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Το άρθρο αυτό επιχειρεί να κατανοήσει τους τρόπους με τους οποίους οι γονείς των μαθητών επηρεάζουν τη βαθμολόγηση των εκπαιδευτικών της δευτεροβάθμιας εκπαίδευσης. Κατά τη θεωρητική πλαισίωση της έρευνας προσδιορίζεται ο κοινωνικός ρόλος των εκπαιδευτικών της δευτεροβάθμιας ως δρώντων στο σχολείο, το οποίο εκλαμβάνεται ως πεδίο δράσης και αλληλεπίδρασης, και στοχευμένα περιγράφεται η γονική εμπλοκή στο γυμνάσιο και το λύκειο. Έπειτα, μέσα από μία θεματική ανάλυση ημιδομημένων συνεντεύξεων με ομάδες εστίασης, τις οποίες απαρτίζουν είκοσι εκπαιδευτικοί ποικίλων ειδικοτήτων της δευτεροβάθμιας, εκτίθενται οι απόψεις των συμμετεχόντων, σχετικά με τους τρόπους, με τους οποίους οι γονείς των μαθητών εκδηλώνουν το ενδιαφέρον τους για τους βαθμούς των παιδιών τους, καθώς επίσης και σχετικά με τα μέσα που χρησιμοποιούν, προκειμένου να ασκήσουν επιρροή στο βαθμολογικό έργο των εκπαιδευτικών. Όπως διαφαίνεται, οι εκπαιδευτικοί επηρεάζονται από τις παρεμβάσεις, τις επαφές ή την πίεση για τη βέλτιστη δυνατή βαθμολογία που ασκούν οι γονείς, ενώ το μέγεθος της επιρροής αυτής εξαρτάται από σύνθετους και ποικίλους παράγοντες, που αφορούν περιπτωσιολογικά σε όλους τους εμπλεκόμενους στη διαδικασία της βαθμολόγησης., The present study tries to understand the ways that parents use to affect secondary school teachers’ grading. The theoretical framework begins with the determination of teachers social role into school, which is perceived as a field of action, and concludes with the description and determination of parental involvement in secondary education. The analysis of twenty secondary teachers’ interviews, realized within focus groups formed according to their scientific specialization, reveals that parents influence teachers’ grading. According to participating teachers, parents intervene, exercise pressure or try with different ways to influence and ameliorate their children grades. The degree of the effective influence on teachers’ grades depends on multiple and complex factors concerning all implicants and appears to be different from case to case. &nbsp

The aims of this study are to analyze the development of professional training, parental influence and accounting student perceptions in student future career choice as a public accountant. The population of this study consists of final students, majoring in accounting in private universities in North Sumatera, Indonesia and quota sampling method was used in this research. The result of this study is the professional training did not significantly influence the students' career option as a public accountant. Synchronously, training professionals, parental influence and accounting student perceptions about the public accountant law significantly affect the selection of a career as a public accountant.

Adolescent smoking is a major public health problem. While the socioeconomic status (SES) of the neighbourhood and that of the family are known to play a role in smoking onset and progression, it is not clear whether it modifies the association between parental influences and adolescent behaviour. The purpose of this study is to investigate family correlates of adolescent smoking experimentation and to explore the modifying role of socioeconomic context and European geographical area in a sample of European adolescents. This is a secondary analysis of the baseline survey of the European Drug Addiction Prevention (EU-Dap) trial which took place in seven European countries and involved 7079 students. School SES was used as indicator of socioeconomic context. European countries were aggregated in two geographical areas: North-Central and South. The associations between parental, family factors, and adolescents smoking experimentation were analysed through multilevel mixed-effect logistic regression models, stratified by school SES and European geographical area. Parental smoking, permissiveness towards tobacco, family conflicts, problematic relationships, low connectedness, and low parental control were significantly associated with adolescent smoking experimentation. Paternal smoking was a stronger correlate of adolescent smoking in low SES schools, while maternal smoking in high SES schools. Parental permissiveness was a stronger correlate in low SES schools. Family conflicts and low parental control were correlates only in low SES schools. The associations did not substantially differ between European geographical areas, with the exception of parental smoking that was a stronger correlate in the North, and parental control that was a correlate only in the South of Europe. To reduce inequalities in tobacco-related outcomes, prevention efforts in low socioeconomic contexts appear to be a public health priority. Parental smoking, permissiveness, family relationships, and connectedness should be addressed in preventive programs.

Els joves amb discapacitat intel·lectual es troben amb barreres que els poden dificultar el seu procés de transició a la vida adulta. A través d’aquest estudi, es vol conèixer l’experiència d’alguns joves amb discapacitat intel·lectual durant el seu procés de transició a la vida adulta i quin impacte hi ha tingut el paper dels seus pares i mares. També es vol conèixer algunes actituds que poden tenir els pares vers el seu fill/a amb discapacitat intel·lectual durant aquest procés de transició, i quin treball conjunt fan els professionals dels serveis amb les famílies respecte a aquesta qüestió. S’han pogut assolir els objectius de l’estudi i s’han pogut conèixer les opinions dels participants mitjançant entrevistes semi-estructurades a joves amb discapacitat intel·lectual i als seus educadors i educadores socials dels serveis on participen. Una de les conclusions principals de l’estudi és que el paper dels pares i mares en el procés de transició a la vida adulta dels seus fills/es amb discapacitat intel·lectual és rellevant. Depèn quines siguin les actituds vers el seu fill/a amb discapacitat intel·lectual, tindrà un impacte positiu o negatiu sobre el jove i, per tant, poden facilitar-li o bé dificultar-li aquest procés de transició Young people with intellectual disabilities face barriers than can hinder their transition to adulthood. Through this study, the aim is learning about the experience of some young people with intellectual disabilities during the transition to adulthood and the impact of the role of their parents. Besides, it is also interesting to know some of the attitudes that parents may have towards their son or daughter with intellectual disabilities during this transition process, and how the professionals of the services work together with families on this issue. The objectives of the study have been accomplished and the opinions of the participants have been known through semi-structured interviews to young people with intellectual disabilities and to their social educators of the services these young people take part of. One of the main conclusions of the study is that the role of parents in the transition to adulthood of their children with intellectual disabilities is important. Depending on their attitudes towards their child with an intellectual disability, it will have a positive or negative impact on the young person and, therefore, can facilitate or hinder this transition

Parental influences on children’s ethnic identity among middle-income Korean-American families (N = 52), including fathers, mothers, and their children were examined. The sample was comprised of 23 boys and 29 girls (M = 7 years and 3 months) and their parents. Mothers and fathers were asked to respond independently to a parent's ethnic identity questionnaire; children were interviewed using a children’s ethnic identity questionnaire. Results revealed the most important predictors of children’s ethnic identity were parental teaching behaviors regarding Korean culture and history. Among the three domains in children’s ethnic identity, Korean language fluency was most affected by parental ethnic identity variables. Results indicated that mothers and fathers generally share the same attitudes toward ethnic matters; thus, it was concluded that children receive a congruent ethnic message from their parents. Published version

Zbog nedovoljnog broja mladih koji se odlučuju za obrazovanje u STEM području (prirodoslovlje, tehnologija, inženjerstvo, matematika), važno je utvrditi čimbenike koji mogu utjecati na taj odabir. Cilj istraživanja bio je ispitati roditeljske odrednice učeničkih motivacijskih uvjerenja, slobodnih aktivnosti i postignuća u dvama STEM školskim područjima – matematici i tehničkoj kulturi. Kao teorijski okvir korišten je model očekivanja i vrijednosti i model roditeljske socijalizacije dječjih obrazovnih ishoda Eccles i suradnika. Primjenom upitnika prikupljeni su podaci od 1064 učenika šestih i sedmih razreda iz 16 osnovnih škola iz Zagreba i okolice, dok su upitnicima za roditelje prikupljeni podaci od istog broja njihovih roditelja. Analize strukturalnih modela pokazale su da ispitane roditeljske odrednice imaju različitu ulogu u objašnjavanju učeničkih obrazovnih ishoda. Obrazovanje roditelja nije bilo značajan prediktor učeničkih obrazovnih ishoda u matematici, dok je u tehničkoj kulturi negativno predviđalo sva tri motivacijska uvjerenja učenika (samoefikasnost, interes i važnost predmeta). Roditeljska uvjerenja o višoj djetetovoj sposobnosti, trudu i interesu za predmet i višoj korisnosti predmeta za dijete predviđala su viša učenička motivacijska uvjerenja i postignuće u oba predmeta. Potvrđena je hipoteza o roditeljima kao "tumačima stvarnosti" budući da su u oba predmeta roditeljska uvjerenja bila medijator između učeničkog prošlog postignuća i kasnije samoefikasnosti u predmetu. Nalazi vezani uz roditeljska ponašanja razlikovali su se s obzirom na područje. Roditeljsko modeliranje matematičkih aktivnosti nije bilo prediktor učeničkih ishoda u matematici, dok je modeliranje tehničkih aktivnosti predviđalo viši učenički interes i važnost tehničke kulture te češće bavljenje izvanškolskim tehničkim aktivnostima. Roditeljska uključenost u učeničke obaveze iz matematike je predviđala niži učenički interes za matematiku i rjeđe bavljenje matematičkim izvanškolskim aktivnostima. Roditeljsko poticanje interesa za matematičko, odnosno tehničko područje je predviđalo češće učeničko bavljenje izvanškolskim aktivnostima u oba područja te viši učenički interes za matematiku. Dio roditeljskih učinaka bio je izravan, a dio neizravan pri čemu su učenička motivacijska uvjerenja bila važni medijatori pojedinih roditeljskih učinaka. Također je ispitana moderatorska uloga roda učenika te obrazovanja roditelja. Roditeljski učinci su bili jednaki za učenike i učenice, no obrazovanje roditelja je bilo značajan moderator u strukturalnim modelima iz matematike. Istraživanje doprinosi spoznajama o nedovoljno istraženim elementima modela roditeljske socijalizacije dječjih obrazovnih ishoda, ali i spoznajama o socijalizaciji u STEM obrazovnom području. Introduction: Ever since the Second World War, knowledge and skills in the STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) area have been the key to economic progress (Ritz & Fan, 2015). However, many countries today are facing a shortage of workforce in STEM sectors (European Centre for the Development of Vocational Training, 2016; President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, 2012). This problem cannot be considered separately from the problems and specificities associated with the STEM education. Even early educational experiences in primary school can determine the later educational and professional path of an individual (Tai, Qi Liu, Maltese, & Fan, 2006). Because of this, it is important to identify as many determinants of student educational outcomes in the STEM domain. Parents, along with teachers, have been recognized as crucial socializing factors in this area (Chouinard, Karsenti, & Roy, 2007). It has been shown that in empirical research STEM should be conceptualized as a heterogeneous domain. For example, prior research found that there is a differentiation in student motivational beliefs in different STEM school subjects (Simpkins, Price, & Garcia, 2015) and that gender segregation is not equal across STEM fields (Mann & DiPrete, 2013). The heterogeneous conceptualization of the STEM domain is even more needed in research that is embedded in the educational contexts such as Croatian, in which there is no integrated teaching of STEM. In the present study, we thus focused on two STEM educational domains – mathematics and technical education. These are the only two STEM school subjects in Croatia that all students take through all upper grades of elementary school (5th through 8th grade). Focusing on mathematics is of additional importance since student outcomes in mathematics are crucial for later educational and career trajectories in STEM (Sadler, Sonnert, Hazari, & Tai, 2012). Regarding technical education, although similar types of courses are taught in primary and secondary schools in other countries, we have found very little research on parenting influences in this domain. Thus, focusing on technical education in the present study presents a contribution to existing findings on the parent socialization in the STEM education. This research is guided by the two models proposed by Eccles and her colleagues – the expectancy-value model (Eccles, 2005; Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) and the parent socialization model (Eccles, 1993; 2007). The expectancy-value model outlines the expectations for success and the subjective task value as the two key constructs that influence achievement, perseverance, effort, and activity choices in different areas (Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Among competency beliefs, in addition to the expectations for success, the model outlines the self-concept of ability. While the expectation for success is defined as a person's belief in how successful they will be in a task in the near or far future, the self-concept of ability refers to an individual's assessment of their current competence in a particular area of activity (Eccles et al., 1983). However, research has shown that the self-concept of ability and expectation for success are saturated with the same factor and therefore can be treated as the same construct in research (Eccles, 2009; Eccles & Wigfield, 1995). According to the expectancy-value model, the subjective task value has four components (Eccles, 2005; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002). Attainment value can be defined as the personal meaning that an individual attaches to being successful in an activity. Interest or intrinsic value is defined as the enjoyment of engaging in an activity, while utility value refers to the extent to which the achievement domain is related to a person's present or future goals. In the empirical research, items measuring utility and attainment value are often combined into one measure called importance value (e.g., Viljaranta, Lazarides, Aunola, Räikkönen, & Nurmi. 2015; Simpkins, Fredricks, & Eccles, 2012; Watt et al., 2012). Finally, the perceived cost refers to the individual's perception of what they have to give up, and how much they have to invest to engage in an activity (Eccles, 2005). Eccles’ parent socialization model is embedded in the expectancy-value model. This model describes how family, and in particular parents, shape children's activity choices and achievement, primarily through influencing children's motivational beliefs (Simpkins, Fredricks, & Eccles, 2015). The model outlines several groups of parental influences and a number of direct, indirect, and moderating relationships between these groups of variables (Eccles, 1993; Simpkins et al. 2015a). The distal mechanisms of parental influence are parental sociodemographic characteristics, such as parental education, financial status, occupation, and parental gender. According to the model, parental distal characteristics influence student outcomes primarily through their influence on parental beliefs and behaviours (Eccles, 2005). Research has found that children from families of lower socio-economic status (SES) achieve lower scores in the STEM school area (OECD, 2007) and are less likely to choose the advanced math and science courses (Bozick & Ingels, 2008). The next set of constructs in the model are parental general beliefs and behaviours, such as gender stereotypes, efficacy beliefs, general and specific values, and educational styles. These beliefs are expected to directly influence parental child-specific beliefs (Wigfield et al., 2015). Parental distal characteristics and general practices may also act as moderators in the model. For example, it can be expected that because of the reduced financial and social resources, parents of lower SES can experience difficulties in translating their beliefs, values, and educational goals into appropriate educational practices (Eccles, 1993). A prominent role in the model is given to parental child-specific beliefs, such as expectations for a child's achievement, perceptions of the child's abilities and interests, and perceptions of the value of a particular domain for the child. Studies have shown that parental evaluations of children's abilities in the STEM area predict students' motivational beliefs (Bhanot & Jovanovic, 2009; Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004; Frome & Eccles, 1998; Jacobs & Eccles, 1992) in this area. Parental child-specific beliefs have also been found to predict student achievement in STEM school subjects (Aunola, Nurmi, Lerkkanen, & Rasku-Puttonen, 2003; Gill & Reynolds, 1999). The model postulates that this relationship is primarily realized through the influence of parental child-specific beliefs on student motivation (Eccles, 2007). The power of parental child-specific beliefs in predicting student motivation and achievement is retained even when other relevant variables that may explain these associations are taken into account, such as student past achievement (Simpkins et al., 2015a). The model also assumes that through their child-specific beliefs, parents act as the “interpreters of reality”. This means that children significantly rely on parental interpretations of the child’s past performance as a relevant source for the self-assessment of their current abilities (Jacobs & Eccles, 2000). Finally, the model outlines different parenting behaviours, including role modelling, encouragement of a child’s interests, provision of activity-related experiences, and parent–child coactivity (Simpkins et al., 2012). Research has found that all of these behaviours in the STEM domain can predict student outcomes related to STEM (e. g., Berkowitz et al., 2015; Jacobs & Bleeker, 2004; Simpkins, Davis-Kean, & Eccles, 2005). According to the parent socialization model, through their behaviours and practices, parents communicate to the child their values, beliefs, and goals in a certain activity domain (Eccles, 1993). Accordingly, two important mediational hypotheses emerge from the model: parenting behaviours should mediate the relationship between parental beliefs and children's motivational beliefs, and children's motivational beliefs should play a mediating role in the relationship between parents’ and children's behaviours in a given area of activity (Simpkins et al., 2012). Integrating student constructs from the expectancy-value model and parent constructs from the parent socialization model offers a wide view of parental influences in specific activity domains such as mathematics and technical education. Accordingly, in this research, we explored how parents shape student achievement and activity choices but also student academic motivation in these fields. This is important since the socialization of achievement motivation in specific activity domains has not been studied enough (Wigfield et al., 2015). Research aims and problems: The aim of this research was to examine the parental determinants of students' motivational beliefs, out-of-school activities, and achievement in mathematics and technical education, using theoretical assumptions and constructs specified in the expectancy-value model (Eccles et al., 1983; Eccles & Wigfield, 2002) and the parent socialization model (Eccles, 1993; Simpkins et al., 2015a). The research attempted to address two broader problems. The first research problem was to test the conceptual model of parental determinants of student educational outcomes in mathematics and technical education. In the scope of this problem, we wanted to examine the direct and indirect relationships between distal and proximal parental influences and student educational outcomes in these two educational areas. The second research problem was to examine whether the relations assumed by the conceptual model differ with regard to the student gender and parental educational level. Methods:Participants A total of 1064 sixth- and seventh-grade students from 16 elementary schools in Zagreb and the surrounding area participated in this study. For each student, we also obtained the data from one of their parents or guardians. Thus, 1064 parents/guardians also participated in the study. In the student sample, there was an approximately equal number of girls (48%) and boys (52%) and sixth- (49%) and seventh-grade (51%) students. In the parental sample, 76.4% of parents were mothers and 19.1% of parents were fathers, while for 48 parents (4.5%) the information on gender was missing. Measures Bearing in mind the theoretical framework, the operationalization of the constructs in this study largely followed the empirical work of Eccles and colleagues and most of the measures were adopted from the "Childhood and Beyond Study (CAB)" project (Eccles, Wigfield, & Blumenfeld, 1984). Among parental variables, we measured parental educational level, parental child-specific beliefs in math and technical education, and parental behaviours in math and technical domain. To capture parental child-specific beliefs, parents had to report on their perceptions of a child’s ability in the subject, their perception of the value of the subject for the child, and their perception of a child’s effort and interest in the subject. Among parental behaviours, we measured parental role modelling in math and technical domains, parental encouragement of a child’s interests in these domains, parents’ involvement in student educational activities at home (i. e. homework assistance in math/technical education), and parental provision of STEM-related materials for the child. Among student motivational beliefs, we measured student self-concept of ability in math/technical education, interest in these school subjects, and attainment and utility value of these subjects. Items measuring attainment and utility value were combined in the measure of student importance value. Students also reported how often they engaged in out-of-school math and technical activities. We also obtained the information on student final grades in math and technical education and information on student gender and age cohort. Procedure The students completed the questionnaires in the paper-pen group testing during their regular classes in their school classrooms. Parental questionnaires were forwarded in open envelopes to parents via participating students. The parental questionnaire was intended to examine only one of the student’s parents or guardians. Parents would send the completed questionnaire back to school in the sealed envelope, which could be opened only by the researchers. We collected two students’ final grades in math and technical education from the school records. The control grades were collected in the school year preceding the student research – at the end of the fifth and sixth grades. As a criterion measure of student achievement, we used student final grades in math/technical education in the school year in which student research was conducted –at the end of sixth and seventh grades. Data analysis Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to answer the first research problem. Two multigroup SEM analyses were performed to answer the second research problem. Results and discussion: The test of the structural models revealed that the explored parental influences had a different role in explaining students' educational outcomes in mathematics and technical education. We expected that parent educational level will have an indirect effect on student outcomes through parental beliefs and behaviours. We mostly did not confirm these hypotheses. Our results point out that in the period of middle school, parents largely base their child-specific beliefs in math on the external information about the child's past math success, and that parental education does not have an independent contribution in shaping these beliefs. Previous research also shows that school grades are the most prominent source of information on which parents base their beliefs about their child's math abilities (Möller, Zimmermann, & Köller, 2014; Tiedemann, 2000). When students’ past achievement in technical education was taken into account, more educated parents had lower child-specific beliefs in this school subject. Parental education had a completely indirect negative effect on student self-concept of ability in technical education that was mediated through parental beliefs that were positively related to student self-concept. Parental education was also a direct negative predictor of student interest and the importance of technical education. These findings can be explained by the fact that in Croatian primary education, student outcomes in technical education have formal implications solely for the further orientation towards vocational secondary education and this educational path is less appealing to students and parents of higher SES backgrounds than to students and parents of lower SES (Meer, 2007). Parental education positively predicted parental provision of STEM materials but did not predict parental encouragement of a child’s math interest, while in the technical domain this correlation was positive but very low. This result might be attributed to the fact that we did not measure the quality of parental encouragement. Furthermore, previous findings indicate that SES is reflected in parental educational behaviours with young children. For example, more educated parents are more likely to implement practices that develop basic mathematical skills in preschool children (Pan, Yang, Li, Liu, & Liu, 2018). In line with our hypotheses, parental beliefs were confirmed as moderate to strong, positive predictor of all student motivational beliefs in both math and technical education. This was also found in the previous research in the STEM area (e.g., Bhanot & Jovanovic, 2009; Bleeker & Jacobs, 2004). The predictive effect of parental beliefs in explaining student selfconcept of ability in the subject was stronger than the effect of student past achievement. In both subjects, we found a mediating effect of parental beliefs in explaining the link between student past achievement and later self-concept of ability. This finding confirms the role of parents as the "interpreters of reality". Parental beliefs were confirmed as significant predictors of later math achievement, even when student motivation and prior math achievement were controlled for. In technical education, parental beliefs had a marginal positive effect in predicting achievement, which can be attributed to the very low variability in student grades in technical education. Parental beliefs predicted student achievement in both subjects partially thorough higher student self-concept of ability in the subject. Parental beliefs predicted a higher level of parental encouragement in both domains, a higher level of provision of STEM materials, and a lower level of parental assistance in the child's coursework. However, the hypothesis about the mediational role of parental behaviours in explaining the relationship between parental and student beliefs mostly did not find support. This is because parental behaviours were week predictors of student motivation. This is in line with previous examinations of the parent socialization model (Eccles, 1993). Our finding may perhaps be attributed to the fact that we did not include quality measures of parental behaviours. Eccles (2007) argued that the socializing potential of parental behaviours depends on the motivational and emotional climate that parents create in their interactions with the child. Regarding parental behaviours as predictors of student outcomes, significant differences were found depending on the type of behaviour and subject. Parental modelling did not predict any of the student outcomes in math. Parental modelling in the technical area positively predicted student interest in and importance of technical education. Parental modelling also positively predicted student engagement in out-of-school technical activities, through higher student value of technical education. Parents’ technical activities may be more visible within everyday family interactions than math activities since technical activities involve the use of tools, objects, and machines. This would explain the different findings in the two domains. Parental assistance in the student coursework in math was related to lower student interest in math and through lower interest to lower student engagement in math out-of-school activities. Previous research found that parental helping with math homework negatively predicted student achievement (Carmichael & MacDonald, 2016; Robinson, 2014). If this type of parental involvement is motivated primarily by the child's poor performance, parents tend to apply more control which negatively affects the child's motivation (Silinskas & Kikas, 2019). This may explain our findings, as parents were more likely to engage in their child's math coursework if they had lower beliefs about their child in math. This parental behaviour also mediated the relationship between lower parental child-specific beliefs in math and lower student math interest. This implies that this type of parental involvement communicates negative parental beliefs about the child's potential in math which can explain the contra-effect of this type of parental behaviour (Pomerantz, Moorman, & Litwack, 2007). A small positive correlation was found between parental assistance in the student coursework in technical education and student importance value of this subject. This parental behaviour also had a small positive indirect effect on student engagement in technical activities through higher student importance value. This finding can be explained by the fact that parental beliefs were not related to this type of parental involvement in technical education. Thus, it seems that parents do not communicate low beliefs about the child’s potential in technical education when engaging in this type of behaviour with the child. This may be because most students had high grades in technical education. Out of all parenting behaviours, encouragement of a child’s interest was the strongest predictor of student engagement in math and technical activities. According to Eccles (1993), one of the ways in which parental encouragement has a positive effect on student involvement in certain activities is the positive impact that such behaviour has on student motivational beliefs. This assumption was confirmed in our math model since parental encouragement in math predicted student engagement in math activities also indirectly - through a positive effect on student math interest. Parental provision of STEM materials was an insignificant predictor of student outcomes in both subjects. The presence of educational materials in the child’s home does not imply that children actually use these materials in a way that promotes their motivation for the STEM educational domain. Furthermore, parents reported that their children had a relatively small number of STEM materials available at home, which could also explain our findings. Finally, parental provision of STEM materials may be more important for preschool children who still have not encountered educational materials through the regular education. The established socialization mechanisms were equal for male and female children. Regarding the moderating effect of parental education, lower parental beliefs were associated with higher parental assistance in math coursework in both groups of parental education, but this association was stronger among parents who had higher education. Parental beliefs were also more strongly positively correlated with parental encouragement of the child’s interest in mathematics among parents with higher education. Lack of educational, financial, and time resources can make it difficult for parents of lower SES to translate their socialization goals, beliefs, and values into adequate educational practices (Eccles, 1993; Spera 2006). Furthermore, parents who are more educated have stronger beliefs about their active role in their children's education and are more confident in their competencies to contribute to their child's academic achievement (Whitaker & Hoover-Dempsey. 2013; Yamamoto, Holloway, & Suzuki, 2016), which could also explain our findings in math. Conclusion: Parental personal characteristics, beliefs, and behaviours had different roles in explaining student motivation, achievement, and activity choices in math and technical domain. The results indicate that both parent and student mediational mechanisms need to be taken into account to fully understand these processes. Furthermore, the mechanisms of parent socialization may differ depending on the socio-economic background of the family but also depending on the specific STEM discipline. These results reflect the complexity of socialization processes in the STEM area of education in the early adolescence. Thus, it is important to adopt a wide focus on family influences in this domain by examining multivariate models that will integrate multiple parental constructs and student educational outcomes. For a broader understanding of the socialization in the STEM area of education, more comparative research of multiple STEM disciplines is needed.

INTRODUCTION: Families, especially parents, play an important role in identifying their children's talents and directing their educational journey. The role of parents in their children career applies both to collectivist and to noncollectivist culture. AIM: To examine the correlation between parental influences on medical students' self-efficacy and career exploration in collectivist culture. METHODS: This research was a quantitative study. The study involved 1017 medical students of medical faculties in four faculties of medicine in Indonesia. All data were collected online in August 2018. The study was conducted using an online survey questionnaire and analyzed to finally form a model that displays the determinants of career exploration behavior. The data were analyzed using the maximum likelihood estimation in IBM AMOS 24. RESULTS: The results found a model that has various routes toward career exploration in collectivist culture. Path analysis revealed both direct and direct effect toward the variable studied. Parents' expectations had influence on self-efficacy. CONCLUSION: The findings show the important role between the influence of parents expectations for self-efficacy and career exploration in children.

Cilj istraživanja bio je utvrditi u kojoj mjeri zanimanja roditelja mogu odrediti STEM profesionalne interese učenika završnih razreda srednje škole. U uzorak je uključeno 463 srednjoškolaca (33 % mladića), koji su putem većeg online istraživanja pružili podatke o zanimanju svojih roditelja te ispunili upitnik profesionalnih interesa (PGI-S). Kao mjere interesa prema STEM području uzete su PGI skale Elektrotehnika, Mehanika i instalacije, Prirodopis te orijentacija prema polu Stvari na dimenziji interesa Ljudi – Stvari. Zanimanja roditelja kodirana su u kategorije STEM i ne-STEM zanimanja. Rezultati upućuju na znatno izraženije STEM interese kod mladića, osim interesa za prirodopis, gdje spolne razlike nisu pronađene. Pronađeni su mali efekti očeva zanimanja na skali orijentacije prema Stvarima i skalama Elektrotehnike te Mehanike i instalacija. Analiza interakcija majčina i očeva zanimanja pokazala je da je na određenim skalama interesa pozitivan učinak očeva STEM zanimanja prisutan samo ako je i majka STEM zanimanja. Učinci roditeljskih zanimanja na interese učenika nisu se razlikovali za mladiće i djevojke. Rezultati upućuju na značenje roditeljskoga STEM zanimanja kao oblika STEM kapitala, važnost ispitivanja utjecaja obaju roditelja te razlikovnost učeničkih STEM interesa., The aim of this research was to determine the extent to which parents' STEM careers can explain the vocational interests of senior high school students. The sample included 463 students (33% male) who provided information on their parents' occupations and completed a vocational interest questionnaire (PGI-S) through a larger online survey. As a measure of STEM interest, we used scores on the following PGI scales: Data Processing, Mechanical, Nature/Outdoors, and Things. Parents' occupations were coded into STEM and non-STEM categories. The results indicate significantly higher STEM interests in young men, with the exception of interest on the Nature/Outdoors scale. Small effects of father's occupation were found on the Things, Data Processing, and Mechanical scales. An analysis of the interaction between parents' occupations showed that on certain interest scales, the positive effect of the father's STEM occupation was present only if the mother had a STEM occupation. The effects of parental occupations did not differ for male and female students. The results outline the significance of parental STEM occupations as a form of STEM capital, the importance of examining the influence of both parents, and the heterogeneity of student STEM interests.

The success of science education in classroom and out-of-school settings can be influenced by parents’ behaviours and STEM-related values. The present study investigated pathways in parent-to- child transmission of STEM (science, technology, engineering, mathematics) values by examining at same time parents’ values and behaviours, along with their children’s perceptions of these parental influences. The study included 1071 students (Mage = 12.15) and the same number of their parents. Path analysis revealed that children’s importance value of the STEM school fields was best explained by their perceptions of parental values and behaviours in STEM. On the other hand, parents’ self-reported values and behaviours had a weak effect in predicting children’s values, which can be explained by inaccurate children’s perceptions of their parents. The results suggest that parents more easily convey beliefs about the utility than the attainment value of STEM. Namely, parents’ utility value had a larger effect in predicting children’s value, partly mediated through children’s perception of parents’ encouragement of STEM interests. The study highlights the role of children’s perceptions of their parents’ beliefs and behaviours and the importance of communicating STEM-related values within the family. Practical implications for parents and science educators are discussed.

Previous studies have consistently observed intergenerational continuities in childbearing. This study uses individual-level parish records to examine the intergenerational transmission of fertility over the life course of women in Sweden during the fertility transition in the second half of the nineteenth century. Bivariate correlations, event history analysis and Poisson regression models are estimated for a large number of indicators of reproductive behavior. In line with the literature, the findings show evidence of intergenerational fertility correlations. The observed correlations are often small, but show that fertility transmission did occur during the demographic transition. The findings confirm our current understanding of intergenerational transmission and highlight the role of kin members in shaping reproductive outcomes.

Background: Although Indonesia is one of the world’s most populated countries with a high penetration of internet usage there has been little research on SNS usage in Indonesia, especially involving children. Instead, SNS research in Indonesia has focused on university students and political, marketing, and disaster mitigation issues. Aim/Purpose: In order to address this gap a theoretical model is formulated from a review of previous studies incorporating basic constructs found in the Technology Acceptance Model (Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and Attitude) as well as other influences, motivations, and individual characteristics that affect a child’s attitude toward the use of SNS. Methodology : The model is evaluated and developed using data collected from 460 children in primary school grades 4, 5, and 6 in five cities in Indonesia. The statistical techniques implemented with SPSS and Amos computer software (t-tests, correlation coefficients, principal component factor analysis, Cronbach alpha coefficients, and structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis). Findings: The results confirm many of the effects on a child’s attitude toward SNS reported in previous studies due to: the usefulness and ease of use of SNS; parental influence; feelings of flow experience and risk; and the child’s level of access, technical expertise, and experience with SNS. New findings include significant correlations and causal effects involving: the influences of peers and parents; the child’s level of technical expertise; and feelings of flow experience. Contribution: Despite limitations related to sampling and the administration of a questionnaire among young children, the findings contribute to theory as well as practice and provide guidance on effective ways to improve children’s attitudes towards the use of SNS.

A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Science (Honours) in Psychology, University of Regina. 40 p. If left untreated, anxiety could translate its harmful effects onto later development, making it crucial to treat it in its earlier stages, where it often begins in childhood (Kessler et al., 2007). However, very few children with mental illnesses utilize mental health services (Shanley, Reid & Evans, 2008). This service gap needs to be addressed. A relatively novel yet promising therapeutic intervention that could potentially reduce the service gap is parent-administered, Internet-delivered cognitive behavioural therapy (PAiCBT) interventions, with the Anxiety treatment for Children through online Education course (ACE) being an example. ACE was designed to reduce child anxiety in particular. Since this promising type of intervention is in its infant stages, it is important to build on its literature by determining which parent and child factors are associated with parental interest to participate in this type of program. To measure parental factors, 165 Canadian parents who have 7 to 12 year old children with anxiety were surveyed about their demographics, mental health, self-efficacy levels, Internet proficiency and prior experiences of seeking mental health services for their child. Questions regarding their child’s factors, such as their anxiety levels and gender, were also asked. Correlational analyses were conducted to determine that increasing parental education, stress, selfefficacy, Internet proficiency, and child anxiety levels were associated with parental interest to participate in ACE. Hierarchical multiple regression analyses determined that parental self-efficacy, Internet proficiency, and child’s anxiety severity had the strongest associations with interest. Recruiting highly efficacious and Internet-proficient parents for PA-iCBT is therefore recommended. Student no

This research explored the higher education and career decision-making experiences of 38 women of Arab background in two contexts: Australia and the UAE, in light of their parental influences and socio-cultural contexts. The research sought to understand the role of parents in their daughters’ higher education and career choices, and the relationship between parental roles and the socio-culturally constructed perceptions of Arab women’s roles. The research further examined whether the distinct socio-cultural context of each sample set of Arab women had an effect on their higher education and career decisionmaking processes, perceptions and aspirations. The complex range of familial, cultural and contextual influences on Arab women’s higher education and career choices were investigated using a constructivist grounded theory methodology. This methodology assumes an interpretivist stance whereby researchers co-construct knowledge with participants, taking into account their own positionalities, perspectives and interactions. It also enables the examination of processes within their wider socio-cultural contexts, recognising that perspectives and meaning-making are historically, spatially and socially bound. The research shows that the higher education and career decision-making of Arab women in this study are joint, interactive processes that occur under the control and direction of parents. Parental roles, however, are complex and derive from an array of traditional and contemporary perceptions of women’s roles within which an interplay of gender, culture and religion is evident. Parents hold high expectations for their daughters’ higher education, while simultaneously aspiring for them to pursue traditional pathways of marriage. Contrasting overarching themes related to women’s educational and occupational aspirations emerged from each sample set. In the UAE, women’s aspirations were seemingly more individualistic, reflecting their relatively privileged social status and rapidly evolving and modernising culture. In Australia, women were equally aspirational yet expressed collectivist goals that would benefit themselves as well as their minority communities. The study provides new insights into the familial and socio-cultural factors that enable or constrain Arab women’s higher education and career choices, and contributes to a growing body of literature on Arab youth’s higher education and career decision-making. It has endeavoured to build a grounded theory of Arab women’s higher education and career decision-making, highlighting the significance of parental involvement in guiding these women towards higher education and careers that fall within parameters of cultural conformity. The theory additionally emphasises the importance of acquiring valued forms of higher education in order for these women and their families to attain perceived respectable and honourable status in society.

理想とする可能自己と避けたい可能自己を詳細にイメージできることによって、人は目標に向かって動機づけられると言われている。教員を目指す学生にとって、いかに詳細な可能自己を描くことができるかは、課題の多い教育現場で働き続ける為に重要なことである。本論では、教員を目指す英文科の４年生、里子と明子（仮名）が長期的にどのように可能自己を形成していったのか、そして教員であった親の影響がどのように彼女らの可能自己の形成に影響を与えたのかを調査した。手紙形式のテキストと半構造化インタビューによるナラティブデータを分析した結果、キャリア選択や理想の教師像を描くことに教員であった親の存在が大きく関係していることが分かった。教員であった親は理想的教師の可能自己形成にも、避けたい教師の可能自己形成にも影響をあたえていた。教員を目指す学生も教員であった親も、その影響力に自覚的になり客観的、批判的に関係を見直すことが求められる。今後は可能自己の概念を使った質的研究を対象者を広げて取り組み、英語教員養成課程が抱える課題をより深く理解し、養成課程の改善につなげたい。

This paper reports on the outcomes from a pilot study targeted at mothers of school children in Melbourne, Australia. The aim of the study was to engender a positive view of technology in the participants and to introduce the concept of Information Technology (IT) as a potential career. Mothers were given the opportunity to develop basic IT skills and learn about different IT career pathways for their children with an emphasis on their daughters’ choices. Mothers were offered an evening course over a four week period that was designed to introduce them to a range of social media and Web 2.0 tools. Their opinions were documented using both questionnaires and informal discussions. It explored whether their attitudes towards IT can be changed by up-skilling and introducing them to the technologies their children commonly use. The findings of the pilot study suggest that addressing this demographic has the potential to make the participants question their pre-conceptions about IT careers for women.

Relevant factors involved in the creation of some children’s food preferences and eating behaviours have been examined in order to highlight the topic and give paediatricians practical instruments to understand the background behind eating behaviour and to manage children’s nutrition for preventive purposes. Electronic databases were searched to locate and appraise relevant studies. We carried out a search to identify papers published in English on factors that influence children’s feeding behaviours. The family system that surrounds a child’s domestic life will have an active role in establishing and promoting behaviours that will persist throughout his or her life. Early-life experiences with various tastes and flavours have a role in promoting healthy eating in future life. The nature of a narrative review makes it difficult to integrate complex interactions when large sets of studies are involved. In the current analysis, parental food habits and feeding strategies are the most dominant determinants of a child’s eating behaviour and food choices. Parents should expose their offspring to a range of good food choices while acting as positive role models. Prevention programmes should be addressed to them, taking into account socioeconomic aspects and education.

Early childhood vocational research has been limited within the field of Education. Other forms of vocational research focuses on mature teens and young adults. This Major Research Paper focuses on the seminal literature of children to the age of twelve. Two participants from a University in Ontario were qualitatively interviewed. Both participants were females, from upper-class homes and European descent.

The prenatal environment can alter an individual’s developmental trajectory with long-lasting effects on health. Animal models demonstrate that the impact of the early life environment extends to subsequent generations, but there is a paucity of data from human populations on intergenerational transmission of environmentally induced phenotypes. Here we investigated the association of parental exposure to energy and nutrient restriction in utero on their children’s growth in rural Gambia. In a Gambian cohort with infants born between 1972 and 2011, we used multiple regression to test whether parental season of birth predicted offspring birth weight (n = 2097) or length (n = 1172), height-for-age z score (HAZ), weight-for-height z score (WHZ), and weight-for-age z score (WAZ) at 2 yr of age (n = 923). We found that maternal exposure to seasonal energy restriction in utero was associated with reduced offspring birth length (crude:−4.2 mm, P = 0.005; adjusted: −4.0 mm, P = 0.02). In contrast, paternal birth season predicted offspring HAZ at 24 mo (crude: −0.21, P = 0.005; adjusted: −0.22, P = 0.004) but had no discernible impact at birth. Our results indicate that periods of nutritional restriction in a parent’s fetal life can have intergenerational consequences in human populations. Fetal growth appears to be under matriline influence, and postnatal growth appears to be under patriline intergenerational influences.—Eriksen, K. G., Radford, E. J., Silver, M. J., Fulford, A. J. C., Wegmüller, R., Prentice, A. M. Influence of intergenerational in utero parental energy and nutrient restriction on offspring growth in rural Gambia.

Rationale: Sport participation is especially important for patients with asthma in that it decreases psychosocial and physiological problems associated with inactivity. However, adolescents with asthma seem to participate less in sports compared to their non-asthmatic peers. The current study tested the direct associations between maternal sport-specific factors and sport club participation of early adolescents with asthma and the indirect effect through adolescent's sport-specific cognitions. Methods: During home visits, 261 adolescents (aged 10-15) completed questionnaires about self-efficacy, beliefs regarding sport participation, and their actual sport club participation. Their mothers reported their sport-specific support, beliefs about offspring's and own sport participation, their own levels of physical activity, and their self-efficacy to stimulate offspring to participate in sports. Path analyses were used to examine the direct and indirect associations of maternal sport-specific factors with adolescents sport club participation via adolescent sport-specific cognitions. Results: Analyses showed that maternal sport-specific support (beta = 0.20, P = 0.007) and self-efficacy to stimulate offspring to participate in sports (beta = 0.20, P = 0.027) related positively to adolescents' sport club participation. Adolescents' self-efficacy (indirect effect 0.09, SE = 3.01, P

Rationale: Sport participation is especially important for patients with asthma in that it decreases psychosocial and physiological problems associated with inactivity. However, adolescents with asthma seem to participate less in sports compared to their non-asthmatic peers. The current study tested the direct associations between maternal sport-specific factors and sport club participation of early adolescents with asthma and the indirect effect through adolescent's sport-specific cognitions. Methods: During home visits, 261 adolescents (aged 10-15) completed questionnaires about self-efficacy, beliefs regarding sport participation, and their actual sport club participation. Their mothers reported their sport-specific support, beliefs about offspring's and own sport participation, their own levels of physical activity, and their self-efficacy to stimulate offspring to participate in sports. Path analyses were used to examine the direct and indirect associations of maternal sport-specific factors with adolescents sport club participation via adolescent sport-specific cognitions. Results: Analyses showed that maternal sport-specific support (beta = 0.20, P = 0.007) and self-efficacy to stimulate offspring to participate in sports (beta = 0.20, P = 0.027) related positively to adolescents' sport club participation. Adolescents' self-efficacy (indirect effect 0.09, SE = 3.01, P

BackgroundBinge drinking is associated with considerable harm. However, too little is known about socialization to this pattern of alcohol consumption.AimTo identify longitudinal predictors of young adult binge drinking, with an emphasis on possible parental influences.MethodsA population-based prospective study, in which respondents (N=2558) were surveyed from mid-adolescence until their late 20s. The data set was linked to national registers. Data were collected on parental alcohol consumption, parental binge drinking and parental alcohol problems, as well as on other aspects of the family milieu. The respondents’ frequency of alcohol consumption was assessed, as well as a number of binge drinking measures: (i) frequency of intoxication episodes, (ii) frequency of consuming 5+ units, and (iii) “usual” consumption patterns of 5–6+ units, 7–9+ units, and 10+ units.ResultsA surprisingly high proportion of the sample met the criteria for binge drinking. After control for parental, peer and individual characteristics, parental binge drinking predicted respondents’ binge drinking, using all definitions, at age 28 years (p

Tese de Doutoramento em Psicologia na área de especialidade Psicologia Clínica Objetivo: Investigar a ansiedade infantil considerando a influência das seguintes variáveis: cognições das crianças e atribuições dos pais, relativas a estímulos ambíguos; medos e ansiedade dos pais. Disponibilizar instrumentos de medida da ansiedade das crianças e dos medos dos adultos, oriundos de populações comunitárias. Método: Procedeu-se à análise e avaliação das qualidades psicométricas das escalas: SCARED-R (n = 1238, idade 10-13); FSS III (n = 1980, idade 18-80). Foi realizada a análise confirmatória das duas escalas. Estas foram sujeitas a adaptações para a população do estudo e foi proposto um fator de 2ª ordem para cada instrumento. Foram realizadas 274 entrevistas, com 719 participantes (274/crianças/274mães/171pais) e preenchidos três instrumentos (SCARED-R; FSS III; STAI). Foram anotadas as respostas verbalizadas pelos participantes às questões colocadas, relativas ao instrumento Nine Ambiguous Stories. Realizou-se uma análise de conteúdo às respostas e procedeu-se à sua categorização. A fiabilidade da análise de conteúdo foi avaliada pelo nível de concordância entre os três avaliadores. As análises dos dados quantitativos foram realizadas com recurso a testes do Qui-Quadrado e t-Student; Correlação de Pearson; e, Modelos de Equações Estruturais. As análises estatísticas foram desenvolvidas com o IBM SPSS Statistics; IBM AMOS e MPlus. Resultados: A análise fatorial confirmatória confirmou a validade e fiabilidade das medidas obtidas da SCARED-R e da FSS-III na amostra do estudo. A codificação das respostas verbais das crianças apresentou 6633 unidades de registo, sendo 2570 positivas, 4063 negativas e 32 neutras. A exploração dos conteúdos originou 76 subcategorias. As positivas (25) englobaram conteúdos de interesse, confiança e segurança da criança perante as situações e conteúdos de emoção expressa. As negativas (32) juntaram conteúdos de emoção expressa, conteúdos de dificuldade, inibição, incapacidade, de danos físicos e materiais. Os pensamentos positivos das crianças e os medos das mães são preditivos da menor ansiedade das crianças. Os pensamentos negativos das crianças, os medos dos pais (homens) e ansiedade das mães são variáveis preditivas de maior ansiedade nas crianças. Os pensamentos positivos das crianças e as atribuições positivas das mães apresentaram uma relação positiva significativa. Conclusões: Esta investigação validou dois instrumentos de medida (da ansiedade e dos medos) a aplicar na promoção da saúde. Foi sugerida a reinterpretação e reavaliação dos conceitos de medos e ansiedade em populações normativas. O recurso à investigação destas populações e à perspetiva da criança permitiu concluir: os pensamentos positivos e negativos são características cognitivas do desenvolvimento normal das crianças com 10-11 anos; e, a expressão da emoção nos pensamentos deve ser considerada na investigação e intervenção. As características e perceções da criança sobre o seu funcionamento sugeriram crenças protetoras e crenças preditivas de níveis perturbados da ansiedade. A ansiedade e os medos dos pais devem ser analisados separadamente pois apresentam influências distintas na explicação da ansiedade das crianças. A correlação positiva das atribuições maternas e os pensamentos positivos das crianças, aliado à contribuição dos medos das mães para a redução da ansiedade da criança, sugeriu a existência de um mecanismo protetor materno ao desenvolvimento de níveis patológicos da ansiedade infantil. ABSTRACT : Aim: To research into child anxiety considering the influence of the following factors: children’s cognitions and parents’ attributions related to ambiguous stimuli; parents’ fears and anxiety. To provide measuring instruments of children’s anxiety and adults’ fears, using community samples. Method: The psychometric properties of two scales were analysed: SCARED-R (n = 1238, 10-13 years old); FSS III (n = 1980, 18-80 years old). CFA was performed on both scales. Then they were adapted to the population under study and a second order factor was proposed to each instrument. There were 274 interviews with 719 participants (274 children, 274 mothers, 171 fathers). SCARED-R, FSS III and STAI were completed. Participants also answered to questions related to the Nine Ambiguous Stories they had previously heard. A content analysis of their answers was done, followed by a categorization. Reliability of content analysis was based on the agreement between the three coders. Other statistical analyses involved Chi-Square and Student’s-t tests, Pearson correlation and Structural Equation Modeling. They were performed using IBM SPSS Statistics, IBM AMOS and MPlus. Results: CFA confirmed the validity and reliability of data from SCARED-R and FSS III in the sample under study. Scoring of children’s verbal answers resulted in 6633 recording units, from which 2750 were positive, 4063 were negative and 32 were neutral. Seventy six categories of content were found. Positive categories (25) included contents related to child’s interest, confidence and certainty when facing situations, and also contents of expressed emotion. Negative categories (32) included contents of expressed emotion, difficulty, inhibition, inability, physical and material damage. Children’s positive thoughts and mothers’ fears predict lower levels of anxiety in children. Children’s negative thoughts, fathers’ fears and mothers’ anxiety predict higher levels of children’s anxiety. Children’s positive thoughts and mothers’ positive attributions are significantly and positively related. Conclusions: This study validates two instruments (measuring anxiety and fears) to be used in health promotion. It suggests a reinterpretation and a re-assessment of the concepts of fear and anxiety in normative populations. Using this kind of populations and focusing the child’s perspective it is concluded that positive and negative thoughts are cognitive characteristics of children’s (aged between 10 and 11 years) normal development; the expression of emotion found on thoughts should be considered in intervention processes and research. Child’s characteristics and perceptions about his/her own functioning suggest the existence of protecting beliefs but also beliefs that predict dysfunctional levels of anxiety. Parents’ anxiety and fears should be separately analysed as they present distinct influences over children’s anxiety. The positive correlation between mother’s attributions and children’s positive thoughts, along with the contribution of mothers’ fears to reduce children’s anxiety, suggests the existence of a protective maternal mechanism against the development of pathological anxiety levels in children.

There are many ways parents can improve their offspring’s outcomes. For example, they can invest in offspring’s education or health. They can provide better social connections to obtain job information or personal references. In addition, they can exert political influence to obtain better labor market outcomes for their offspring. Understanding exactly how parents improve their offspring’s outcomes is very important for the formation of political perspectives and policy designs. However, it is very difficult to disentangle the factors, as parents of high socioeconomic status do many things to help their children succeed. This dissertation presents three quasi-experimental studies to understand the causal mechanisms of parents’ influence on children’s outcomes in the context of China and United States. Chapter two examines the implementation of court-ordered racial desegregation of schools and finds that school desegregation increases biracial births. This provides the first evidence of how an education policy that affects racial integration also has demographic implications and an intergenerational impact on social and economic opportunities. Chapter three examines the effect of school desegregation on infant health. This chapter adopts the same empirical strategy and data as chapter three. I extend the paper by examining the effect of school desegregation on infant health. I find that for black mothers, school desegregation improves infant health, as measured by preterm birth. It also increases maternal education and fertility age. These may be important pathways to improve infant health. Chapter two and chapter three add to the growing literature on the impact of school desegregation beyond academic achievement. Chapter five examines the effect of fathers’ political influence on offspring’s labor market outcomes in China. It presents a difference-in-difference approach that exploits the variation of political influence in three dimensions: parent bureaucrat occupation, retirement status instrumented by retirement policy, and offspring gender. Using cross-section data from China Household Income Survey, it finds that the retirement of a bureaucrat with political influence translates into a decrease in offspring’s income of 13 percent. Chapter six provides a summary and conclusions and discusses future research directions.

MBA, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2017 Soft drink consumption and child obesity are increasing in the South African fast-food environment. Parents of primary school children influence their children directly through the choices they make when purchasing a soft drink. Parents would often advise and purchase a soft drink for the following occasions, school lunch box, picnics, sporting events, consumption at home. In this study Coca-Cola Bottlers South Africa (CCBSA) soft drinks has been chosen. CCBSA is the market leader in the soft drink market in South Africa and sells a wide portfolio of products to adults and children. The closest competitor product was also included in this study to ensure the consumer was given the most obvious possible brand choices. Research regarding the correlation between soft drinks and obesity has lately been conducted in large numbers. Research regarding brand loyalty has also been conducted in various FMCG sectors. This study will combine brand loyalty and nutritional value elements, to determine which factor is more valuable when a parent would purchase a soft drink for their primary school kids. A primary and secondary hypothesis was created to measure parents’ perceptions. Moolla and Bisschoff (2014:40) conceptual model was used to measure the nine brand loyalty elements using 39 questions. The construct in this study measures culture orientated brand performance, customer satisfaction, switching costs, relationship proneness, involvement, perceived value, repeat purchase, brand relevance and brand benefits. The researcher added an additional 9 questions to measure nutritional value as a factor and also sugar, kilojoules, saturated fats, flavouring and carbohydrates as a separate measure. The empirical study conducted could be placed in three categories: brand loyalty, nutritional value, and parental influences. Questionnaires were administered to parents of primary school children grade 1 to grade 7 via teachers. A convenience sample of 800 respondents was utilized, with 603 respondents. Access to the children was granted by the principals of three schools in the Gauteng area. The research data was analysed using statistical calculations, including mean scores, frequency distributions, and Cronbach Alpha Coefficient, Confirmatory Factor Analysis and p values. The Confirmatory Factor Analysis for the brand loyalty influences as per Moolla and Bisschoff (2014:40) concluded that the values slightly violate the guideline values, but data is still considered fit and reliable and in an acceptable manner. The results of the primary hypothesis concluded that parents are indeed cognisant of the nutritional value above brand loyalty based on the mean average score, although it is in contradiction with brand selection where Coca-Cola was ranked number 1.The hypothesis that parents do not consider nutritional value prior to purchase is accepted based on mean values and Cronbach Alpha Coefficients. The hypothesis that parents do not consider sugar contents prior to purchasing a soft drink was also rejected, based on mean average scores; it was found that parents do consider sugar before purchasing a soft drink for their children. The hypothesis that parents do not consider kilojoules prior to purchase was accepted, and indicates that parents do not consider kilojoules. The hypothesis that measured the need for a child friendly and healthy soft drink was accepted, indicating the need for a knish soft drink specifically formulated for primary school kids. The results from the secondary hypothesis concluded that culture orientated brand performance was rejected based on a low mean average score indicating that parents do not consider this influence as important. The hypothesis stating that repeat purchase is important was rejected based on mean scores indicating parents do not value this influence as important. The hypothesis of customer satisfaction was accepted based on a high mean average score indicating that parents do value customer satisfaction as an important brand loyalty influence. It can be concluded that more research can be done in schools and other sectors using this model. Soft drink companies could duplicate this study in various sectors to measure brand loyalty and nutritional value elements, with different outcomes based on demographics and income groups. Masters

Although different forms of parental influences on adolescents’ body image and eating disturbances have been studied, this relationship is nearly uninvestigated within the population of aesthetic athletes, a risk group for the development of eating disorders. The present study examined the role of specific family variables on the body image dissatisfaction (BID) and disordered eating (DE) of elite aesthetic athletes (n = 85) and controls (n = 142). Adolescents (M = 14.87 years, SD = 2.22) completed measures of direct influences (concern with thinness and weight teasing by parents), perceived quality of relationship with each parent and the overall family environment, BID and DE. Participants’ parents (223 mothers and 198 fathers) also completed measures of BID and DE. In general, parents of athletes do not present higher levels of BID or DE than do controls’ parents. Interesting differences were found between athletes’ and controls’ BID and DE predictors. Among athletes, direct parental influences are the only significant predictive family variable, which can reinforce the pressure to be thin found within elite-aesthetic contexts. The study’s findings highlight not only the importance of critical parental comments in athletes’ expression of BID and DE, but also of maternal modeling among adolescents in the general population. Such parental behavior may be an appropriate target in different prevention efforts.

Background:The concept of locus of control of reinforcement was introduced by Julian Rotter and has been the focus of intense research for nearly half a century. Surprisingly little research has been directed at clarifying antecedents of locus of control (LOC) orientations in adult men apart from a few small studies. We previously identified a number of independent antecedents associated with women’s LOC, including features of their parents and early childhood. This raised the question as to whether these factors were also associated with the development of LOC in men.Methods:To identify antecedents of LOC orientations in a representative population of women we previously analysed information concerning characteristics of their parents and their own childhood experiences using pregnant women taking part in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC). Here we use the same design to determine whether their male partners have similar antecedents of LOC orientation. As previously, we use a hypothesis-free exposome technique using all available information on the parents and childhood of the individuals.Results:We show that men had many of the same antecedent characteristics as the women – in particular, their mother’s year of birth and father’s social group, being exposed to cigarette smoke prenatally, starting to smoke regularly before the age of 11, and having a friend die were all associated with being external. Associations of internality common to both were warm maternal care, being breast fed, being born in an area other than that where they currently live, attending boarding school and having a parent admitted to hospital.Conclusions:In general, the antecedents of male external and internal personalities have many similarities to those of women, thus providing some features to inform the possible theoretical background as to how LOC might develop over time.

M.Ed. (Educational Psychology) Please refer to full text to view abstract

Описано сравнительное аналитическое исследование представлений о половом воспитании и отношение к детской сексуальности у молодых взрослых, проживающих в РФ. Исследование выполнялось в два этапа. На предварительном этапе использовались качественные методы, глубинное интервью и контент-анализ транскриптов. На основном этапе использовались количественные методы, опросники и методы математической статистики. Выборку исследования составили 468 человек (317 женщин и 151 мужчина) в возрасте от 20 до 35 лет. В представлениях о половом воспитании выявлены три тенденции (стратегии) полового воспитания: консервативная, либеральная и разработанность планов на половое воспитание. Установлена обратная связь между консервативной и либеральной стратегиями. Продемонстрировано, что принимающее отношение к детской сексуальности является фактором предпочтительного выбора либеральной стратегии, большей разработанности планов на половое воспитание, и меньшей выраженности проявлений консервативной стратегии. Проведены аналогии между выявленными стратегиями и распространенными зарубежными типами полового воспитания с изученными характеристиками эффективности. На основании мнения об эффективности комплексного типа полового воспитания с использованием либеральной стратегии и разработанности планов (в отличие от близкого к консервативной стратегии направленного на воздержание типа воспитания), приведены рекомендации для родителей и специалистов, работающих с детьми. Такие рекомендации направлены на повышение уровня принятия детской сексуальности и проработанности планов на половое воспитание. This study aimed to assess the relation between the preferred strategy of sexuality education, attitude towards child sexuality, and one’s own childhood experience of parental sexuality education among young adults’ living in the Russian Federation. The present study consisted of two stages. Qualitative data were obtained through in-depth interviews from 30 young women in the preliminary stage of the study. These data were processed using content analysis and transformed into a questionnaire measuring perceptions of sexuality education strategies and person’s attitude towards child sexuality. In the main study quantitative methods were used, questionnaires, several retrospective questions, and methods of mathematical statistics. The main sample included 438 people (317 women and 151 men) aged 20–35 years old. Concepts of sexuality education were divided into three types which were called sex education strategies: conservative, liberal and general plans for sexuality education. It was shown that these strategies are directly related to the attitudes towards childhood sexuality (MANOVA, p = ,000) but not to participants’ experience with their parents. Namely acceptance of child sexuality was a factor in the preferences of the liberal strategy, more sophisticated plans for sexuality education, and less expression of a conservative strategy. Identified strategies were linked with the types of sexuality education , described by Kirby (D. Kirby, 2007):Conservative strategy – with abstinence only programs, liberal strategy and developed plans – with comprehensive programs of sexuality education. In view of the fact that comprehensive sexuality education was found to be more effective, paper offers a recommendation to create training for parent and professionals working with children. This training should aim at increasing acceptance of child sexuality which in turn will give the adults chance to later change their preferences for sexuality education strategy which is more beneficial for their children. Баркова Софья Михайловна, аспирант кафедры психического здоровья и раннего сопровождения детей и родителей, Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет (Санкт-Петербург), sofia.barkova@gmail.com Васильева Нина Леонидовна, доктор психологических наук, профессор кафедры психического здоровья и раннего сопровождения детей и родителей, Санкт-Петербургский государственный университет (Санкт-Петербург), ninavasilyeva@yandex.ru S.M. Barkova, sofia.barkova@gmail.com N.L. Vasilyeva, ninavasilyeva@yandex.ru Sankt Petersburg State University, St. Petersburg, Russian Federation

Thesis (PhD)--University of South Australia, 2015. Includes bibliographical references (pages 191-241) The importance of playfulness as an essential attribute for occupational therapists to consider has been demonstrated by its significant links with coping skills, creativity and divergent thinking. Consequently, it is a particularly important attribute for young children, though few studies have examined playfulness in preschool children, and existing studies have tended to have very small sample sizes. Further, recent research has examined playfulness in children with a range of disabilities. However, very little research has been conducted into potential precursors of playfulness such as parenting practices, parent characteristics and security of attachment, particularly studies that use rigorous methods of measuring playfulness in children. Such research is vital, as further investigation of potential precursors may provide direction for the development of effective interventions. The current investigation consisted of three exploratory studies. The first study examines playfulness in a sample of 118 preschool children in metropolitan Adelaide. The second study, in a sample of 122, aims to investigate whether parental mind mindedness (ability to view one's child as an individual with his or her own mental state), parenting practices,parent playfulness and/or children's attachment behaviour are associated with playfulness in these children. The third study examines both descriptive statistics and the playfulness profiles of a small group of 5 children who have experienced child abuse and/or neglect in order to determine whether there are differences in playfulness between participants in study 2 and study 3.

M.Ed. Please refer to full text to view abstract

Rationale: Sport participation is especially important for patients with asthma in that it decreases psychosocial and physiological problems associated with inactivity. However, adolescents with asthma seem to participate less in sports compared to their non-asthmatic peers. The current study tested the direct associations between maternal sport-specific factors and sport club participation of early adolescents with asthma and the indirect effect through adolescent's sport-specific cognitions. Methods: During home visits, 261 adolescents (aged 10-15) completed questionnaires about self-efficacy, beliefs regarding sport participation, and their actual sport club participation. Their mothers reported their sport-specific support, beliefs about offspring's and own sport participation, their own levels of physical activity, and their self-efficacy to stimulate offspring to participate in sports. Path analyses were used to examine the direct and indirect associations of maternal sport-specific factors with adolescents sport club participation via adolescent sport-specific cognitions. Results: Analyses showed that maternal sport-specific support (beta = 0.20, P = 0.007) and self-efficacy to stimulate offspring to participate in sports (beta = 0.20, P = 0.027) related positively to adolescents' sport club participation. Adolescents' self-efficacy (indirect effect 0.09, SE = 3.01, P

Background Understanding the influences on physical activity is crucial, particularly among important target groups such as adolescent girls. This study describes cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between parenting style and girls’ participation in organized sport, walking/cycling trips and objectively assessed moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA). Methods Data were collected from adolescent girls (n=222) and their parents in 2004 and again in 2006. Parents self-reported their demographic characteristics and parenting style. Girls self-reported their organized sport participation and weekly walking/cycling trips, while MVPA was assessed using accelerometers. Linear regression and interaction analyses were performed. Interactions between socio-demographic factors and parenting style with organized sport, walking/cycling trips and MVPA are presented. Results There were cross-sectional associations between authoritative (B=−0.45, p=0.042) and indulgent (B=−0.56, p=0.002) parenting and the number of walking/cycling trips, and authoritarian (B=0.27, p=0.033) parenting and frequency of organized sport. Significant interactions included those between: family status, authoritative parenting and daily (p=0.048) and week day (p=0.013) MVPA; education, indulgent parenting and MVPA on weekend days (p=0.006); and, employment, authoritarian parenting and duration and frequency of organized sport (p=0.004), highlighting the complexity of these relationships. Longitudinal analyses revealed significant decreases in organized sport and MVPA, significant increases in walking/cycling trips and no significant associations between parenting and physical activity. Conclusion Parenting styles appear to influence walking and cycling trips among adolescent girls, though not physical activity within other domains. Socio-demographic characteristics interact with the relationships between parenting and physical activity. While these findings can inform the development of family-based interventions to improve child and adolescent health, the direction of the observed associations and the number of associations approaching significance suggest the need to further explore this area.

The study of ethnic minority populations can provide valuable information about diverse subgroups within the larger society and clarify the significance of sociocultural factors in child socialization (Vargas & Busch-Rossnagel, 2003). Parental knowledge about child development has been found to influence conceptualizations of acceptable and normative behaviors and could therefore explain why parents from diverse backgrounds differ in childrearing attitudes, beliefs, and practices (Delgado & Ford, 1998; Huang, Caughy, Genevro, & Miller, 2005). Hispanic mothers, in general, have been characterized according to a deficit model in comparative analyses with their Anglo-American counterparts. This deficit model does not account for the cultural influences inherent in the parental schemas of Hispanic mothers (Cardona, Nicholson, & Fox, 2000). The present study aimed to broaden the existing literature on the values that Mexican mothers have concerning their children’s development, the role that culture plays in maternal teaching practices, and to explore the notion of an existing conflict between home and school values in relation to Mexican children’s academic achievement. This study was comprised of a sample of seventy-nine Mexican mothers between the ages of 18-over 40. A questionnaire, designed by the researcher after an examination of the literature and pilot testing, was used to measure maternal values associated with parenting and teaching strategies. In addition to family demographic information (maternal place of birth, education, marital status, family income), the questionnaire included 54 questions and was divided into the following six subscales: child attitude, child learning, teaching, parenting, maternal values about child development, and academic achievement (GPA). Mothers in the study were found to place more emphasis on their values towards child development than their parenting skills. Maternal values were found to be associated with parenting practices. A significant relationship was also found between child learning and GPA.

This study has researched five retained children aged 6 to 12 years, three male and two female from Primary School attending a private school in São Paulo, aiming to investigate their comprehension of their parents attitudes concerning their learning difficulties, on a Psychoanalytic theoretical framework. It describes the analyses of the Family Drawing and the Educational Pair Drawing produced by each participant as well as the questioning of those drawings. Most common signs were shyness and feeling of inadequacy, or guilty due to inadequate behaviors. Data analysis also showed that children who presented learning difficulties presented significant family conflicts such as mother and father distance. Results point to enhancing parent and children relationships and prevention of school difficulties. Este estudo pesquisou cinco crianças repetentes, de idade entre 7 a 12 anos, sendo três do sexo masculino e duas do sexo feminino, do Ensino Fundamental I de uma escola particular da cidade de São Paulo, a fim de investigar manifestações de sua compreensão quanto às atitudes dos pais frente às suas dificuldades de aprendizagem, sob uma ótica psicanalítica. Descreve as análises do Desenho da Família e do Par Educativo produzidos por cada participante combinadas aos respectivos inquéritos. Os sinais mais presentes obtidos por meio das análises foram afastamento, timidez e sentimento de inadequação ou culpa sobre a incapacidade de agir corretamente. A análise dos dados também mostrou que as crianças que apresentavam dificuldades de aprendizagem demonstraram certos conflitos familiares significativos, como o distanciamento materno ou paterno. Os resultados apontam para o aprimoramento nas relações entre pais e filhos e a prevenção das dificuldades escolares.

There is a growing body of evidence that the parents of trauma-exposed children report posttraumatic stress symptoms whether they are directly exposed to the same trauma as the child or not. The parents’ symptoms also correlate with the child’s self-reported symptoms – although not as strongly as some might expect. There is a widespread assumption that anxious parents model and reward anxious behaviours in their offspring and this might contribute to anxiety onset and maintenance in the child. This assumption has not been looked at in children with PTSD. The present study aimed to (i) design and pilot an observational measure of parent behaviour towards children with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) during a 10-minute trauma focused parent-child interaction task, and (ii) explore the relationships between the observed parent behaviours from this interaction and self-report measures of parenting behaviours, child and parent symptomatology, and trauma-related appraisals. Twenty parent-child dyads were recruited from a child traumatic stress clinic. The factor found to most strongly relate to the child’s PTSD severity was the strength of their own negative trauma-related beliefs. Observed parent fear/distress behaviours were significantly related to the parent’s own negative trauma-related beliefs, but not to the child’s PTSD symptoms or beliefs. Similarly, parent self-reported maladaptive parenting behaviours were significantly related to the parent’s own symptoms and negative beliefs, but not to the child’s PTSD level. Finally, there were associations found between parent depression and child PTSD symptom severity, as well as between the parent and child’s negative trauma-related beliefs. These results suggest that specific parenting behaviours may not be directly related to the child’s PTSD, but that parents’ depression and trauma-related beliefs may play a role.

Parents and toddlers have been observed in a variety of situations. In this study, forty-two parent-toddler dyads were observed interacting with feminine sex-typed toys. The toys included in the study were two baby dolls and a soft, stuffed clown. It was proposed that the type of toy used during the play session was to be the determining factor in how the parent and toddler played. The baby dolls were expected to elicit more nurturing and caretaking responses from both parents and toddlers; while the soft, stuffed clown was expected to evoke more object type play. Parents and toddlers were observed for their suggestions and/or initiations to their partner for play behaviors. Responses of the parents and toddlers to their partner's suggestions and/or initiations were also observed. In general, parents were found to encourage more feminine sex-typed play behaviors with the baby dolls than with the clown. It was also found that toddlers as young as 18 months of age were able to discriminate between different play behaviors with the baby dolls and clown. In terms of the responses, boys and girls accepted more responses from the same sex parent and rejected more responses from the other sex parent. This study lends evidence that all "dolls" are not alike, with baby dolls being different from a soft, stuffed clown. Children learn about their environment and how to interact with their environment through play. Therefore, parents who provide their child with baby dolls are scaffolding different experiences for their child than those parents who provide their child with a soft, stuffed toy.

The purpose of this dissertation was to investigate the relationship between global parenting style and education specific parenting practices as processes related to academic achievement and achievement related factors. This study not only assessed the degree of relationship between variables, it also tested a process model in which education specific parenting practices mediated the relationship between global parenting style and academic achievement and achievement related outcomes. Four sets of variables were analyzed: (a) parenting style variables (Authoritative, Authoritarian, and Permissive parenting), (b) education specific parenting practices (Parental Involvement, Encouragement to Achieve, and Response to Grades), (c) achievement related outcomes factors (Achievement Attributions, Study Strategies, and Motivation), and (d) academic achievement (Self-Reported Grade Point Average).

During the past decade increased attention has been directed toward alcoholism as a family system problem. Recent publications have identified characteristics of the "alcoholic family" system and a model of psychosocial development specific to children of alcoholics. Both theoretical frameworks proposed that family and individual growth and development were delayed or stagnated by the effects of parental alcoholism. This study explored possible effects of problem parental alcohol use or alcoholism on adolescent development. The variables studied were differentiation from family, identity achievement, and intimacy in close relationships. Two data collection methods were used: a mailed questionnaire and an interview with a subgroup of respondents who returned the questionnaire. Respondents were classified as children of alcoholics (COAs) or children of nonalcoholics (NCOAs) based on answers to one of two questions posed in the demographics' section. Questionnaires were distributed at a four-year college to sophomores, juniors, and seniors residing on-campus. A total of 160 questionnaires were returned. Twenty-four percent of the respondents reported one or more problem drinking parents. Interviews were completed with ten students, four of whom were in the COA group. Student's t tests, analysis of variance and multiple regression tests were performed an the data between and within groups. Results from the between groups analyses indicated that differentiation From family was more developed for the NCOA group. Overall development did not appear affected by parental problem drinking. The within group analysis tested for differences based on gender of problem drinking parent. ANOVA results indicated no significant differences among mean scores on the measures of differentiation, identity, and intimacy. The results of multiple regression analyses indicated that differentiation and identity were statistically significant in the prediction of intimacy, although the model best explained intimacy for the COA group. Results suggested that development is most delayed for daughters of alcoholic mothers. Ph. D.

An independent samples t-test was conducted to examine whether there was a significant difference between urban and suburban about the impact of parental influences towards food hygiene practices. The test revealed that there are no statistically significant difference between urban and suburban (t = 0.779, df = 394.29, p > 0.001). Urban adolescents (M = 19.615, SD = 3.024) reported significantly equal with the overall parental influences suburban adolescents (M = 19.390, SD= 2.743). The result indicates that similar parental influences due to increased food safety awareness and information communication technology can be easily passed down to their children.

The data gathered for this exploratory study of parental influence on mate selection supported the thesis that parents influence their childrens' mate selection. Fifty married university students were interviewed and fifty-five of their parents returned mailed questionnaires. Although students indicated that they, themselves, had chosen their spouses, seventy per cent of the students perceived parental influence on their choice of mate. Thirty-six per cent of the parents felt that they had influenced their childrens' choice of a spouse. It was postulated that parents through socialization and by acting as validators of their childrens' choices--by encouraging approved matches and discouraging opposed matches, exerted influence. Three types of influence were found which were classified according to BurKess' typology of parental influence: controlling of social contacts, opposition to disapproved matches, and the child's conscious desire to choose a mate his or her parents would approve. In these ways, by determining an appropriate field of eligibles, the parents directly and indirectly had input into their childrens' choice of mates. The great majority of parents met the individuals dated and/ or courted by their children. Of these parents, most approved of the individuals met; if they disapproved they communicated their feelings very overtly. The “individual choice" explorations of mate selection are questioned, and it is suggested that a study with a larger representative sample be undertaken to ascertain parental influence on mate selection for the population. Master of Science

Background Parental educational expectations have been associated with children’s educational attainment in a number of long-term longitudinal studies, but whether this relationship is causal has long been debated. The aims of this prospective study were twofold: 1) test whether low maternal educational expectations contributed to failure to graduate from high school; and 2) compare the results obtained using different strategies for accounting for confounding variables (i.e. multivariate regression and propensity score matching). Methodology/Principal Findings The study sample included 1,279 participants from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Kindergarten Children. Maternal educational expectations were assessed when the participants were aged 12 years. High school graduation – measuring educational attainment – was determined through the Quebec Ministry of Education when the participants were aged 22–23 years. Findings show that when using the most common statistical approach (i.e. multivariate regressions to adjust for a restricted set of potential confounders) the contribution of low maternal educational expectations to failure to graduate from high school was statistically significant. However, when using propensity score matching, the contribution of maternal expectations was reduced and remained statistically significant only for males. Conclusions/Significance The results of this study are consistent with the possibility that the contribution of parental expectations to educational attainment is overestimated in the available literature. This may be explained by the use of a restricted range of potential confounding variables as well as the dearth of studies using appropriate statistical techniques and study designs in order to minimize confounding. Each of these techniques and designs, including propensity score matching, has its strengths and limitations: A more comprehensive understanding of the causal role of parental expectations will stem from a convergence of findings from studies using different techniques and designs.