scanning electron microscopy indicates that silane treatments, both on raw fibers and on alkalized ones, result in limited fiber degradation.

Phormium tenax is a kind of drought resistant garden plant with its rich and colorful leaves. To clarify the molecular mechanism of drought resistance in Phormium tenax, transcriptome was sequenced by the Illumina sequencing technology under normal and drought stress, respectively. A large number of contigs, transcripts and unigenes were obtained. Among them, only 30,814 unigenes were annotated by comparing with the protein databases. A total of 4,380 genes were differentially expressed, 2,698 of which were finally annotated under drought stress. Differentially expression analysis was also performed upon drought treatment. In KEGG pathway, the mechanism of drought resistance in Phormium tenax was explained from three aspects of metabolism and signaling of hormones, osmotic adjustment and reactive oxygen species metabolism. These results are helpful to understand the drought tolerance mechanism of Phormium tenax and will provide a precious genetic resource for drought-resistant vegetation breeding and research.

Composites including short and randomly arranged Phormium tenax fibres in a polypropylene (PP) matrix (fibre content of 20, 30 and 40 wt%) were produced by twin-screw compounding and injection moulding. They have been characterised by tensile testing, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC). The results indicated that tensile modulus has been increased by reinforcing the matrix with growing amounts of fibres, whilst the effect on tensile strength had lower evidence. Fracture surface characterisation by SEM indicated that debonding and pull-out are prevalent, which suggests the need to optimise the interfacial bonding. Thermal characterisation results have shown that the main degradation peak for PP was slightly shifted to higher temperatures with the increasing fibre contents, thus improving the thermal stability of the composites. The introduction of fibres did not result in a significant variation in the position of the peaks for calorimetric analysis, except for the melting peak, which appeared lower for the composites with respect to the neat matrix. A slight increase in crystallinity was also measured.

Larvae of an undescribed gall midge species were found feeding within leaf sheaths and between leaves of potted plants of flax lilies Dianella revoluta, D. tasmanica, D. caerulea (all native to Australia) and New Zealand flax Phormium tenax (native to New Zealand) in South Australia. The larvae were previously recorded infesting Phormium tenax in New Zealand. The new species is described and named Resseliella xanthorrhoeae Kolesik. Larvae, pink when young and red when mature, feed gregariously, causing extensive tissue necrosis. Pupation takes place in the soil. Large necrotic areas remain visible after the fully grown larvae exit the sheaths until the end of the infested leaves’ life, temporarily decreasing ornamental value of the plants. Infested plants recover from the injury by shedding off infested leaves and producing fresh leaves. The new species is the first Resseliella Seitner reported from Australia and New Zealand and the first species of this genus known to infest plants from the family Xanthorrhoeaceae.

Solid-phase microextraction (SPME)–gas chromatography (GC)–mass spectrometry (MS) has been applied to the analysis of acetic acid and furfural that are emitted from the fibres of Phormium tenax (Xanthorrhoeaceae) [New Zealand flax] during degradation. Accelerated hydrothermal ageing of fibres of the Ruawai cultivar of P. tenax for 55 days at 70 °C resulted in the production of acetic acid at a level greater or equal to 1.65 mg g –1 fibre. This corresponds to only 8.5% of the acetyl groups present in the fibres. These groups are an important source of acetic acid, which is capable of damaging the fibres. The rate of production of acetic acid suggests that a heritage object made from the fibres of P. tenax , that was stored in damp ambient conditions, would undergo significant deterioration after a relatively short period. Other volatile products released during ageing included furfural, a series of short to medium chain aliphatic aldehydes that were derived from the oxidation of long chain unsaturated fatty acids on the fibres and a small group of products that were derived from carotenoids. The levels of furfural were determined to be approximately 0.75% of the potential production but at these levels, furfural could contribute to unpleasant odours from unventilated items. Fibres from six cultivars of P. tenax were found to release acetic acid and furfural all at the same rate. The levels of acetic acid that can be generated from these fibres are sufficiently high that low moisture levels and continuous change of air is required to minimize degradation of cultural objects that are made from these fibres and displayed in museum halls.

Mātauranga Māori ( Māori knowledge) relative to the selection and assessment of specific harakeke ( Phormium tenax J.R.Forst. & G.Forst., New Zealand flax) cultivars used for both traditional and contemporary weaving can be incorporated with textile science to develop a future management philosophy that is based on cultural concepts. In this paper, traditional management practices are merged with western environmental management strategies and developed with an overall aim of ensuring cultural sustainability of the resource.

Fibre properties may be an important source of information to identify, conserve and protect intraspecific diversity within culturally significant fibre plants such as harakeke (Phormium tenax, New Zealand flax). Māori weavers recognise differences in whītau * (fibre aggregate prepared using traditional practices) extracted from leaves of different harakeke cultivars. However, tensile properties of fibre aggregates are reportedly highly variable. The aim of this study was to investigate variation in fibre aggregate physical and mechanical properties among leaves harvested from different fans within two bushes representing different cultivars of harakeke. Tenacity, extension to maximum load, specific modulus and specific energy to maximum load of fibre aggregates differed between the bushes, and also among leaves within each bush. Leaf width and thickness were weakly correlated with fibre aggregate properties suggesting that wider, thicker leaves yield tougher and more pliable fibre aggregates. Variability among leaves differed according to the property measured, and was highest for fibre aggregate length and lowest for specific energy to maximum load. Although fibre aggregate tenacity (or strength) is commonly used to compare intra and interspecific fibre properties, specific modulus, extension at maximum load and specific energy to maximum load were all more appropriate for identifying intraspecific differences in harakeke fibre properties.

The present work investigates tensile and flexural behavior of untreated New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) fiber reinforced epoxy composites. Two series of laminates were produced using the same reinforcement content (20 wt%), arranged either as short fibers or quasi-unidirectional ones. Composites reinforced using quasi-unidirectional fibers showed higher modulus and strength both in tensile and flexural loading, when compared to neat epoxy resin. Short fiber composites, although still superior to epoxy resin both for tensile and flexural moduli, proved inferior in strength, especially as concerns tensile strength. These results have been supported by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), which allowed characterizing fiber–matrix interface, and by acoustic emission (AE) analysis, which enabled investigating failure mechanisms. In addition, thermal behavior of both untreated phormium fibers and composites has been studied by thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), revealing the thermal stability of composites to be higher than for phormium fibers and epoxy matrix alone.

Fifty-five accessions from the National New Zealand Flax Collection were subjected to genotyping using eight nuclear and two plastid simple sequence repeats (SSRs) and compared with a selection of predominantly wild Phormium plants. Several groups of plants with different names but identical SSR genotypes were found and these largely correspond with groups previously identified by analysis of their morphology. Maori cultivars are genetically diverse and include plants with interspecific (Phormium tenax × Phormium cookianum) hybrid origin. Genotyping supports historical and archaeological evidence that Phormium was taken to the subantarctic islands from southern New Zealand by sealers, and probably from the Chatham Islands by Maori and Moriori. As well as such tests of relatedness among Phormium selections, our markers provide opportunities to study the process of speciation, evolution and interspecific hybridization in Phormium.

Confocal microscopy, field-emission SEM and acoustic emission experiments were used to investigate fracture mechanisms in composites made from epoxy resin reinforced with unidirectional Phormium tenax (harakeke) leaf fibre. Resin filled the lumens of a large proportion of thin-walled vascular cells and bundle sheath cells, and also filled some of the fibre cells in assemblies that had been split during fibre processing, but rarely penetrated intact thick-walled fibre cells. Vascular tissue and cuticular matter were particularly susceptible to brittle fracture. Cell–cell debonding was abundant on fracture surfaces. Low-, medium- and high-energy acoustic events showed transient signals of similar duration, constructed from similar frequencies and differing only in amplitude. The wide distribution of event energies was attributed to the diversity of types of technical fibres, from assemblies of a few thin-walled cells to assemblies of hundreds of thick-walled fibre cells.

Two South-American plants, native Caranday Palm and Phormium, were characterized to investigate their potential as a source of fibers for the preparation of polymer composites. The plant leaves were subjected to different chemical characterizations, whose results were further corroborated by Fourier transformed infrared spectroscopy and Thermogravimetric analysis techniques. The results showed that leaves from Caranday Palm have higher cellulose content than Phormium leaves. The tensile testing of the technical fibers showed that they may be suitable for use in the production of polymer composites, as the properties are comparable to those of other vegetable technical fibers. Preliminary results on the effect of the incorporation of Caranday Palm fibers into polypropylene lead to a composite of improved modulus and relatively low density. Fil: Krause Sammartino, L. E.. Universidad Nacional de San Martín; Argentina Fil: Aranguren, Mirta Ines. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ingeniería. Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales; Argentina Fil: Reboredo, Maria Marta. Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas. Centro Científico Tecnológico Conicet - Mar del Plata. Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales. Universidad Nacional de Mar del Plata. Facultad de Ingeniería. Instituto de Investigaciones en Ciencia y Tecnología de Materiales; Argentina

Most plastic packaging products are discarded after a single use resulting in an abundant supply of waste plastics. Natural fibres are light in weight, abundant and inexpensive. The stiffness and strength of polymers have been shown to improve with the incorporation of natural fibres. Hence, composite materials made of natural fibres and waste plastics would result in the reduction of plastic wastes and the use of fibres from renewable resources. Composite specimens and sheets consisting of fibres from the New Zealand flax plant, phormium tenax or Harakeke as it is known in Maori, and waste plastics have been produced through screwless extrusion followed by injection moulding. The tensile and impact properties of these composites have been determined. The formability of these composites has been assessed through thermoforming.

Epicuticular wax on the leaves from nine cultivars of Phormium tenax was characterised to assess its possible usefulness as a diagnostic tool in cultivar identification. The selected cultivars were taken from the Rene Orchiston Collection in Dunedin Botanic Garden. Wax morphology on both leaf surfaces was examined using a field emission scanning electron microscope. Wax morphology was consistently more complex on the abaxial than the adaxial surface. Differences in wax morphology were noted among some cultivars: cv. Tapamangu had clumps of wax crystals orientated diagonally across the leaf width; cv. Whareongaonga had variable crystal morphology, but was dominated by transversely ridged rods; and cvs Ngutunui and Taeore were covered with a fissured wax layer, with crystals visible in the fissures. We concluded that wax crystal morphology may be useful as a diagnostic tool in cultivar identification. However, it remains to be determined whether the same cultivars growing at different locations wou...

Textile fibre aggregates can be extracted from the leaves of Phormium tenax (New Zealand flax), a plant endemic to New Zealand and Norfolk Island. This research note, which was developed from N. M. Cruthers' Masters thesis, aims to review early trade between Māori and western settlers to New Zealand, the industrial development of a mechanised extraction industry and to examine reported reasons for failure of the industry. Hand extraction by Māori produced low volumes of fibre but traditional end uses were for prized cultural items. In comparison, fibre produced industrially was produced in high volume and was intended for commonplace items such as rope and sacking.

New records of adventitious monocots for Argentina. This paper includes five new records of adventitious monocots for Argentina: Aloe ciliaris Haw. (Asphodelaceae), Aspidistra elatior Blume (Convallariaceae), Sansevieria trifasciata Prain (Dracaenaceae), Phormium tenax J. R. Forst. & G. Forst. (Hemerocallidaceae) and Ornithogalum arabicum L. (Hyacinthaceae), belonging to order Asparagales. Also includes an evaluation of its status in the naturalization process: casual alien, naturalized.

To investigate the anthelmintic properties of New Zealand native flax (Phormium tenax) for cattle, using a faecal egg count reduction test (FECRT).Twenty-six heifer calves with high (300 epg) faecal nematode egg counts (FEC) were paired into two groups and fed either chopped flax leaves ad libitum, or barley straw at an equivalent dry matter (DM) rate, from Day 0-7; all were supplemented with 1.5 kg/head/day cereal feed supplement. On Days 8-10, all heifers were fed a common diet of 3.5 kg DM/ head/day barley straw and 1.5 kg/head/day cereal feed supplement. Heifers were weighed and faecal samples were collected on Days -6, 0, 7, and 10; samples were analysed in triplicate for FEC. The nutritive value of the flax and straw was analysed.Both the flax and straw had low dry matter digestibility (DMD) and protein content. Although the flax-fed claves grew more than the controls, this may have been related to gut fill. Total daily faecal egg output was similar for flax and straw groups on Day 7 (14.7 vs 15.0 x 10(6) eggs/day, respectively) and Day 10 (14.9 vs 15.1 x 10(6) eggs/day, respectively). There was no difference in the change in FEC with time between the calves fed flax or straw diets.Consumption of flax leaves did not reduce FEC in calves with a mixed nematode infection.

Gene flow between two species of Phormium, P. tenax and P. cookianum, was investigated by analysis of morphology, AFLP profiles, and chloroplast simple sequence repeats (cpSSRs). We examined 44 wild samples of Phormium, focusing on Okiwi Bay (Marlborough, New Zealand), where the two species grow in close proximity. Two genetic groups corresponding with P. tenax and P. cookianum are evident in analyses of AFLP profiles from Okiwi Bay. The profiles of Okiwi Bay plants were also compared with profiles from three hypothetically pure P. cookianum populations from Marlborough, and a representative sample of P. tenax combined from sites throughout New Zealand. Bayesian analysis of genetic admixture suggests that all of the plants resembling P. tenax and most of the plants resembling P. cookianum sampled from Okiwi Bay are admixed (i.e., of hybrid origin). Neighbour Net and principal component analyses reveal that P. cookianum and P. tenax from Okiwi Bay are genetically intermediate between “pure” popula...

We review the biosystematics, chemistry, phenology, ecology, and cultural and economic uses of Phormium tenax, a widespread iconic New Zealand monocotyledon. Phormium tenax is endemic to New Zealand, Norfolk Island, and the Chatham Islands, and is distinguished from the sole other member of the genus, P. cookianum, by its erect trigonous seed capsules and red flowers, despite incomplete barriers to hybridisation. Flowers produce abundant nectar and are bird pollinated. Seed is orthodox and tolerates drying, while chilling overcomes dormancy. Rich, well‐drained alluvial and organic soils encourage abundant growth in P. tenax but prolonged flooding and drought reduce growth and survival. Lack of tolerance to both frost and low mean annual temperatures distinguish its environmental niche from that of P. cookianum, but further research is required to characterise these differences more accurately. Phormium tenax is a significant component of vegetation on coastal cliffs, slopes, and dunelands; in est...

Confocal microscopy and water diffusivity measurements were used to characterise the development of defects in biofibre-reinforced composite materials. Biofibres swelled more than the matrix when the specimen was immersed in water, but the associated distortion of the matrix rarely caused defects. The biofibres shrank faster than the matrix when the specimen was dried in air, causing debonding at the fibre-matrix interfaces and microcracks within the fibres. We started with coarse technical fibres from the leaves of harakeke (Phormium tenax), treated a portion with 1% NaOH, and pulped a portion at 170 °C. Water diffusivities for the corresponding composites increased over the first 3 wet-dry cycles, particularly for the composite made with untreated fibre, but were too small to be of concern for the composite made from pulped fibre.

Leaf fibres from Phormium tenax (harakeke, New Zealand flax) were treated with 1 wt.% aqueous NaOH at 30 °C to remove all of the acetyl groups, accounting for most of a 7% mass loss. Increasing the treatment time to 4 h showed no detectable increase in mass loss, but increasing the NaOH concentration to 5% doubled the mass loss by removing some of the xylans. Changes in fibre morphology were interpreted in terms of swelling of cell walls into lumens, followed by shrinkage on drying without reopening the lumens. Deacetylation retarded the rate of water uptake in unidirectional epoxy composites, but showed no detectable influence on the equilibrium moisture content, flexural modulus or strength. The results suggest that high levels of natural acetylation are not a useful feature of leaf fibres, at least in the context of reinforcement for epoxy composites.

Leaf fibres from Phormium tenax (harakeke, New Zealand flax) were pulped at 170 °C with NaOH and anthraquinone. The pulp was wet laid to form mats, which were used to reinforce epoxy composites. The flexural modulus was almost as high as that measured for epoxy reinforced with glass chopped strand mat at the same weight fraction. The flexural strength was two-thirds that of the glass-reinforced composite. Failure was abrupt. SEM images showed torn fragments of fibre cell walls protruding from the fracture surface, indicating strong interfacial bonding. Good mechanical performance was attributed to the rarity of kink bands in the individual fibre cells, along with wrinkled cell-wall surfaces that enhanced the area of the fibre–matrix interface.

Analysis of AFLP profiles from 47 wild‐sourced plants of Phormium from New Zealand and Norfolk Island reveals two major genetic groups corresponding with the two currently recognised and sympatric species (P. cookianum and P. tenax). In addition, plants from a number of coastal sites, a putative F1 hybrid, and some plants identified a priori as P. cookianum display AFLP profiles consistent with a hybrid origin. These putative hybrid plants have varying genomic composition, and some were collected from morphologically uniform populations. Others depart from the intermediate morphology expected of F1 hybrids. Therefore, introgression between P. cookianum and P. tenax and the existence of stabilised hybrid derivatives appears likely. Some degree of geographic structuring of genetic diversity is evident in both species.

The microscopic structure of muka (fiber aggregate extracted from harakeke) (observed using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy) from six selected cultivars of harakeke varied, and this may explain the differences perceived by weavers, and that different end uses are preferred for various cultivars. The dimensions of ultimate fibers ranged from 10.1 μm (Takaiapu) to 12.8 μm (Paretaniwha) in average-transverse-width and 3735 μm (Takirikau) to 4751 μm (Makaweroa) in length. The cultivars prized for muka (e.g. Arawa, Makaweroa) had the longest and finest ultimate fibers. The transverse-section shapes of fiber aggregate bundles varied among the cultivars. Tapamangu and Takaiapu had fiber bundles that were more uniformly shaped than the other cultivars studied, and Takirikau had a high yield of fiber aggregate bundles. Paretaniwha differed from the other five cultivars studied having an average number of narrow, non-uniformly shaped fiber aggregate bundles per unit width.

The polysaccharides exuded from both Phormium tenax and Phormium cookianum leaves are acidic xylans with molecular weights in the range 1.3×10 6 –1.7×10 6 Da. 1 H and 13 C NMR spectra show that in both cases the backbone comprises 1,4-linked β- d -Xyl p units and their substituted products, including a structural unit that is both 2- O -substituted and 3- O -acetylated. The sidechains contain α- d -GlcA and are terminated by β- d -Xyl p and α- l -Ara f units in relative proportions that differ between plant varieties. The polysaccharides are so highly branched that chain-terminating units account for approximately half of all structural units. These properties place the Phormium polysaccharides in a class which includes brea, sapote and yabo gums.

New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) has a reproductive system in which the early abscission of selfed flowers is determined by the degree of competition with crossed fruits on the same plant. It has been suggested that this functions as a form of reproductive assurance, allowing for high levels of outcrossing when pollinators are abundant, while ensuring seedset when pollinators are scarce. We performed experimental crosses and mating system estimation in natural populations to determine whether P. tenax can set seed in the absence of pollinators, and how pure and mixed pollen loads influence reproductive success and population‐level selfing rates. Phormium tenax can set seed autonomously, although if other flowers on the plant are available for outcrossing, resources are preferentially allocated to maturing those fruits. Experimental crosses suggest that flowers pollinated with mixtures of selfed and outcrossed pollen can result in fruitset, although fruitset is reduced if flowers pollinated with ...

Botanists recognize only two kinds of New Zealand flax ( Phormium tenax and Phormium colensoi), while Māori weavers recognise over fifty different cultivars that have specific end-uses. Selected properties of muka4 (sclerenchyma fiber aggregates extracted from harakeke ( P. tenax)) from three of these cultivars (Arawa, Tapamangu, Makaweroa) are examined. Māori consider these three cultivars to provide excellent fibers that are easy to process. Tapamangu and Arawa are similar in terms of muka length, linear density, tenacity, extension at maximum load, and maximum extension, and the ultimate fibers of these cultivars have similar dimensions (width, length). Muka from Makaweroa is longer, not as tough, but with a linear density similar to the other cultivars. The ultimate fiber length of Makaweroa is greater, but the width is similar to Tapamangu and Arawa. Muka from the keel is longer, of higher linear density, and tougher (similar tenacity, higher maximum extension) compared to margin muka. The side of the leaf from which muka is extracted does not affect the properties measured.

Twelve Maori weaving varieties of Phormium were grown at 11 widely separated sites in New Zealand in an experiment involving participation of weavers, teachers, and students. Leaf dieback and leaf appearance during establishment and growth of leaf length and blade width, shoot production, and expansion of plant basal circumference over 4–7 years were recorded. Observations were made on factors, particularly cold, that caused plant damage. Data were analysed to test for site × variety interaction. The sites provided environments ranging from those at Ohakune and Kaiapoi which were lethal for some varieties to that at Auckland which was near optimal for growth. Generally, growth reduction during the cool period of each year was proportionally greater at sites that overall had the best conditions for growth. Variety growth responses and their susceptibility to cold damage differed and interacted significantly with site conditions. The results are related to varieties in the National New Zealand Flax...

Fracture mechanics tests and electron microscope studies showed that the fibre‐bundle sheath cells of Phormium tenax varieties from which fibre can be easily extracted by the Maori haro method were weak and thin‐walled. The method causes fracture to occur along this layer of cells that surround the fibre‐bundles. As a result, the fibre‐bundles that are removed from these varieties are very clean and require little further preparation before use.

Different tissues in Phormium tenax leaves present different morphologies and mechanical properties according to the different roles or functions that they play during the plant life. This is an example of what is known as functional design, a concept which is used in different scientific fields. Four different ultrasonic techniques comprising air-coupling and gel coupling, longitudinal and shear waves, normal and oblique incidence and low (0.2 MHz) and high frequencies (2.25 MHz) have been employed to study these leaves. By changing these experimental conditions it is possible to propagate longitudinal and shear waves in the different tissues present in these leaves (spongy mesophyll, chlorenchyma and sclerenchyma fibres) and in different directions so it is possible to determine their ultrasonic properties (velocity and attenuation) and hence their main elastic mudulii. Additional analysis of microscopic images of the tissues permit to study the correlation between this elastic and ultrasonic tissues properties and main microscopic features like cell size and cell wall thickness, which are determined by the different function of these tissues.

Thick organic swamp sediments, buried under land fill on Kingston Common, preserves evidence of the Norfolk Island flora and vegetation back to the middle Holocene and probably much earlier times in the Late Quaternary. These sediments provide (1) a bench mark against which the impact of humans on the flora and vegetation of a long-isolated island can be assessed and (2) a means of determining whether particular plant genera and species are introduced or native to the island. Although sediments contemporary with Polynesian occupation about 800 years ago were destroyed by European draining and cultivation of the swamp during the early nineteenth century, the pollen data indicate that New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) was introduced to Norfolk Island by Polynesians. Other putative exotics such as Ti (Cordyline), a bull-rush (Typha orientalis) and, less certain, herbs such as the sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus), were part of the native flora long before the earliest recorded Polynesian settlement. Wildfires have been part of the landscape ecology of Norfolk Island since at least the middle Holocene.

The traditional haro method was used to strip fibres from the leaf blades of 11 Phormium varieties used by Maori for traditional weaving and plaiting. The content, strength, and extension characteristics of fibres differed markedly among the varieties. These fibre characteristics also differed according to the part of the leaf blade from which the fibre was extracted. Although strong correlations showed that varieties with high fibre content also had the strongest and most extendable fibre, some varieties deviated from those relationships. The fibre characteristics of the varieties correspond to their traditional uses by Maori and also to their history of use in the now defunct commercial phormium‐fibre industry.

A novel technique for the noninvasive continuous measurement of leaf water content is presented. The technique is based on transmission measurements of terahertz radiation with a null-balance quasi-optical transmissometer operating at 94 GHz. A model for the propagation of terahertz radiation through leaves is presented. This, in conjunction with leaf thickness information determined separately, may be used to quantitatively relate transmittance measurements to leaf water content. Measurements using a dispersive Fourier transform spectrometer in the range of 100 GHz-500 GHz using Phormium tenax and Fatsia japonica leaves are also reported.

The natural history and intraspecific interactions of Trite planiceps, a common New Zealand jumping spider (Salticidae), are described for the first time and discussed in relation to this salticid's unusual microhabitat ‐ the rolled‐up leaves of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) and similar plants. In many respects, T. planiceps’ display and mating behaviour resembles other salticids. Males have conditional courtship and mating tactics, and the tactics used depend on the female's maturity and location. If in the light, the male uses vision‐based courtship and mates in the open; if at a nest (inside a rolled‐up leaf), the male uses vibratory courtship and mates inside the rolled‐up leaf; if the female is immature but within c. 10 days of maturing, the male cohabits until the female matures and then mates inside the rolled‐up leaf. Regardless of which mating tactic is used, after males mount females there is a phase during which the pair are in physical contact and communicate using tactile signals...

The fibre from New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) is destabilized by a commonly used traditional black dye, which is an iron/plant polyphenol complex. By characterizing a variety of old and modern samples it has been shown that low pH and high iron content are responsible for the degradation. As degradation proceeds, the hue changes and the extent of degradation—as measured by water and 1% sodium hydroxide solubilities—increases. The fibre has a high proportion of the non-cellulosic xylan polysaccharide and this contributes to the high rate of degradation because it is susceptible to degradation and releases acetic acid. The rate of degradation in accelerated aging tests was increased by raising the relative humidity.

Pirottaea falcata, P. horoeka, P. mahinapua, and P. palmicola spp. nov. are described from New Zealand. The fruiting bodies of three species form on dead leaf tissue: P. horoeka on Pseudopanax crassifolius (Araliaceae), P. mahinapua on Phormium tenax (Phormiaceae), and P. palmicola on Rhopalostylis sapida (Arecaceae). Those of P. falcata develop within the tomentum of living Olearia (Asteraceae) leaves. Lachnum willisii, also associated with the leaf tomentum of Asteraceae, is reported from New Zealand for the first time.

A reliable diagnostic method was developed for use in studying the relationship between phormium yellow leaf disease of New Zealand flax (Phormium tenax) and its associated phytoplasma (phormium yellow leaf phytoplasma: PYL). Diagnosis involved a nested PCR (polymerase chain reaction) technique targeting the 16S rRNA gene. DNA was extracted from woody rhizome tissues of NZ flax plants using CTAB and a high salt precipitation step. This method effectively eliminated polysaccharides, gum-like material and other compounds inhibitory to PCRs that occur at high concentrations in diseased NZ flax rhizomes. PCR competence of each DNA preparation from both healthy and yellow leaf diseased plants was assessed using the general prokaryotic 16S rRNA gene primers, Gd1/Berg54. These primers amplified DNA from both diseased and healthy plants. PYL 16S rDNA sequences were not detected consistently following amplification by PCR (35 cycles) using the ‘universal’ phytoplasma-specific primer pairs R16F2/R16R2 or P1/P6. By contrast, PYL was consistently detected in diseased, but not healthy, NZ flax plants, following nested PCR of the products of the above three primer pairs. Nested PCRs involve the primers NGF/NGR, which were designed to hybridize with all phytoplasmas for which published sequences were available. The most sensitive level of detection by nested PCR was achieved using primers R16F2/R16R2, rather than primers P1/P6 or Gd1/Berg54, for the primary amplification step. The consistent association found in this study between yellow leaf disease and PYL further substantiates this phytoplasma as the causal agent. PCR products of the expected size were also amplified by nested PCR using the primers R16F2/R16R2 followed by NGF/NGR from C. roseus tissues infected with five other phytoplasmas representing three distinct phytoplasma groups. Therefore nested PCRs with these pairs of primers should be useful for detecting other phytoplasmas, in particular those occurring at low concentrations or in recalcitrant tissues.