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The consequences of accelerating climatic warming on Arctic landscape evolution are far-reaching. In Svalbard, glaciers are rapidly retreating after the Little Ice Age, which leads to exposing new coastal landscapes from marine-terminating glaciers. Precise quantification of these changes was limited until the complete dataset of Svalbard glacier outlines from 1930’s was made available. Here, we analyse the new Svalbard glacier change inventory data and demonstrate that glacier retreat was responsible for a major shift from marine-terminating towards land-terminating glaciers in the last century. This retreat also led to the formation of 922.9 km of new coastline since 1930’s (representing increase of 16.37% in coastline length) creating pristine landscapes governed by paraglacial processes and sediment-rich nearshore fjord environments. Recent palaeogeographical reconstructions suggest that such a mode of coastal evolution was dominant over the extended periods of the Holocene. Transitions from marine-terminating to land-based glaciers had significant implications for fjord circulation, biological production, state of marine ecosystems, biogeochemical cycles between land and seas, and CO2 budget in coastal waters. Still ongoing climate warming with associated further glacier retreat may lead to more coasts to be exposed in the future. Moreover, glacier retreat will likely cause collapse of Hornbreen-Hambergbreen glacier bridge leading to separation of Sørkappland and rest of Spitsbergen with severe consequences for regional ocean circulation and climate dynamics.New bays, new straits, new peninsulas and new islands, that have appeared in the last decades of unprecedented warming and associated decay of marine-terminating glaciers in the Arctic are predominantely uncharted and unexplored territories which foreshadow ice-free Arctic and other cold regions of the warmer future. The importance of transdisciplinary research exploring those deglaciated oases has never been more important than at present.Acknowledgement: The research leading to these results has received funding from the Norwegian Financial Mechanism 2014-2021: SVELTA - Svalbard Delta Systems Under Warming Climate (UMO-2020/37/K/ST10/02852) based at the University of Wroclaw.

Small Arctic coastal catchments and coastal lagoon systems are some of the most vulnerable to climate change. Glacial retreat and the development of glacial lakes and drainage systems provide opportunities for hazardous events such as GLOFs. We observe that the stability of lagoons and their associated barriers are controlled by the frequency and magnitude of storms approaching the coasts, access to sediment supplies and resilience to sea-level rise. Based on multidecadal remote sensing data, we were able to identify the rate of glacial recession, the development of glacial lakes, vegetation response to climate change and a GLOF event, and shoreline and lagoon responses to the environmental shifts within the small catchment. Here we present an example of lagoon system evolution where a glacial outburst flood exerted significant control over lagoon drainage and coastal barrier stability.

Due to the extensive use of plastics, their quantity in the environment is constantly increasing, which creates a global problem. In the present study, we sought to isolate, test and identify Antarctic microorganisms which possess the ability to biodegrade bioplastics such as poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL), poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) and poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate) (PBSA) at low temperatures. 161 bacterial and 38 fungal isolates were isolated from 22 Antarctic soil samples. Among them, 92.16% of bacterial and 77.27% of fungal isolates formed a clear zone on emulsified PBSA, 98.04% and 81.82% on PBS and 100% and 77.27% on PCL as an additive to minimal medium at 20 °C. Based on the 16S and 18S rRNA sequences, bacterial strains were identified as species belonging to Pseudomonas and Bacillus and fungal strains as species belonging to Geomyces, Sclerotinia, Fusarium and Mortierella, while the yeast strain was identified as Hansenula anomala. In the biodegradation process conducted under laboratory conditions at 14, 20 and 28 °C, Sclerotinia sp. B11IV and Fusarium sp. B3′M strains showed the highest biodegradation activity at 20 °C (49.68% for PBSA and 33.7% for PCL, 45.99% for PBSA and 49.65% for PCL, respectively). The highest biodegradation rate for Geomyces sp. B10I was noted at 14 °C (25.67% for PBSA and 5.71% for PCL), which suggested a preference for lower temperatures (at 20 °C the biodegradation rate was only 11.34% for PBSA, and 4.46% for PCL). These data showed that microorganisms isolated from Antarctic regions are good candidates for effective plastic degradation at low temperatures.

In this article, we explore the potential for sea-level change and rocky coastal evolution reconstruction hidden in one of the most intriguing rocky coastal landforms in the Baltic Sea region—rauks. Those unique limestone sea stacks are preserved along the coasts of a number of Swedish islands, with Gotland and Fårö as primary locations. We contributed to the long-standing debate on their origin and attempted to investigate the modern geomorphological processes operating on rauks using novel approaches in rock coast studies, including Schmidt hammer rock tests (SHRT)—to characterize zonation in the degree of coastal landforms weathering; traversing micro-erosion meters (TMEM)—to calculate shore platform downwearing rates; and terrestrial laser scanning (TLS) to monitor coastal abrasion and detect sea-level markers (notches) and describe their size and shapes. Our study shows the dominance of mesoscale changes in the shore platform morphology (erosion scars, spalling, and block erosion) over the microscale downwearing carried out by abrasion. We argue that the preservation of rauks along the modern coast of Baltic islands is a result of a favorable sequence of events including the rapid land uplift and their lithological resistance, significantly higher than observed on surrounding platforms and cliffs formed in different types of limestone. Our findings prove that the microrelief of rauks in the form of well-preserved notches records the sea-level changes from at least the late Ancylus Lake period. Finally, we incorporate the results of our observations into the classic notions of rauk formation and highlight the effect of cutting off sea stacks from the operation of littoral processes as a consequence of land uplift and dominance of subaerial weathering over the wave action.

Glacier-fed hydrological systems in high latitude regions experience high seasonal variation in meltwater runoff. The peak in runoff usually coincides with the highest air temperatures which drive meltwater production. This process is often accompanied by the release of sediments from within the glacier system that are transported and suspended in high concentrations as they reach the proglacial realm. Sediment-laden meltwater is later transported to the marine environment and is expressed on the surface of fjords and coastal waters as sediment plumes. Direct monitoring of these processes requires complex and time-intensive fieldwork, meaning studies of these processes are rare. This paper demonstrates the seasonal dynamics of the Trebrevatnet lake complex and evolution of suspended sediment in the lake and sediment plumes in the adjacent Ekmanfjorden. We use the Normalized Difference Suspended Sediment Index (NDSSI) derived from multi-temporal Sentinel-2 images for the period between 2016–2021. We propose a new SSL index combining the areal extent of the sediment plume with the NDSSI for quantification of the sediment influx to the marine environment. The largest observed sediment plume was recorded on 30 July 2018 and extended to more than 40 km2 and a SSL index of 10.4. We identified the greatest sediment concentrations in the lake in the beginning of August, whereas the highest activity of the sediment plumes is concentrated at the end of July. The temporal pattern of these processes stays relatively stable throughout all ablation seasons studied. Sediment plumes observed with the use of optical satellite remote sensing data may be used as a proxy for meltwater runoff from the glacier-fed Trebrevatnet system. We have shown that remote-sensing-derived suspended sediment indexes can (after proper in situ calibration) serve for large scale quantification of sediment flux to fjord and coastal environments.

Tidewater glaciers on the east coast of Svalbard were examined for surface elevation changes and retreat rate. An archival digital elevation model (DEM) from 1970 (generated from aerial images by the Norwegian Polar Institute) in combination with recent ArcticDEM were used to compare the surface elevation changes of eleven glaciers. This approach was complemented by a retreat rate estimation based on the analysis of Landsat and Sentinel-2 images. In total, four of the 11 tidewater glaciers became land-based due to the retreat of their termini. The remaining tidewater glaciers retreated at an average annual retreat rate of 48 m year−1, and with range between 10–150 m year−1. All the glaciers studied experienced thinning in their frontal zones with maximum surface elevation loss exceeding 100 m in the ablation areas of three glaciers. In contrast to the massive retreat and thinning of the frontal zones, a minor increase in ice thickness was recorded in some accumulation areas of the glaciers, exceeding 10 m on three glaciers. The change in glacier geometry suggests an important shift in glacier dynamics over the last 50 years, which very likely reflects the overall trend of increasing air temperatures. Such changes in glacier geometry are common at surging glaciers in their quiescent phase. Surging was detected on two glaciers studied, and was documented by the glacier front readvance and massive surface thinning in high elevated areas.

Gotland and its sister island Faro are one of the hidden gems of Baltic Sea rocky coastal landscapes. The most intriguing, both in terms of morphology and evolution, landforms found along local coasts are rauks or raukars. Those limestone (remnants of Silurian reefs) stacks and pinnacles not only tower above present-day rocky shore platforms and beaches but also appear across numerous uplifted marine terraces and inland slopes. Rauks in often occur in groups or fields called raukfält. Surprisingly, those peculiar landforms have been to some extent neglected by geomorphologists and awaited in-depth study of their micro-relief and potential of the well-preserved marine notches to reconstruct past sea-level and environmental conditions operating on rocky coasts over the Holocene. It is important to note that marine notches are commonly treated as one of the best sea-level indicators, as they form close to the local tidal range.In our paper, we present the results of the most recent mapping of raukars fields in key localities in northern Gotland and Faro including Langhammars, Digerhuvud, Gamla Hamn, Lergrav and Asundens. We measured the shape and elevation of marine notches above present-sea level using Terrestrial Laser Scanning and characterized the degree of weathering of rock surface of raukars bases and well-preserved notches using Schmidt hammer rock tests. In addition to morphometric and geotechnical tests, we monitored modern rates of downwearing of shore platform constitution base of rauks and tops of the local cliffs and rocky escarpments. We discuss the results of selected field surveys with well-established climatic reconstructions and the recently constructed Holocene shore displacement curves of Gotland. We hypothesize that the shape of detected notches not only indicate positions of former sea-levels but also could give us an insight into the differences in the efficiency of erosional and weathering processes operating on rauk surface (notch formation) during periods of different salinity and water temperature, characteristic for Holocene evolution of Baltic Sea.This is the contribution to the National Science Centre in Poland project ‘RAUK- forgotten witness of Holocene sea-level changes and development of Baltic rocky coasts’ (UMO-2016/21/D/ST10/01976).

A key factor limiting our understanding of rock slope behavior and associated geohazards is the interaction between internal and external system controls on the nature, rates, and timing of rockfall activity. We use high-resolution, monthly terrestrial light detection and ranging (LiDAR) surveys over a 2 year monitoring period to quantify rockfall patterns across a 0.6 km-long (15.3 × 103 m2) section of a limestone rock cliff on the northeast coast of England, where uncertainty in rates of change threaten the effective planning and operational management of a key coastal cliff top road. Internal system controls, such as cliff material characteristics and foreshore geometry, dictate rockfall characteristics and background patterns of activity and demonstrate that layer-specific analyses of rockfall inventories and sequencing patterns are essential to better understand the timing and nature of rockfall risks. The influence of external environmental controls, notably storm activity, is also evaluated, and increased storminess corresponds to detectable rises in both total and mean rockfall volume and the volumetric contribution of large (>10 m3) rockfalls at the cliff top during these periods. Transient convergence of the cumulative magnitude–frequency power law scaling exponent (ɑ) during high magnitude events signals a uniform erosion response across the wider cliff system that applies to all lithologies. The tracking of rockfall distribution metrics from repeat terrestrial LiDAR in this way demonstrably improves the ability to identify, monitor, and forecast short-term variations in rockfall hazards, and, as such, provides a powerful new approach for mitigating the threats and impacts of coastal erosion.

A challenge for coastal conservation over the next decades is to predict and then effectively manage the outcomes of ongoing climate change in the context of the Anthropocene. Paraglacial coasts are those on or adjacent to present or formerly glaciated terrain and which are still influenced by glacigenic processes. Ongoing response of paraglacial coasts to the influences of glaciation can give rise to diverse regional-scale coastal responses that may variously amplify or suppress any effects caused by global climate change. Here we provide insight into the richness of landforms and coastal system responses from two contrasting paraglacial environments, in Svalbard where glaciers are still present but are actively retreating, and in Ireland where late Pleistocene glaciers melted away around 14,000 years ago. Svalbard and Ireland exhibit different paraglacial coastal responses which reflect long-term variations in sediment supply from inland source areas to the coast, and variations in sediment residence times and storage areas within the coastal zone. The conservation of paraglacial coasts in the context of Anthropocene global warming requires an understanding of regional glacial history and longer term coastal responses to paraglacial relaxation.

Enhanced anthropogenic climate change (global warming) is already leading to significant changes in the properties, processes and dynamics of land surfaces of high latitude and high altitude areas. Rapid surface and subsurface warming, ice mass loss and ice margin retreat are now resulting in increased land surface instability. Evidence for this comes from increased sediment yield by mass movements on exposed slopes, and within river systems and along coasts. In turn, increased sediment yield results in geomorphic change in these areas. The concept of paraglacial response describes the nature of changes in sediment yield and land surface geomorphology during rapidly-warming deglacial periods. This concept is increasingly relevant in a global warming context to describe land surface changes in high latitude and high altitude areas. Hitherto, paraglacial land surface responses have not been considered as part of the wider topic of global land degradation, but increased slope sediment yield and changes in the sediment mass budgets of slopes, rivers and coasts have implications for the morphodynamics and geohazards of high latitude and high altitude areas, and are similar to land degradation processes found in other climatic and physical settings. This study highlights the similarities and differences in (i) processes, (ii) spatial and temporal scale of operation, (iii) geomorphic and sediment system responses, (iv) geomorphic and environmental hazards, both direct and indirect, and (v) societal or community impacts and responses. This comparison is undertaken between paraglacial relaxation in recently deglaciated terrain, and land degradation associated with desertification in Africa. Examples of deglaciating land surfaces in Spitsbergen and in mountain blocks worldwide are used to demonstrate the wide range of contemporary paraglacial (land degradation) processes affecting these high latitude and high altitude environments. It is notable that land degradation caused by paraglaciation in these areas pose significant challenges to the sustainability of communities and to environmental monitoring and management.

Contemporary climate warming in the Arctic affects the dynamics of the entire environment, including components of the cryosphere: permafrost and glacier systems. The change in the structure of the polar landscape since the termination of the Little Ice Age (ca. 1900) was expressed by widespread retreat of glaciers, progressive exposure of glacial landforms at ice margins and opening ice marginal zones to increasing paraglacial and periglacial processes operating synchronously in adjacent areas.The main aim of the presented study was to determine the course and spatial diversity of landscape transformation in the Sørkapp Land peninsula (Spitsbergen) as a result of glacier recession in the periods 1961-1990-2010 based on existing remote sensing data. Using photogrammetric methods of data processing combined with GIS techniques, the rates of proglacial and ice-marginal terrain change following deglaciation have been determined.For the mentioned research period, the area of the marginal zones almost doubled from 53 km² to 99 km². The dynamics of landscape transformation in these zones manifested in rapid reduction in the surface elevation of ice-cored moraines (with mean decrease of 0,18-0,22 m per year) and the forms underlain by the dead-ice. This process was enhanced by mass movements and debris flows. Within marginal zones, the area of subglacial landforms and sediments increased by 31 km² from 8 km² in 1961 to 39 km² in 2010.Larger volume of proglacial waters and associated intensification of denudation, transport and accumulation of sediments entailed area increase of sandurs and proglacial riverbeds (which almost tripled from 3,5 km² to over 10 km²). Further redeposition and remobilization of material in some places also promoted enhanced sediment aggradation in coastal environment forming new beaches and spit systems.

It has been widely reported that Arctic sea ice has decreased in both extent and thickness, coupled with steadily rising mean annual temperatures. These trends have been particularly severe along the rock coast of southern Svalbard. Concerns have been raised over the potential for higher energy storms and longer ice-free open water seasons to increase the exposure of Arctic coasts, and consequently the concentration of infrastructure critical to Arctic community survival, to enhanced rates of erosion. Here we present and apply innovative remote sensing, monitoring and process analyses to assess the impact of recent coastal climatic changes. High resolution analyses demonstrate that the small scale (

On the 17th of June 2017, a massive landslide which mobilized ca. 35–58 million m3 of material entered the Karrat Fjord in western Greenland. It triggered a tsunami wave with a runup height exceeding 90 m close to the landslide, ca. 50 m on the opposite shore of the fjord. The tsunami travelled ca. 32 km across the fjord and reached the settlement of Nuugaatsiaq with ca. 1–1.5 m high waves, which were powerful enough to destroy the community infrastructure, impact fragile coastal tundra landscape, and unfortunately, injure several inhabitants and cause 4 deaths. Here we report the results of the field survey of the surroundings of the settlement focused on the perseverance of infrastructure and landscape damages caused by the tsunami, carried out 25 months after the event.

In Svalbard, the rapid glacier retreat observed since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA) has transformed the geomorphology and sediment budgets of glacial forelands, river valleys, and slope systems. To date, relatively little information exists regarding the impact of such a profound glacial landscape degradation on the evolution of coastal environment. This paper addresses this deficiency by detailing the post‐LIA sediment fluxes to the coastal zone in Billefjorden, central Spitsbergen (Svalbard). We analysed the response of the gravel‐dominated barrier coast to the decay of Ferdinandbreen, one of the fastest retreating glaciers in the region. Glacier retreat resulted in the development of paraglacial sediment cascade where eroded and reworked glacigenic sediments progressed through alluvial fans to the coast, thus feeding gravel‐dominated spit systems in Petuniabukta. We demonstrated that the coastal systems in central Spitsbergen responded abruptly to post‐LIA climatic changes. The acceleration of coastal erosion and associated spit development was coincident with rapid climate warming that dates from the 1980s and has been associated with longer ice‐free periods and activation of multiple sediment supply sources from the deglaciated landscape. In colder phases of post‐LIA period, coastal zone development was subdued and strongly dependent on the efficiency of sediment transport via in a longshore drift. Finally, we discuss the differences in the post‐LIA coastal responses between central Spitsbergen and western Spitsbergen highlighting the efficiency of paraglacial sediment delivery from land to the coast controlled by the state of glacial systems, bedrock topography, and development of river channels.

This paper presents the results of the Schmidt Hammer Rock Tests (SHRTs) across a range of rocky coastal landforms. Northern Billefjorden (central Spitsbergen), represents typical High Arctic microtidal fjord environment. Sheltered location and prolonged sea-ice conditions limit wave action. Coastal cliffs, shore platforms and skerries are developed in various rock types including limestone, sandstone, anhydrite/gypsum, dolomite and metamorphic outcrops. SHRT demonstrated a broad variety of relationships between rock strength and distance from shoreline, presence of sediment cover, distribution of snow patches and icefoot, and accumulations of seaweed and driftwood. In general, rock cliff surfaces were the most resistant in their lower and middle zones, that are thermally insulated by thick winter snowdrifts. More exposed cliff tops were fractured and weathered. The differences in rock strength observed along the shore platforms were highly dependent on thickness of sediment cover and shoreline configuration promoting stronger rock surfaces in areas exposed to the longest wave fetch and washed from gravel deposits. Rock strength of skerry islands is influenced by tidal action controlling the duration of tide inundation and movement of sea-ice scratching boulder surfaces. The results presented in this paper emphasize the richness of rock coast geomorphology and processes operating in High Arctic settings.

The increasing amount of plastic waste causes significant environmental pollution. In this study, screening of Arctic microorganisms which are able to degrade bioplastics was performed. In total, 313 microorganisms were isolated from 52 soil samples from the Arctic region (Spitsbergen). Among the isolated microorganisms, 121 (38.66%) showed biodegradation activity. The ability of clear zone formation on emulsified poly(butylene succinate-co-adipate) (PBSA) was observed for 116 microorganisms (95.87%), on poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) for 73 microorganisms (60.33%), and on poly(ɛ-caprolactone) (PCL) for 102 microorganisms (84.3%). Moreover, the growth of microorganisms on poly(lactic acid) (PLA) agar plates was observed for 56 microorganisms (46.28%). Based on the 16S rRNA sequence, 10 bacterial strains which showed the highest ability for biodegradation were identified as species belonging to Pseudomonas sp. and Rhodococcus sp. The isolated fungal strains were tested for polycaprolactone films and commercial corn and potato starch bags degradation under laboratory conditions. Strains 16G (based on the analysis of a partial 18S rRNA sequence, identified as Clonostachys rosea) and 16H (identified as Trichoderma sp.) showed the highest capability for biodegradation. A particularly high capability for biodegradation was observed for the strain Clonostachys rosea, which showed 100% degradation of starch films and 52.91% degradation of PCL films in a 30-day shake flask experiment. The main advantage of the microorganisms isolated from Arctic environment is the ability to grow at low temperature and efficient biodegradation under this condition. The data suggest that C. rosea can be used in natural and laboratory conditions for degradations of bioplastics.

Strzelecki, M.C.; Duszynski, F.; Tyszkowski, S.; Zbucki, Ł., and Kasprzak, M., 2020. Rauk - Forgotten witness of Holocene sea-level change and development of Baltic rocky coastal zone: A pilot geomorphological study in Lergrav raukar field. In: Malvarez, G. and Navas, F. (eds.), Global Coastal Issues of 2020. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 95, pp. 659–663. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.The Holocene history of Baltic Sea evolution is definitely one of the most interesting and intriguing stories of environmental change in Europe. To date, the key information on changes in sea-level and shifts in the environment associated with climate fluctuations were found in coastal lakes, marshes and wide stripe of barrier-lagoon systems of southern Baltic. Only limited research was conducted along rocky coasts, so characteristic features for Baltic islands from Bornholm, through Oland, Gotland, Faro, Hiiumaa, Saarema to thousands of isles of Aland Archipelago. Among the most thrilling natural wonders found along Baltic coasts are rauks or raukars, unique limestone stacks—often with humanlike features—that tower above rocky shore platforms in northern Gotland and on Faro, Gotland's sister island. Raukar coasts are one of the greatest touristic attractions in Sweden and the mythical coastal landscape of northern Gotland and Faro had inspired many artists, including Ingmar Bergman. Surprisingly, what attracts tourists and artists, have been neglected by geomorphologists and those fascinating landforms still wait for detailed explanation of their origin and preservation. This paper provides insight into pilot geomorphological study of raukar coast in Lergrav, NE Gotland. Schmidt hammer rock tests were applied to characterize the degree of weathering of rock surface of well-preserved notches. The results of notch rock surface resistance and elevation above present sea-level are discussed with recent relative sea-level curves developed in the region.

We reconstruct the behaviour of a High Arctic gravel-dominated beach complex that has developed in central Spitsbergen, Svalbard, since the end of the Little Ice Age (LIA). The studied coastal environment in northern Billefjorden (Petuniabukta) is characterised by limited wave action and ephemeral sediment delivery from non-glaciated, mainly snow-fed fans and talus slopes. Aerial photographic evidence and morpho-sedimentological observations of a beach-ridge plain and spit complex in northern Billefjorden reveal a dynamic coastal system. During the post-LIA period, a prominent coastal barrier at the mouth of the Ebbaelva migrated seawards several tens of metres and prograded northwards to form new spit systems, each > 150 m in length. The post-LIA coastal evolution occurred in two main phases. In the first half of the 20th century, increased paraglacial sediment released by retreating land-based glaciers led to the development of a subaqueous spit platform and the progradation of an ebb-tide delta into the mouth of the Ebbaelva, diverting its mouth to the northwest. In the second half of the 20th century, the barrier prograded onto this platform, promoting the development of three massive spits. Sedimentological data suggest that changes in beach-ridge composition that occurred during the 20th century are linked to episodic sediment delivery from an adjacent permafrost and snow-fed alluvial fan and delta system. Our work provides a basis for a new model of paraglacial barrier development that recognises the fundamental role of climate and sediment supply as two intimately connected processes that control coastal development in the High Arctic over decadal to centennial timescales. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

A characteristic feature of sandstone-capped escarpments in the Stołowe Mountains is the occurrence of extensive boulder mantles which extend from the rock face to the footslope over distances of 300–500 m. The hypothesis implying rockfall as the process of boulder release from the rock face and subsequent transport is tested by means of Conefall 1.0 software, designed to simulate run-out zones of rockfalls. The actual extent of boulder mantles is much larger than the simulated extent, which casts doubt on the applicability of rockfall scenario. Alternative hypotheses are briefly discussed and it is concluded that a similar morphological effect can be achieved by in situ caprock disintegration and sub-caprock slope lowering and retreat.

Abrupt shifts in sediment supply, relative sea level, permafrost regime, glacier state, snow cover and sea ice conditions associated with Holocene climate changes control processes operating on High Arctic coasts and make reconstructions of their past evolution a significant research challenge. This study attempts to describe the development of the coastal zone in southern Sassenfjorden, Svalbard, throughout the Holocene focusing on the styles of adjustment to major landscape changes. Five marine terraces (MT1-5) are identified and assessed. Spatial and chronological analysis suggests that the highest terrace, MT5, is pre-LGM (Last Glacial Maximum) and that MT4-3 underwent rapid uplift (151 and 11.4 mm/year, respectively) shortly prior to 11 061 ± 174 cal. yr BP and became fully terrestrial by 9100 years ago (as indicated by emergence rates) during the Holocene Thermal Maximum (HTM). Uplift rates for MT2-1 slowed to 5 and 2 mm/year, respectively, with suggested emergence between 7200 and 6800 cal. yr BP. A final 2 m uplift of the relict alluvial plain probably happened during the Medieval Warm Period (1200–950 cal. yr BP). Most recent coastal development (AD 1912–2012) is characterised by episodes of coastal erosion on the cliff and progradation of the Noiselva delta. Interactions between sea ice, snow cover, permafrost, wind and wave regimes are assessed to understand their implications on future coastal development in a warming climate.

We test the application of dendrochronological methods for dating and assessing the environmental impacts of tsunamis in polar regions, using an example of the 21 Novem− ber 2000 landslide−generated tsunami in Vaigat Strait (Sullorsuaq Strait), West Greenland. The studied tsunami inundated a c. 130 m−wide coastal plain with seawater, caused erosion of beaches and top soil and covered the area with an up to 35 cm−thick layer of tsunami de− posits composed of sand and gravel. Samples of living shrub, Salix glauca (greyleaf wil− low) were collected in 2012 from tsunami−flooded and non−flooded sites. The tree−ring analyses reveal unambiguously that the tsunami−impacted area was immediately colonized during the following summer by rapidly growing shrubs, whilst one of our control site spec− imens records evidence for damage that dates to the time of the tsunami. This demonstrates the potential for dendrochronological methods to act as a precise tool for the dating of Arc− tic paleotsunamis, as well as rapid post−tsunami ecosystem recovery. The reference site shrubs were likely damaged by solifluction in the autumn 2000 AD that was triggered by high seasonal rainfall, which was itself a probable contributory factor to the tsunami−gener− ating landslide.

Although the size-frequency distributions of icebergs can provide insight into how they disintegrate, our understanding of this process is incomplete. Fundamentally, there is a discrepancy between iceberg power-law size-frequency distributions observed at glacial calving fronts and lognormal size-frequency distributions observed globally within open waters that remains unexplained. Here we use passive seismic monitoring to examine mechanisms of iceberg disintegration as a function of drift. Our results indicate that the shift in the size-frequency distribution of iceberg sizes observed is a product of fracture-driven iceberg disintegration and dimensional reductions through melting. We suggest that changes in the characteristic size-frequency scaling of icebergs can be explained by the emergence of a dominant set of driving processes of iceberg degradation towards the open ocean. Consequently, the size-frequency distribution required to model iceberg distributions accurately must vary according to distance from the calving front. The study was supported by Polish National Science Centre grant no. 2011/01/B/ST10/01553. Seismic equipment was provided by the Natural Environment Research Council Geophysical Equipment Facility, SEIS-UK (loan number 984). The modelled tide data for Ilulissat was kindly provided by Palle Bo Nielsen at the Danish Meteorological Institute. Logistical support was provided by Arctic Station, Qeqertarsuaq. Thanks go to Antony Long and Nick Cox for inspiring the ideas that underpin this work. M.C.S. is supported by NCN FUGA Fellowship (2013/08/S/ST10/00585).

This paper presents the results of two-dimensional electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) of permafrost developed in coastal zone of Hornsund, SW Spitsbergen. The measurements were made using the Wenner-Schlumberger electrode array with an electrode spacing 5 m for overview and 1.5 or 1 m spacing for detailed imaging. Using the ERT inversion results, we studied the ‘sea influence’ on deeper parts of the frozen ground. During the investigations we tested hypotheses that the operation of seawater on shoreface may cause changes in the shape of the coastal permafrost base, and that the impact of seawater on more inland permafrost depends on the shape of the shoreline (differently in the embayment, and differently in a headland exposed to the open sea). Our study was inspired by previous ground temperature measurements conducted in several boreholes located in study area which captured the propagation of ground heat waves from the base of permafrost. Our resistivity models indicate a major differentiation in terms of resistivity of permafrost in the coastal zone. The resistivity measures obtained in deeper layers of ground were so low (< 100 Ω·m) that in the ‘warm permafrost’ conditions they exclude a possibility of freezing the coastal sediments and bedrock from the side of the sea. Low values continue further inland, going down under the surface layer of permafrost with higher resistivity. We interpret this situation as an influence of seawater's temperature and salinity on deeper parts of permafrost. Based on the measurements conducted within two years, we stated a change in the distribution of resistivity, both in the active layer, and in coastal front of permafrost in deeper parts of the ground. As observed in the inverse models, the geometric arrangement between the fields of extreme resistivity indicates the existence of a bottom active layer by the permafrost base, depending on thermal and chemical characteristics of seawater. The measurements conducted in the embayment, as well as on the headland exposed to the operation of storm waves, proved strong differences in the scale of the impact of seawater on permafrost.

This paper presents the results of an investigation into the processes controlling development of a cryo-conditioned rock coast system in Hornsund, Svalbard. A suite of nested geomorphological and geophysical methods have been applied to characterise the functioning of rock cliffs and shore platforms influenced by lithological control and geomorphic processes driven by polar coast environments. Electrical resistivity tomosgraphy (ERT) surveys have been used to investigate permafrost control on rock coast dynamics and reveal the strong interaction with marine processes in High Arctic coastal settings. Schmidt hammer rock tests, demonstrated strong spatial control on the degree of rock weathering (rock strength) along High Arctic rock coasts. Elevation controlled geomorphic zones are identified and linked to distinct processes and mechanisms, transitioning from peak hardness values at the ice foot through the wave and storm dominated scour zones to the lowest values on the cliff tops, where the effects of periglacial weathering dominate. Observations of rock surface change using a traversing micro-erosion meter (TMEM) indicate that significant changes in erosion rates occur at the junction between the shore platform and the cliff toe, where rock erosion is facilitated by frequent wetting and drying and operation of nivation and sea ice processes (formation and melting of snow patches and icefoot complexes). The results are synthesised to propose a new conceptual model of High Arctic rock coast systems, with the aim of contributing towards a unifying concept of cold region landscape evolution and providing direction for future research regarding the state of polar rock coasts.

The Arctic’s climate system is changing: air temperatures, major river discharges and open water season length have increased, and storm intensities and tracks are changing. Thirteen quantitative studies of the rates of coastline position change throughout the Arctic show that recently observed changes have not increased coastal erosion rates, which currently range between 0 and 2 m/yr when averaged for the arctic shelf seas. Current data is probably insufficient, both spatially and temporally, however, to capture change at decadal to sub-decadal time scales. In this context, we describe the current understanding of arctic coastal geomorphodynamics with an emphasis on erosional regimes of coasts with ice-rich sedimentary deposits in the Laptev, East Siberian and Beaufort seas, where local coastal erosion can reach 30 m/yr. We also examine coasts with lithified (rocky) substrates where geomorphodynamics are intensified by rapid glacial retreat. Coastlines of Svalbard, Greenland, and the Canadian Archipelago are less frequently studied than ice-rich continental coasts of North America and Siberia and studies often focus on coastal sections composed of unlithified material. As air temperature and sea ice duration and extent change, longer thaw and wave seasons will intensify coastal dynamics in the Arctic.

Although the general concept that escarpments in layered rocks retreat through time was offered more than 150 years ago, recognizing the exact mechanisms, patterns and rates of retreat remains a challenge. In this paper, we provide the state-of-the-art of the theme of escarpment retreat, reviewing both the classic contributions, often forgotten but important case studies, and the latest research. In separate parts of the paper we discuss: (1) terminology applied to the geomorphology of escarpments; (2) the main assumptions and pathways of long-term evolution of escarpments, including conceptual models presented so far; (3) processes involved in cliff retreat, mainly weathering, mass movements and erosion; (4) the role of spring erosion and fluvial processes, leading to fluvial dissection and development of canyons present in many tablelands; (5) the possible role of climate change in escarpment evolution; (6) rates of escarpment retreat. In conclusions, we summarize the major advances in our understanding of escarpment evolution of the last two-three decades such as the recognition of the key role of emerging groundwater in non-uniform escarpment retreat, of an important role of silica dissolution and underground removal of dissolved solids, increasing appreciation of rock properties in governing the patterns of escarpment retreat, the proposal that cliffs do not necessarily retreat via catastrophic rock slope failures but may disintegrate in situ, and the first attempts to date escarpment retreat using cosmogenic isotopes. Finally, the remaining gaps and possible research priorities for the future are identified.

High Arctic raised beaches provide evidence for changes in relative sea-level (RSL), sea-ice extent, storminess, and variations in sediment supply. In many High Arctic areas, driftwood and whale bone are usually the preferred targets for radiocarbon dating, with marine shells a third choice because of their often large age and height uncertainties with respect to former sea level. Here we detail a new approach to sampling marine shells that reduces these problems by targeting juvenile, articulated specimens of Astarte borealis that are washed onto the beach under storm conditions and become incorporated into the beach crest. Radiocarbon dates from articulated valves of A. borealis from eight raised beaches from Billefjorden, Svalbard, provide a chronology for Holocene beach ridge formation and RSL change that compares favourably to the most precise records developed from elsewhere in Svalbard using driftwood or whale bone. We demonstrate the value of this new approach by comparing our record with previously published RSL data from eastern Svalbard to test different models of Late Weichselian ice load in this region. We find support for a major ice dome centred south and east of Kong Karls Land but no evidence for a significant ice dome located over easternmost Spitsbergen or southern Hinlopen Strait as proposed from recent marine geophysical survey. The approach is potentially applicable elsewhere in Svalbard and the High Arctic to address questions of RSL change and beach ridge chronology, and hence wider questions regarding palaeoclimate and ice load history.

A contoured surficial geology and geomorphology map of the forelands of the Horbyebreen, Svenbreen and Ferdinandbreen valley glaciers in Petuniabukta, Svalbard was compiled from an orthophotograph based upon aerial photographs taken in 2009. The map reveals typical polythermal glacial landsystems, comprising ice-cored latero-frontal moraine arcs grading up valley into fluted till surfaces draped by supraglacially-derived longitudinal debris stripes. The additional occurrence on the Horbyebreen foreland of linear esker and debris ridges arranged in a geometric ridge network is thought to be related to the infilling of densely spaced crevasses, created during a period of elevated meltwater pressures and ice hydrofracturing. These landforms were associated either with a jokulhlaup that was blocked by the frozen snout or an historical surge. The Horbyebreen landform assemblage therefore constitutes an analogue for either: (1) spatial and temporal landsystem overprinting (polythermal and surging activity); or ...

Cold shores in warming times - current state and future challenges in High Arctic coastal geomorphological studies Many of the existing intellectual paradigms regarding the functioning of the polar coastal zone are now out-dated, based on descriptive geomorphology and a limited process-based understanding. Currently, among many components of Arctic landscape adjusting to global warming, the coastal zone is probably the most critical one both in terms of rapidity of environmental change as well as importance for human communities living in circumpolar regions. This issue was often raised during the 4th International Polar Year 2007-2008 and encouraged the scientific community to focus on the state of cold region coasts in more detail. In this paper I summarize the most recent developments in Arctic coastal geomorphology with a particular focus on the Svalbard Archipelago and draw attention to the research challenges awaiting further investigation. This paper highlights the need for a greater understanding of the controls on High Arctic coastal geoecosystems, especially given the potential for accelerated warming and sea-level rise in the coming decades and centuries. Many of presented views benefited from discussions with Professor Andrzej Kostrzewski - to whom this volume is dedicated.

Schmidt hammer tests across a recently deglacierized rocky coastal zone in Spitsbergen - is there a "coastal amplification" of rock weathering in polar climates? A significant limit to current understanding of cold coast evolution is the paucity of field observations regarding development of rocky coastlines and, in particular, lack of precise recognition of mechanisms controlling rock coast geomorphology in polar climates. Results are presented from a pilot survey of rock resistance using Schmidt Hammer Rock Tests (SHRT) across the recently deglacierized Nordenskioldbreen forefield and coastal zone, in central Spitsbergen, Svalbard. The aim is to improve understanding of the effects of rock weathering on high latitude coasts. SHRT across a field of roches moutonnées of meta-morphic rocks, uncovered from ice over the last century and exposed to the operation of littoral processes, demonstrated significant relationships between rock surface resistance and distance from present shoreline, distance from the ice cliff as well as thickness of the snow cover. Sites closest to the present-day shoreline were characterized by lower resistance in comparison with more inland locations. The result support models that advocate intensification of weathering processes in cold region coastal settings.

The paper presents data on hydrochemistry and suspended sediment dynamics from a small glaciated catchment in Svalbard. Such catchments, formerly omitted and neglected in investigations of polar and high-mountain geo-ecosystems, have become an important subject of environmental research in recent years. High sensitivity to global warming, relative ease of taking measurements, the variety of locations, and further possibilities of modelling, make the catchments important sites for studying glaciological, hydrological and geomorphological processes. Hydrochemical data from seasonal observations and complementary 24-hour measurements, together with detailed geomorphological mapping of river channels and their surroundings, served as a basis for scientific description of the conditioning of seasonal and diurnal variations in suspended and solute matter transport in a small High Arctic catchment. Bertram River is distinguished by a system of waterfalls which divides the 4.9 km2 catchment in two parts: an upper...

A section of a gravel-dominated coast in Isbjørnhamna (Hornsund, Svalbard) was analysed to calculate the rate of shoreline changes and explain processes controlling coastal zone development over last 50 years. Between 1960 and 2011, coastal landscape of Isbjørnhamna experienced a significant shift from dominated by influence of tide-water glacier and protected by prolonged sea-ice conditions towards storm-affected and rapidly changing coast. Information derived from analyses of aerial images and geomorphological mapping shows that the Isbjørnhamna coastal zone is dominated by coastal erosion resulting in a shore area reduction of more than 31,600 m2. With ~3,500 m2of local aggradation, the general balance of changes in the study area of the shore is negative, and amounts to a loss of more than 28,000 m2. Mean shoreline change is −13.1 m (−0.26 m a−1). Erosional processes threaten the Polish Polar Station infrastructure and may damage of one of the storage buildings in nearby future.

The pristine coasts of Spitsbergen, major island of Svalbard Archipelago provide a superb opportunity to quantify how High Arctic coasts are responding to glacier retreat and associated intensified sediment flux to the fjord and shelf zones. This study focuses on the mechanisms controlling the recent coastal evolution (1990–2009) in Northern Petuniabukta, one of the most sheltered bays of central Spitsbergen, characterised by a semi-arid subpolar climate, limited wave action and rapid retreat rate of all surrounding glaciers. The formation of the coastal landforms here was to a large degree dependent of the rate of sediment excavation from alluvial fans and outwash plains that developed across a wide coast plain between the glacier valleys and the fjord. During last two decades most of the sediments transported from proglacial zones has been accumulated on outwash plains and after reworking supplied a prograding tidal flat system. Despite sheltered location and drier climate the rates of coastal evolution in Petuniabukta are comparable to those seen along the W and S coasts of Spitsbergen.

Hørbyebreen surged in the 19th or early 20th century, as suggested by geomorphological evidences and looped medial moraines. In this study, we investigate its wide−spread geometry changes and geodetic mass balance with 1960 contour lines, 1990 and 2009 digital elevation models, in order to define the present−day state of the glacier. We also study its thermal structure from ground−penetrating radar data. Little is known about the glacier behaviour in the first part of the 20th century, but from its surge maximum until 1960 it has been retreating and losing its area. In the period 1960-1990, fast frontal thinning (2-3ma−1) and a slow mass build−up in the higher zones (~0.15 m a−1) have been noted, resulting in generally negative mass balance (−0.40 ± 0.07 m w. eq. a−1). In the last studied period 1990-2009, the glacier showed an acceleration of mass loss (−0.64 m ± 0.07 w. eq. a−1) and no build−up was observed anymore. We conclude that Hørbyebreen system under present climate will not surge anymore and relate this behaviour to a considerable increase in summer temperature on Svalbard after 1990. Radar soundings indicate that the studied glacial system is polythermal, with temperate ice below 100-130 m depth. It has therefore not (or not yet) switched to cold−bedded, as has been suggested in previous works for some small Svalbard surge−type glaciers in a negative mass balance mode.