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In August 2018, a demonstration/experiment was performed in Champaign, Illinois USA, at the Engineer Research and Development Center Construction Engineering Research Laboratory (ERDC-CERL) looking at the continuous printing of a 512 ft2 (47.6 m2) reinforced additively constructed concrete (RACC) building. This building incorporated the capability of 3D-printing to produce unique free-form shapes, while utilizing traditional reinforcing methods. Previously, in July of 2017, a more traditional building was 3D printed using a discontinuous concrete printing approach. These demonstrations were performed to determine the feasibility of using additively constructed concrete (ACC) as a material for vertical structural elements. This study explores the differences and similarities of ACC with conventional concrete construction and concrete masonry unit construction. To validate the feasibility of ACC a cost comparison analysis was performed comparing the construction methods used in these demonstrations to conventional concrete masonry unit and cast-in-place concrete construction.

In additive construction, ambitious goals to fabricate a concrete building in less than 24 h are attempted. In the field, this goal relies on a metric of print time to make this conclusion, which excludes rest time and delays. The task to complete a building in 24 h was put to the test with the first attempt at a fully continuous print of a structurally reinforced additively constructed concrete (ACC) building. A time series analysis was performed on the events during the construction of a 512 ft2 (16 ft x 32 ft x 9.25 ft) building to explore the effect of delays on the completion time. This analysis included a study of the variation in comprehensive layer print times, expected trends and forecasting for what is expected in future prints of similar types. Furthermore, the study included a determination and comparison of print time, elapsed time and construction time, as well as a look at the effect of environmental conditions on the delay events. Upon finishing, the analysis concluded that the 3D printed building was completed in 14-hours of print time, 31.2-hours elapsed time, or a total of 5 days of construction time. This emphasizes that reports on newly 3D printed constructions need to provide a definition of time that includes all possible duration periods to communicate realistic capabilities of this new technology.

In additive construction, ambitious goals to fabricate a concrete building in less than 24 hours are attempted. In the field, this goal relies on a metric of print time to make this conclusion, which excludes rest time and delays. The task to complete a building in 24 hours was put to the test with the first attempt at a fully continuous print of a structurally reinforced additively constructed concrete (ACC) building. A time series analysis was performed during the construction of a 512 ft2 (16’x32’x9.25’) building to explore the effect of delays on the completion time. This analysis included a study of the variation in comprehensive layer print times, expected trends and forecasting for what is expected in future prints of similar types. Furthermore, the study included a determination and comparison of print time, elapsed time, and construction time, as well as a look at the effect of environmental conditions on the delay events. Upon finishing, the analysis concluded that the 3D-printed building was completed in 14-hours of print time, 31.2- hours elapsed time, a total of 5 days of construction time. This emphasizes that reports on newly 3D-printed constructions need to provide a definition of time that includes all possible duration periods to communicate realistic capabilities of this new technology.

The need to conduct complex operations over time results in U.S. forces remaining in deployed locations for long periods. In such cases, more sustainable facilities are required to better accommodate and protect forward deployed forces. Current efforts to develop safer, more sustainable operating facilities for contingency bases involve construction activities that redesign the types and characteris-tics of the structures constructed, reduce the resources required to build, and reduce resources needed to operate and maintain the com-pleted facilities. The Automated Construction of Expeditionary Structures (ACES) project was undertaken to develop the capability to “print” custom-designed expeditionary structures on demand, in the field, using locally available materials with the minimum number of personnel. This work investigated large-scale automated “additive construction” (i.e., 3D printing with concrete) for construction applications. This document, which documents ACES energy and modeling, is one of four technical reports, each of which details a major area of the ACES research project, its research processes, and associated results, including: System Requirements, Construction, and Performance; Energy and Modeling; Materials and Testing; Architectural and Structural Analysis.

Complex military operations often result in U.S. forces remaining at deployed locations for long periods. In such cases, more sustaina-ble facilities are required to better accommodate and protect forward-deployed forces. Current efforts to develop safer, more sustaina-ble operating facilities for contingency bases involve construction activities that require a redesign of the types and characteristics of the structures constructed, that reduce the resources required to build, and that decrease the resources needed to operate and maintain the completed facilities. The Automated Construction of Expeditionary Structures (ACES) project was undertaken to develop the capa-bility to “print” custom-designed expeditionary structures on demand, in the field, using locally available materials with the minimum number of personnel. This work investigated large-scale automated “additive construction” (i.e., 3D printing with concrete) for con-struction applications. This report, which documents ACES materials and testing, is one of four technical reports, each of which details a major area of the ACES research project, its research processes, and its associated results. There major areas include System Require-ments, Construction, and Performance; Energy and Modeling; Materials and Testing; Architectural and Structural Analysis.

The need to conduct complex operations over time results in U.S. forces remaining in deployed locations for long periods. In such cases, more sustainable facilities are required to better accommodate and protect forward deployed forces. Current efforts to develop safer, more sustainable operating facilities for contingency bases involve construction activities that redesign the types and characteris-tics of the structures constructed, reduce the resources required to build, and reduce resources needed to operate and maintain the com-pleted facilities. The Automated Construction of Expeditionary Structures (ACES) project was undertaken to develop the capability to “print” custom-designed expeditionary structures on demand, in the field, using locally available materials with the minimum number of personnel. This work investigated large-scale automated “additive construction” (i.e., 3D printing with concrete) for construction applications. This document, which documents ACES energy and modeling, is one of four technical reports, each of which details a major area of the ACES research project, its research processes, and associated results, including: System Requirements, Construction, and Performance; Energy and Modeling; Materials and Testing; Architectural and Structural Analysis.

Maternal exposure to stress during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders in the offspring in later life. The mechanisms through which the effects of maternal stress are transmitted to the fetus are unclear, however the placenta, as the interface between mother and fetus, is likely to play a key role. Using a rat model, we investigated a role for placental oxidative stress in conveying the effects of maternal social stress to the fetus and the potential for treatment using a nanoparticle-bound antioxidant to prevent adverse outcomes in the offspring. Maternal psychosocial stress increased circulating corticosterone in the mother, but not in the fetuses. Maternal stress also induced oxidative stress in the placenta, but not in the fetal brain. Blocking oxidative stress using an antioxidant prevented the prenatal stress-induced anxiety phenotype in the male offspring, and prevented sex-specific neurobiological changes, specifically a reduction in dendrite lengths in the hippocampus, as well as reductions in the number of parvalbumin-positive neurons and GABA receptor subunits in the hippocampus and basolateral amygdala of the male offspring. Importantly, many of these effects were mimicked in neuronal cultures by application of placental-conditioned medium or fetal plasma from stressed pregnancies, indicating molecules released from the placenta may mediate the effects of prenatal stress on the fetal brain. Indeed, both placenta-conditioned medium and fetal plasma contained differentially abundant microRNAs following maternal stress, and their predicted targets were enriched for genes relevant to nervous system development and psychiatric disorders. The results highlight placental oxidative stress as a key mediator in transmitting the maternal social stress effects on the offspring's brain and behavior, and offer a potential intervention to prevent stress-induced fetal programming of affective disorders., Highlights • Social stress in pregnancy induces oxidative stress but is prevented by antioxidant. • Prenatal stress induces behavioural, neuroanatomical and neurochemical changes. • Maternal antioxidant treatment prevents stress-induced effects in the offspring. • Maternal stress alters the balance of microRNAs secreted from the placenta. • Placental oxidative stress mediates maternal social stress effects on the offspring.

Episodes of hypoxia and hypoxia/reoxygenation during foetal development have been associated with increased risk of neurodevelopmental conditions presenting in later life. The mechanism for this is not understood; however, several authors have suggested that the placenta plays an important role. Previously we found both placentas from a maternal hypoxia model and pre-eclamptic placentas from patients release factors lead to a loss of dendrite complexity in rodent neurons. Here to further explore the nature and origin of these secretions we exposed a simple in vitro model of the placental barrier, consisting of a barrier of human cytotrophoblasts, to hypoxia or hypoxia/reoxygenation. We then exposed cortical cultures from embryonic rat brains to the conditioned media (CM) from below these exposed barriers and examined changes in cell morphology, number, and receptor presentation. The barriers released factors that reduced dendrite and astrocyte process lengths, decreased GABAB1 staining, and increased astrocyte number. The changes in astrocytes required the presence of neurons and were prevented by inhibition of the SMAD pathway and by neutralising Bone Morphogenetic Proteins (BMPs) 2/4. Barriers exposed to hypoxia/reoxygenation also released factors that reduced dendrite lengths but increased GABAB1 staining. Both oxygen changes caused barriers to release factors that decreased GluN1, GABAAα1 staining and increased GluN3a staining. We find that hypoxia in particular will elicit the release of factors that increase astrocyte number and decrease process length as well as causing changes in the intensity of glutamate and GABA receptor staining. There is some evidence that BMPs are released and contribute to these changes.

When pigeons are given a choice between 50% signaled reinforcement and 100% reinforcement they typically do not choose optimally, sometimes even preferring 50% reinforcement. Smith and Zentall (J Exp Psychol Anim Behav Process 42:212-220, 2016) proposed that choice depends primarily on the predictive value of the signal for reinforcement associated with each alternative (both 100% reinforcement) and not the frequency of the signal for reinforcement (50% vs. 100%). With extended training, however, Case and Zentall (Behav Process, 2018) found that pigeons actually show a reliable preference for the 50% reinforcement alternative. They suggested that contrast between the expected outcome at the time of choice (50% reinforcement) and the value of the signal for reinforcement (100% reinforcement) is the mechanism responsible for the preference for the suboptimal alternative (for the optimal alternative there should be no contrast). In the present research, we tested the contrast hypothesis by increasing the probability of reinforcement for choice of the suboptimal alternative to 75%, thereby reducing the contrast between expected and obtained reinforcement and found a reduced preference for the suboptimal alternative. That is, increasing the probability of reinforcement for choice of the suboptimal alternative decreased suboptimal choice. Thus, preference for the suboptimal alternative appears to result from two mechanisms: (1) the value of the signal for reinforcement that follows choice of the alternative and (2) positive contrast between the expected and obtained probability of reinforcement. We compared this interpretation with other hypotheses.

The ephemeral-reward task involves providing subjects a choice between two distinctive stimuli, A and B, each containing an identical reward. If A is chosen, the food associated with A is obtained ...

The failure of certain species to learn a particular task while others learn it easily can help identify the learning mechanisms involved. In the ephemeral reward task, animals are given a choice between two distinctive stimuli, A and B, each containing an identical bit of food. If they choose A they get the food on A and the trial is over. If they choose B they get the food on B and they are allowed to get the food on A before the trial is over. Thus, it is optimal to choose B. Although cleaner fish (wrasse) and parrots acquire the optimal response easily, several primate species do not. Furthermore, pigeons and rats also appear to be unable learn to choose optimally. The failure of primates, pigeons, and rats to learn this task and the ease with which cleaner fish and parrots learn it raises important questions about the learning mechanisms involved in those differences. To account for these paradoxical findings, we proposed that certain species may have difficulty with this task because they tend to respond impulsively to the initial choice which has similar immediate outcomes and they do not associate the choice and reinforcement with the second reinforcement. To test this hypothesis, we temporally separated the initial choice from the first reinforcement by imposing a 20-s delay between the choice and its outcome. Under these conditions both pigeons and rats gradually acquired the optimal choice response. We suggest that impulsive choice may make it difficult to acquire certain tasks and imposing a delay between choice and outcome may decrease impulsivity and allow for closer to optimal task performance.

Animals choose suboptimally when provided with cues that signal whether reinforcement is coming or not. For example, pigeons do not prefer an alternative that always provides them with a signal for reinforcement over an alternative that provides them with a signal for reinforcement only half of the time and a signal for the absence of reinforcement the rest of the time. In the present research, we tested the hypothesis that if the results of the choice are delayed, pigeons will choose less suboptimally. We tested this hypothesis by forcing pigeons to wait following their choice, requiring them to complete a fixed-interval 20-s schedule prior to receiving the signals for reinforcement. In Experiment 1, we gave the pigeons a choice between (a) a 50% chance of receiving a signal for reinforcement or a 50% chance of receiving a signal for the absence of reinforcement and (b) a 100% chance of receiving a signal for reinforcement. When the signal for reinforcement was delayed, most of the pigeons chose optimally. When it was not delayed, most of the pigeons chose suboptimally. In Experiment 2, we gave the pigeons a choice between (a) a 25% chance of receiving a signal for reinforcement or a 75% chance of receiving a signal for nonreinforcement and (b) a 100% chance of receiving an unreliable signal for reinforcement (predicting reinforcement 75% of the time). When the signal was not delayed, the pigeons showed a strong tendency to choose suboptimally but they chose suboptimally much less when the signal was delayed.

Procrastination is the tendency to put off initiation or completion of a task. Although people are typically known to procrastinate, recent research suggests that they sometimes "pre-crastinate" by initiating a task sooner than they need to (Rosenbaum et al. in Psychological Science, 25(7), 1487-1496, 2014). A similar finding of precrastination was reported by Wasserman and Brzykcy (Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 22, 1130-1134, 2015) with pigeons using a somewhat different procedure. In the present experiment, we used a procedure with pigeons that was more similar to the procedure used by Rosenbaum et al. Pigeons were given a choice between two sequences of events (concurrent chains). Choice of the procrastination chain resulted in color A, which 15-s later would change to color B and 5-s later resulted in reinforcement. Choice of the precrastination chain resulted in color C, which 5-s later would change to color D and 15-s later resulted in reinforcement. Thus, both chains led to reinforcement after 20 s. Results indicated that the pigeons procrastinated. That is, they preferred the 15-5 chain over the 5-15 chain. The results are consistent with Fantino's (Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, 12, 723-730, 1969) delay reduction theory, which posits that stimuli that signal a reduction in the delay to reinforcement, such as the 5-s stimulus that occurred immediately prior to reinforcement, serve as strong conditioned reinforcers and should be preferred. In support of this theory, the pigeons pecked most at the 5-s stimulus that led immediately to reinforcement, indicating that it had become a strong conditioned reinforcer. The results suggest that delay reduction theory, a theory that emphasizes the attraction to stimuli that predict reinforcement with a short delay, also may contribute to human procrastination behavior because when task completion comes just before the deadline, it may become a stronger conditioned reinforcer than if task completion comes earlier.

Background Most states have now passed legislation mandating pulse oximetry for all newborns, or have promulgated regulations or guidelines to encourage use of routine pulse oximetry. State-based birth defects registries may be well positioned to track and evaluate critical congenital heart disease (CCHD) screening coverage and outcomes. This purpose of this study was to determine: (1) the proportion of cases detected by screening, (2) health services use by children with CCHDs during the first year of life, and (3) mortality outcomes. Methods Records of children born in 2012 to 2013 with any of seven CCHD lesions were identified in New England birth defects databases. Information was abstracted from each child's medical record. Descriptive statistics were used to report results. Results From nearly 160,000 live births, 208 CCHD diagnoses were noted in the records of 157 children. Screening was noted in 67% of records of confirmed cases of CCHDs. Data completeness varied by state; for example, information was available regarding prenatal diagnosis in 91% of records and age at first surgery in 85% among states with active surveillance compared with 35% and 75%, respectively, with passive surveillance. Documentation of screening results in medical records was inconsistent. The one year survival was 85% (77/91). Conclusion Birth defects surveillance systems can provide information on outcomes for infants with CCHDs. However, information varies by surveillance method and by hospital practices. Engaging hospitals in standardizing recording procedures and enhancing training and quality control could increase the value of birth defects registries records in assessing outcomes for children identified through CCHD screening. Birth Defects Research 109:1414–1422, 2017.© 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Maternal exposure to social stress during pregnancy is associated with an increased risk of psychiatric disorders in the offspring in later life. However, the mechanism through which the effects of maternal stress are transmitted to the foetus is unclear. Using a rat model, we explored the mechanisms by which maternal social stress is conveyed to the foetus and the potential for targeted treatment to prevent disease in the offspring. Maternal stress increased circulating corticosterone in the mother, but not the foetuses. Maternal stress also induced oxidative stress in the placenta, but not in the foetal brain, and this was prevented by administration of a nanoparticle-bound antioxidant. Moreover, antioxidant treatment prevented prenatal stress-induced anxiety-like behaviour in the adult male offspring, along with several stress-induced neuroanatomical, neurochemical and gene expression changes in the offspring brain. Importantly, many of these neural effects were mimicked in neuronal cultures by application of placental-conditioned medium or foetal plasma from stressed pregnancies. Both placental-conditioned medium and foetal plasma contained differentially abundant extracellular microRNAs following prenatal stress. The present study highlights the crucial role of the placenta, and the molecules it secretes, in foetal brain development and provides evidence of the potential for treatment that can prevent maternal stress-induced foetal programming of neurological disease.

Purpose This paper aims to qualify traditional concrete mixtures for large-scale material extrusion in an automated, additive manufacturing process or additive construction. Design/methodology/approach A robust and viable automated additive construction process must be developed that has the capability to construct full-scale, habitable structures using materials that are readily available near the location of the construction site. Accordingly, the applicability of conventional concrete mixtures for large-scale material extrusion in an additive construction process was investigated. A qualitative test was proposed in which concrete mixtures were forced through a modified clay extruder and evaluated on performance and potential to be suitable for nozzle extrusion typical of additive construction, or 3D printing with concrete. The concrete mixtures were further subjected to the standard drop table test for flow, and the results for the two tests were compared. Finally, the concrete mixtures were tested for setting time, compressive strength and flexural strength as final indicators for usefulness in large-scale construction. Findings Conventional concrete mixtures, typically with a high percentage of coarse aggregate, were found to be unsuitable for additive construction application due to clogging in the extruder. However, reducing the amount of coarse aggregate provided concrete mixtures that were promising for additive construction while still using materials that are generally available worldwide. Originality/value Much of the work performed in additive manufacturing processes on a construction scale using concrete focuses on unconventional concrete mixtures using synthetic aggregates or no coarse aggregate at all. This paper shows that a concrete mixture using conventional materials can be suitable for material extrusion in additive construction. The use of conventional materials will reduce costs and allow for additive construction to be used worldwide.

The ephemeral reward task provides a subject with a choice between two alternatives A and B. If it chooses alternative A, reinforcement follows and the trial is over. If it chooses alternative B, reinforcement follows but the subject can also respond to alternative A which is followed by a second reinforcement. Thus, it would be optimal to choose alternative B. Surprisingly, Salwiczek et al. (PLoS One 7:e49068, 2012. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.00490682012 ) reported that adult fish (cleaner wrasse) mastered this task within 100 trials, whereas monkeys and apes had great difficulty with it. The authors attributed the species differences to ecological differences in the species foraging experiences. However, Pepperberg and Hartsfield (J Comp Psychol 128:298–306, 2014) found that parrots too learned this task easily. We have found that with a similar task pigeons are not able to learn to choose optimally within 400 trials (Zentall et al. in J Comp Psychol 130:138–144, 2016). In Experiment 1 of the present study, we found that rats did not learn to choose optimally in 840 trials; however, in Experiment 2 we added a prior commitment to the initial choice by increasing delay to reinforcement for the choice response from a single lever press to the first lever press after 20 s (FI20 s). In a comparable amount of training to Experiment 1, the rats learned to choose optimally. Although the use of a prior commitment increases the delay to reinforcement, it appears to reduce impulsive responding which in turn leads to optimal choice.

The mobile gaming phenomenon Pokemon Go is one of the first successful mainstream games to feature augmented reality (AR) components, giving players the feeling of hunting Pokemon in real-life settings. Pokemon Go offers players access to “Pokelayer,” a game layer laid on top of the real world, combining GPS and an AR mode. This ability to turn daily activities into gameplay affords players the opportunity to live out their fantasy of being a Pokemon Trainer. The authors present findings from a phenomenological study with 30 participants showing the variant ways in which the Pokelayer and augmented reality’s capability for fantasy play emerged.

The purpose of the Automated Construction of Expeditionary Structures, Phase 3 (ACES 3) project is to incorporate the Liquid Goods Delivery System (LGDS) into the Dry Goods Delivery System (DGDS) structure to create an integrated and automated Materials Delivery System (MDS) for 3D printing structures with ordinary Portland cement (OPC) concrete. ACES 3 is a prototype for 3-D printing barracks for soldiers in forward bases, here on Earth. The LGDS supports ACES 3 by storing liquid materials, mixing recipe batches of liquid materials, and working with the Dry Goods Feed System (DGFS) previously developed for ACES 2, combining the materials that are eventually extruded out of the print nozzle. Automated Construction of Expeditionary Structures, Phase 3 (ACES 3) is a project led by the US Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) and supported by NASA. The equivalent 3D printing system for construction in space is designated Additive Construction with Mobile Emplacement (ACME) by NASA.

ObjectiveTo evaluate the relationships between maternal fish consumption and pregnancy outcomes in a large, population-based sample of women in the USA.DesignWe collected average fish consumption prior to pregnancy using a modified version of the semi-quantitative Willett FFQ. We estimated adjusted OR (aOR) and 95 % CI for associations between different levels of fish consumption and preterm birth (SettingThe National Birth Defects Prevention Study (NBDPS).SubjectsControl mother–infant pairs with estimated delivery dates between 1997 and 2011 (n 10 919).ResultsNo significant associations were observed between fish consumption and preterm birth or early preterm birth (aOR = 0·7–1·0 and 0·7–0·9, respectively). The odds of having an SGA infant were elevated (aOR = 2·1; 95 % CI 1·2, 3·4) among women with daily fish consumption compared with women consuming fish less than once per month. No associations were observed between other levels of fish consumption and SGA (aOR = 0·8–1·0).ConclusionsHigh intake of fish was associated with twofold higher odds of having an SGA infant, while moderate fish consumption prior to pregnancy was not associated with preterm or SGA. Our study, like many other studies in this area, lacked information regarding preparation methods and the specific types of fish consumed. Future studies should incorporate information on nutrient and contaminant contents, preparation methods and biomarkers to assess these relationships.

It has been assumed that when pigeons learn how to match to sample, they learn simple stimulus-response chains but not the concept of sameness. However, transfer to novel stimuli has been influenced by pigeons’ tendency to be neophobic. We trained pigeons on matching ( n = 7) and mismatching ( n = 8) with colors as samples and, with each sample, one color as the nonmatching comparison. We then replaced either the matching or the nonmatching stimulus with a familiar stimulus never presented with that sample. Results suggest that for both matching and mismatching, pigeons locate the stimulus that matches the sample: If the task involves matching, they chose it; if it involves mismatching, they avoid it. Thus, the concept of sameness is the basis for correct choice with both tasks. This finding suggests that sameness is a basic concept that does not have to be learned and may have evolved in many species, including humans.

Prior research has found that pigeons are indifferent between an option that always provides a signal for reinforcement and an alternative that provides a signal for reinforcement only 50% of the time (and a signal for the absence of reinforcement 50% of the time). This suboptimal choice suggests that the frequency of the signal for reinforcement plays virtually no role and choice depends only on the predictive value of the signal for reinforcement associated with each alternative. In the present research we tested the hypothesis that if there are two or three signals for reinforcement associated with the suboptimal alternative but each occurs only 25% or 17% of the time, respectively, pigeons would show a greater preference for the suboptimal alternative. Although we found that increasing the number of signals for reinforcement associated with the suboptimal alternative did not increase the preference for the suboptimal alternative (relative to a single signal for reinforcement) extended training on this task resulted in a significant preference for the suboptimal alternative by both groups. This result suggests that contrast between the expected outcome at the time of choice (50% reinforcement) and the value of the signal for reinforcement (100% reinforcement) is also responsible for choice of the suboptimal alternative.

Children with disabilities are at an increased risk for maltreatment. However, little is known about the risk of maltreatment in children with specific types of birth defects. This study was conducted to determine whether the risk and predictors of maltreatment in children 2 to 10 years of age differ between those without and with specific birth defects: Down syndrome, cleft lip with/without cleft palate, and spina bifida. State administrative and United States Census data were linked to identify study groups, variables of interest, and outcome measures. Kaplan-Meier and multivariate Cox proportional hazard analyses were used to identify study groups and variables associated with an increased risk for maltreatment. The prevalence of substantiated maltreatment was consistently highest among children with cleft lip with/without cleft palate. After adjusting for birth-level factors, children with Down syndrome and cleft lip with/without cleft palate were 34% and 26% more likely to have been maltreated than those without birth defects, respectively. In all three birth defect groups, the risk of medical neglect was higher (relative risks ranged from 3 to 11) than in the unaffected group. The factors associated with increased risk for maltreatment were similar across all groups. Of note, parity, maternal education, and maternal Medicaid use at birth were all associated with greater than 2-fold increased risk for maltreatment. Our findings suggest that the families of children with birth defects may need support services throughout early childhood to help families cope with the needs of their children and reduce the risk of maltreatment.

Background State-specific information about hospitalizations of children with birth defects can improve understanding of changes in occurrence, treatment practices, and health care financing policies. This study analyzed aggregated data on hospital charges and length of stay for a large, diverse population. Methods We extracted hospitalization data for children diagnosed with birth defects from the Texas Hospital Inpatient Discharge Public Use Data File (2001-2010). Analyses compared total charges and length of stay for children with and without a diagnosis code of any birth defect among 45 standard categories. We also examined trends for total charges by expected payer type. Results In Texas, 431,296 hospital stays were reported for children with birth defects, with total charges of $24.8 billion. Mean hospital stay for children with birth defects was more than twice that of those without, whereas mean of hospital total charges was approximately six times greater. Pyloric stenosis accounted for the largest number of hospitalizations, followed by certain cardiac defects. Pediatric hospitalizations for birth defects increased 273.7%, compared with a 214.7% increase overall. The percentage of charges with Medicaid as expected payer (2004-2010) ranged from 56.5 to 62.0%. Conclusion Charges associated with these conditions are far greater than those associated with pediatric hospitalizations for other causes, whether in the newborn period or beyond. However, these charges vary depending on specific diagnoses, expected payer source, and year of treatment.

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES: Children with disabilities are at an increased risk for maltreatment. However, the risk of maltreatment is unknown for children with specific types of birth defects. This study was conducted to determine whether the risk and predictors of maltreatment differ between children with and without 3 birth defects: Down syndrome, cleft lip with/without cleft palate, and spina bifida. METHODS: This population-based study of substantiated childhood maltreatment was conducted in Texas from 2002 to 2011. Linked data were used to describe the risk and types of maltreatment that occurred before age 2 years in children with and without specific birth defects. Poisson regression was used to identify predictors of maltreatment and assess differences in those predictors between children with and without these specific birth defects. RESULTS: The risk of maltreatment (any type) in children with cleft lip with/without cleft palate and spina bifida was increased by 40% and 58%, respectively, compared with children with no birth defects. The risk of any maltreatment was similar between children with Down syndrome and unaffected children. Across birth defect groups, the risk of medical neglect was 3 to 6 times higher than in the unaffected group. Child-, family-, and neighborhood-level factors predicted maltreatment in children with and without birth defects. CONCLUSIONS: The overall risk of substantiated maltreatment was significantly higher for some but not all birth defect groups. The factors associated with increased risk were similar across groups. Enhancement of existing maltreatment prevention and early intervention programs may be effective mechanisms to provide at-risk families additional support.

Study Objectives We sought to determine whether selected periconceptional health behaviors that influence risk for birth defects differ between older and younger adolescents and whether pregnancy intention predicts more positive preconception health behaviors among teens. Design and Participants We analyzed interview responses from 954 adolescent control group participants from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study who delivered live infants during 1997-2007. Main Outcome Measures Adjusted odds ratios (aORs) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) were calculated for factors of interest by age categories (13-15, 16-17, and 18 years, relative to 19 years). To construct a composite periconceptional behavior index, we summed the following healthy behaviors: nonsmoker, nondrinker, folic acid supplementation, and eating 5 or more servings of fruits and vegetables per day. Results Analyses indicated that women in the youngest group (13-15 years of age) were more likely to be Hispanic (aOR 2.83, 95% CI 1.40-5.70) and less likely to engage in some unhealthy pregnancy-related behaviors compared with 19-year-olds, such as smoking (aOR 0.45, 95% CI 0.20-0.99) and being overweight or obese (aOR 0.32, 95% CI 0.16-0.61). However, they were also less likely to have taken periconceptional folic acid (aOR 0.44, 95% CI 0.21-0.90). About one-third of teen mothers indicated that their pregnancies had been intended. Among 18- and 19-year-olds, this predicted a higher mean value for the composite periconceptional behavior index (2.30 versus 1.94, P ≤ .01). Conclusions Teen mothers are not a homogeneous group. Each age subgroup presents varied demographic and behavioral factors that put them at varying levels of risk for birth defects. Furthermore, caregivers should not assume that teens do not plan pregnancies or that they need not be informed of the importance of periconceptional health.

In the Monty Hall dilemma, humans are initially given a choice among three alternatives, one of which has a hidden prize. After they have chosen, but before revealing whether they have won the prize, subjects are shown that one of the remaining alternatives does not have the prize, and they are asked whether they want to stay with their original choice or switch to the remaining alternative. Switching results in obtaining the prize two thirds of the time, but even after considerable training, humans fail to consistently adopt the optimal strategy of switching. Pigeons, however, show closer-to-optimal switching performance with this task. One of the reasons that humans choose suboptimally is their mistaken assumption that with two alternatives, the probabilities of winning the prize are the same for staying and switching, and staying may be preferred because of a sense of endowment (ownership of the initial response). When we tried to produce an endowment effect in pigeons by requiring 20 pecks (rather than one peck) for the initial choice, it actually resulted in faster acquisition of the switching response. In the present research with pigeons, we examined the finding from human research that subjects are more likely to switch if they are not responsible for making the initial choice (another approach to the endowment effect). Inconsistent with the findings with humans, we found that when the initial choice was made for the pigeons, they actually showed less of a tendency to switch than did pigeons that made the initial choice themselves.

Pigeons show relatively poor memory when trained on 0-s delayed matching and tested with longer delays. We hypothesized that one reason for the effect of delay may be a loss of association between sample responding and reinforcement. To test this hypothesis, we compared the effect of standard delays inserted between the offset of the sample and the onset of the comparison stimuli with similar delays inserted between the comparison response and reinforcement. We also manipulated whether the delay was dark or lit because there is some evidence that lit delays are disruptive but filled intervals may also help bridge delays. In Experiment 1, pigeons were trained with a 0-s delay and were tested with longer delays. When both delays and delay illumination were novel, we found no effect of delay of reinforcement and only a small effect of delay illumination. In Experiment 2, to eliminate the effect of the novelty of the delay and delay illumination, pigeons were trained with delays from the start. Results indicated once again that delay of reinforcement had little effect on matching accuracy. However, in Experiment 2, delay illumination produced a general decline in matching accuracy and when it preceded comparison choice its effect increased with increasing delay. The results indicate that the rate of forgetting seen in the typical delayed matching experiment is not due to delay of reinforcement for attention to the sample. The results also confirm that lighting the delay after the sample is detrimental to delayed matching. Surprisingly perhaps, lighting the delay after the comparison response is also detrimental to delayed matching. Finally, it was concluded that a more accurate assessment of the rate of forgetting in delayed matching can be obtained by training with variable delays from the outset.

Three-dimensional (3D) tissue constructs consisting of human cells have opened a new avenue for tissue engineering, pharmaceutical and pathophysiological applications, and have great potential to estimate the dynamic pharmacological effects of drug candidates, metastasis processes of cancer cells, and toxicity expression of nano-materials, as a 3D-human tissue model instead of in vivo animal experiments. However, most 3D-cellular constructs are a cell spheroid, which is a heterogeneous aggregation, and thus the reconstruction of the delicate and precise 3D-location of multiple types of cells is almost impossible. In recent years, various novel technologies to develop complex 3D-human tissues including blood and lymph capillary networks have demonstrated that physiological human tissue responses can be replicated in the nano/micro-meter ranges. Here, we provide a brief overview on current 3D-tissue fabrication technologies and their biomedical applications. 3D-human tissue models will be a powerful technique for pathophysiological applications.

Background: Despite public health campaigns encouraging women to take a daily folic acid supplement, the proportion of reproductive age women, in the United States, who comply with this recommendation is less than optimal. The objective of this analysis was to identify predictors of preconceptional folic acid-containing supplement use to define subgroups of women who may benefit from targeted folic acid campaigns. Methods: This study included 6570 mothers of live born infants from the control population of National Birth Defects Prevention Study (1997–2005). Logistic regression analyses were used to identify predictors of preconceptional folic acid supplementation. A classification and regression tree (CART) analysis was used to define subgroups of women with different patterns of preconceptional folic acid supplementation. Results: Race/ethnicity, education, age at delivery, nativity, employment, income, number of dependents, smoking, and birth control use were significantly associated with preconceptional folic acid-containing supplement use. Based on a CART analysis, education, race/ethnicity, and age were the most distinguishing factors between women with different preconceptional supplementation patterns. Non-white women with

When humans are asked to judge the value of a set of objects of excellent quality, they often give this set higher value than those same objects with the addition of some of lesser quality. This is an example of the affect heuristic, often referred to as the less-is-more effect. Monkeys and dogs, too, have shown this suboptimal effect. But in the present experiments, normally hungry pigeons chose optimally: a preferred food plus a less--preferred food over a more-preferred food alone. In Experiment 2, however, pigeons on a less-restricted diet showed the suboptimal less-is-more effect. Choice on control trials indicated that the effect did not result from the novelty of two food items versus one. The effect in the less-food-restricted pigeons appears to result from the devaluation of the combination of the food items by the presence of the less-preferred food item. The reversal of the effect under greater food restriction may occur because, as motivation increases, the value of the less-preferred food increases faster than the value of the more-preferred food, thus decreasing the difference in value between the two foods.

In order to translate research findings into effective prevention strategies, it is important to understand people's beliefs about the causes of poor health outcomes. However, with the exception of knowledge and beliefs about folic acid supplementation, little is known regarding women's causal attributions women regarding birth defects. We employed Attribution Theory constructs to analyze open-text interview responses from 2,672 control mothers in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study who gave birth in 1997-2005. Common themes included use of alcohol, tobacco, illicit drugs, and medications during pregnancy. Stress and emotional upset were also suggested as possible causes of birth defects. Genetic- and heredity-related responses were more likely to be mentioned by Asian/Pacific Islander women compared to non-Hispanic Whites. Hispanic women were less likely to suggest several specific possible teratogens, such as paint, pesticides, or other chemicals, but were more likely to suggest events occurring during childbirth. Differences also emerged among ethnic groups for theoretical constructs, although most responses were categorized as controllable, changeable over time, and with an internal locus of causality.

Introduction: Adult-onset Still’s disease (AOSD) is a systemic inflammatory disorder characterized by rash, leukocytosis, fevers, and arthralgias. Pulmonary involvement has been reported rarely in AOSD, but acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) is extremely rare and potentially fatal and must be recognized as potential manifestation of underlying AOSD. Methods: We present a case of AOSD manifested by ARDS and review the previously reported cases in Medline/Pub med. Results: Including this case, 19 cases of AOSD complicated with ARDS have been reported in the literature. Conclusions: It is important to recognize ARDS as a manifestation of AOSD so that proper diagnostic and therapeutic management can be initiated promptly.

Patients with cobalt chrome (CoCr) metal-on-metal (MOM) implants may be exposed to a wide size range of metallic nanoparticles as a result of wear. In this study we have characterised the biological responses of human fibroblasts to two types of synthetically derived CoCr particles [(a) from a tribometer (30 nm) and (b) thermal plasma technology (20, 35, and 80 nm)] in vitro, testing their dependence on nanoparticle size or the generation of oxygen free radicals, or both. Metal ions were released from the surface of nanoparticles, particularly from larger (80 nm) particles generated by thermal plasma technology. Exposure of fibroblasts to these nanoparticles triggered rapid (2 h) generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) that could be eliminated by inhibition of NADPH oxidase, suggesting that it was mediated by phagocytosis of the particles. The exposure also caused a more prolonged, MitoQ sensitive production of ROS (24 h), suggesting involvement of mitochondria. Consequently, we recorded elevated levels of aneuploidy, chromosome clumping, fragmentation of mitochondria and damage to the cytoskeleton particularly to the microtubule network. Exposure to the nanoparticles resulted in misshapen nuclei, disruption of mature lamin B1 and increased nucleoplasmic bridges, which could be prevented by MitoQ. In addition, increased numbers of micronuclei were observed and these were only partly prevented by MitoQ, and the incidence of micronuclei and ion release from the nanoparticles were positively correlated with nanoparticle size, although the cytogenetic changes, modifications in nuclear shape and the amount of ROS were not. These results suggest that cells exhibit diverse mitochondrial ROS-dependent and independent responses to CoCr particles, and that nanoparticle size and the amount of metal ion released are influential.

This section introduces a concept and steps of successful Energy Master Planning process: setting energy goals and study boundaries, co-benefits of energy master planning, data required for establishing the Baseline, establishing the Base-Case and alternative scenarios, definition and implementation of a roadmap to net zero energy communities, its major milestones and setting targets for individual projects.

This Chapter provides definitions of Net Zero Energy Community and different energy parameters which can be used to define community specific energy system(s) optimization goals, i.e. primary and site energy, energy efficiency, energy security, energy independence and energy system resilience.

This section introduces different energy modeling tools available in Europe and the USA for community energy master planning process varying from strategic Urban Energy Planning to more detailed Local Energy Planning. Two modeling tools used for Energy Master Planning of primarily residential communities, the 3D city model with CityGML, and the Net Zero Planner tool developed for the US Department of Defense installations are described in more details.

Slot machines are among the most popular forms of commercial gambling, and the high frequency of losses that come close to winning – near hits – in this game appears to contribute to its popularity. In the present experiment we tested if pigeons, similarly to humans, prefer an alternative that provides near-hit outcomes in a slot-machine-like task. The pigeons received series of three stimuli, one every two seconds: if the three stimuli matched, food was delivered (a win); if they did not match, food was not delivered (a loss). We gave pigeons a choice between two options that provided food with the same probability but they differed in the sequence of stimuli on loss trials. For the near-hit alternative the non-matching stimulus was the third one (defined as a near hit). For the clear-loss alternative the non-matching stimulus was the second one. We found that the pigeons preferred the clear-loss alternative, that is, they preferred to be given information about the outcome sooner. This result is consistent with prior research on suboptimal choice with pigeons that emphasizes the role of information in choice but is inconsistent with the results of research with humans.

Prior commitment has been found to facilitate choice of a larger later reward (e.g., healthy living) and avoid the impulsive choice of the smaller immediate reward (e.g., smoking, drug taking). In this research with pigeons, we investigated the ephemeral choice task in which pigeons are given a choice between two alternatives, A and B, with similar reinforcement provided for each; however, if they choose A, they can also choose B, whereas if they choose B, A is removed. Thus, choosing A gives them two rewards, whereas choosing B gives them only one. Paradoxically, pigeons actually show a preference for B, the suboptimal alternative. We tested the hypothesis that pigeons made suboptimal choices because they were impulsive. To reduce impulsivity, we required the pigeons to make their initial choice 20 s before receiving the first reward. We found that requiring the pigeons to make a prior commitment encouraged them to choose optimally. The control group, for which the reward was provided immediately following initial choice, continued to choose suboptimally. The results confirm that requiring animals to make a prior commitment can facilitate the development of optimal choice. Furthermore, they may help explain why, without prior commitment, impulsive species, such as primates and pigeons have difficulty with this task, whereas presumably less impulsive species, such as wrasse fish and under some conditions parrots, are able to choose optimally even without prior commitment.

The use of nanoparticles in medicine is ever increasing, and it is important to understand their targeted and non-targeted effects. We have previously shown that nanoparticles can cause DNA damage to cells cultured below a cellular barrier without crossing this barrier. Here, we show that this indirect DNA damage depends on the thickness of the cellular barrier, and it is mediated by signalling through gap junction proteins following the generation of mitochondrial free radicals. Indirect damage was seen across both trophoblast and corneal barriers. Signalling, including cytokine release, occurred only across bilayer and multilayer barriers, but not across monolayer barriers. Indirect toxicity was also observed in mice and using ex vivo explants of the human placenta. If the importance of barrier thickness in signalling is a general feature for all types of barriers, our results may offer a principle with which to limit the adverse effects of nanoparticle exposure and offer new therapeutic approaches.

Recent research has examined a task in which choice of 1 alternative A provides reinforcement and in addition, allows access to alternative B that also provides reinforcement. However, although initial choice of B also provides reinforcement, it does not also allow access to A. Thus, optimal performance would be to always choose A. Curiously, Salwiczek et al. (2012) reported that adult wrasse (cleaner) fish mastered this task within 50 trials, whereas monkeys and apes had great difficulty with it. The authors attributed the species differences to ecological differences in the species foraging experiences. However, Pepperberg and Hartsfield (2014) found that parrots too learned this task. In Experiment 1, using the manual presentation of stimuli, we found that pigeons actually showed a reliable preference for B, the suboptimal alternative. In Experiment 2, we replicated the suboptimal preference using an automated version of the task. We hypothesized that the pigeons may have been basing their preference on the frequency of reinforcement associated with each alternative (initially, all trials ended with choice of B, whereas only half of the trials involved choice of A). In Experiment 3, we tested the hypothesis that the pigeons' preference was influenced by the frequency of reinforcements associated with A and B. Thus, when the pigeon chose A, we replaced B with C, so reinforcement occurred to B only when they chose it first. With this procedure we found that B was no longer preferred over A. Thus, the data supported our hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record

Management of natural resources and infrastructure systems for sustainability is complicated by uncertainties in the human and natural environment. Moreover, decisions are further complicated by contradictory views, values, and concerns that are rarely made explicit. Scenario analysis can play a major role in addressing the challenges of sustainability management, especially the core question of how to scan the future in a structured, integrated, participatory, and policy-relevant manner. In a context of systems engineering, scenario analysis can provide an integrated and timely understanding of emergent conditions and help to avoid regret and belated action. The purpose of this paper is to present several case studies in natural resources and infrastructure systems management where scenario analysis has been used to aide decision making under uncertainty. The case studies include several resource and infrastructure systems: (1) water resources (2) land-use corridors (3) energy infrastructure, and (4) coastal climate change adaptation. The case studies emphasize a participatory approach, where scenario analysis becomes a means of incorporating diverse stakeholder concerns and experience. This approach to scenario analysis provides insight into both high-performing and robust initiatives/policies, and, perhaps more importantly, influential scenarios. Identifying the scenarios that are most influential to policy making helps to direct further investigative analysis, modeling, and data-collection efforts to support the learning process that is emphasized in adaptive management.

BACKGROUND Although associations between maternal parity and birth defects have been observed previously, few studies have focused on the possibility that parity is an independent risk factor for birth defects. We investigated the relation between levels of parity and a range of birth defects, adjusting each defect group for the same covariates. METHODS We included infants who had an estimated delivery date between 1997 and 2007 and participated in the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, a multisite case-control study. Cases included infants or fetuses belonging to 38 phenotypes of birth defects (n = 17,908), and controls included infants who were unaffected by a major birth defect (n = 7173). Odds ratios (ORs) were adjusted for 12 covariates using logistic regression. RESULTS Compared with primiparous mothers, nulliparous mothers were more likely to have infants with amniotic band sequence, hydrocephaly, esophageal atresia, hypospadias, limb reduction deficiencies, diaphragmatic hernia, omphalocele, gastroschisis, tetralogy of Fallot, and septal cardiac defects, with significant ORs (1.2 to 2.3). Compared with primiparous mothers, multiparous mothers had a significantly increased risk of omphalocele, with an OR of 1.5, but had significantly decreased risk of hypospadias and limb reduction deficiencies, with ORs of 0.77 and 0.77. CONCLUSIONS Nulliparity was associated with an increased risk of specific phenotypes of birth defects. Most of the phenotypes associated with nulliparity in this study were consistent with those identified by previous studies. Research into biologic or environmental factors that are associated with nulliparity may be helpful in explaining some or all of these associations. Birth Defects Research (Part A), 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

To describe the patterns of cesarean section (CS) and vaginal delivery by type of birth defect and determine whether prenatal diagnosis predicts a higher or lower likelihood of CS for selected defect categories.Data from a large population-based registry were analyzed to determine percentages of vaginal versus CS delivery for each of 49 categories of birth defects. Odds ratios and statistical significance were computed to determine if a record of prenatal diagnosis (PND) predicted delivery mode. Cases were liveborn children with any of these defects born in Texas between 1997 and 2005.Forty-three percent of infants in the study were delivered by CS, with a range of 25.3% (aniridia) to 62.4% (spina bifida). A record of prenatal diagnosis of the primary assigned birth defect was found in 43.0% of all records but varied substantially by defect category. PND significantly predicted higher CS percentages for spina bifida without anencephaly, encephalocele, hydrocephaly, transposition of the great vessels, ventricular septal defect, pulmonary valve atresia/stenosis, craniosynostosis, diaphragmatic hernia, gastroschisis, and trisomy 21. Vaginal delivery was predicted by PND of anencephaly, agenesis, aplasia, or hypoplasia of the lung, renal agenesis or dysgenesis, and trisomy 18.Texas children with birth defects are more likely to have been delivered by CS than the population in general. For several types of defects, prenatal diagnosis is predictive of higher odds of CS; for others, especially fatal defects, PND predicts lower CS likelihood.