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Selective laser sintering (SLS) enables the fast, flexible and cost-efficient production of parts directly from 3D CAD data. Unlike more established machine tools, there is a marked lack of process monitoring and feedback control of key process variables. In-situ analysis techniques permit the emergence of repair techniques, in-process optimization of production parameters, and will also serve to save time and material. In this study, optical coherence tomography (OCT) is used for the first time to evaluate components produced by SLS. Using a Polyamide-PA2200, surface defects are analyzed and the limiting factors associated with the measurement technique are quantified. OCT is shown to be a useful technique for evaluating surface irregularities alongside sub-surface defects that have resulted from poor sintering or non-homogeneous powder spreading. We demonstrate detection and quantification of surface defects such as cracks, pores and voids on a ~30 μm scale. Furthermore, we show that this technique can resolve ‘built-in’ fine features within a 200 to 400 μm depth below the surface, covering typical layer thicknesses used by this process. This capability paves the way for real-time monitoring of the SLS process for assurance, or even dynamic correction of defects during the build. Keywords: OCT, Selective laser sintering, AM, In-situ monitoring

Connective tissues such as articular cartilage have been the subject of study using novel optical techniques almost since the invention of polarized light microscopy (PLM). Early studies of polarized light micrographs were the main evidential basis for the establishment of quantitative models of articular cartilage collagen structure by Benninghoff and others. Even now, state of the art optical techniques including quantitative polarized light microscopy (qPLM), optical coherence tomography (OCT), polarization-sensitive optical coherence tomography (PS-OCT), second harmonic generation (SHG) microscopy, Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) microscopy, Raman and optical hyperspectral reflectance and fluorescence imaging are providing new insights into articular cartilage structure from the nanoscale through to the mesoscale. New insights are promised by emerging modalities such as optical elastography. This short review highlights some key recent results from modern optical techniques.

We evaluate the performance of a cheap ultrasonic stage in setups related to optical coherence tomography. The stage was used in several configurations: 1) optical delay line in optical coherence tomography (OCT) setup; 2) as a delay line measuring coherence function of a low coherence source (e.g. superluminescent diode); 3) as a path length modulator in optical coherence microscopy (OCM) setup and finally 4) in a dynamic focusing arrangement. We evaluate each configuration and point to possible improvements either in setups or ultrasonic stage architecture. The results are as follows: the stage is suitable for coherence function measurement of the light source and, with some limitations, dynamic focusing. We found it unsuitable for OCT due to unstable velocity profile, while smaller step movement is required for OCM imaging

Stratum corneum and epidermal layers change in terms of thickness and roughness with gender, age and anatomical site. Knowledge of the mechanical and tribological properties of skin associated with these structural changes are needed to aid in the design of exoskeletons, prostheses, orthotics, body mounted sensors used for kinematics measurements and in optimum use of wearable on-body devices. In this case study, optical coherence tomography (OCT) and digital image correlation (DIC) were combined to determine skin surface strain and sub-surface deformation behaviour of the volar forearm due to natural tissue stretching. The thickness of the epidermis together with geometry changes of the dermal-epidermal junction boundary were calculated during change in the arm angle, from flexion (90°) to full extension (180°). This posture change caused an increase in skin surface Lagrange strain, typically by 25% which induced considerable morphological changes in the upper skin layers evidenced by reduction of epidermal layer thickness (20%), flattening of the dermal-epidermal junction undulation (45–50% reduction of flatness being expressed as Ra and Rz roughness profile height change) and reduction of skin surface roughness Ra and Rz (40–50%). The newly developed method, DIC combined with OCT imaging, is a powerful, fast and non-invasive methodology to study structural skin changes in real time and the tissue response provoked by mechanical loading or stretching.

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We present a 18 m W fiber-coupled single-mode super-luminescent diode with 85 nm bandwidth for application in optical coherence tomography (OCT). First, we describe the effect of quantum dot (QD) growth temperature on optical spectrum and gain, highlighting the need for the optimization of epitaxy for broadband applications. Then, by incorporating this improved material into a multicontact device, we show how bandwidth and power can be controlled. We then go on to show how the spectral shape influences the autocorrelation function, which exhibits a coherence length of < 11 mu m, and relative noise is found to be 10 dB lower than that of a thermal source. Finally, we apply the optimum device to OCT of in vivo skin and show the improvement that can be made with higher power, wider bandwidth, and lower noise, respectively.

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a noninvasive imaging methodology that is able to image tissue to depths of over 1 mm. Many epithelial conditions, such as melanoma and oral cancers, require an invasive biopsy for diagnosis. A noninvasive, real-time, point of care method of imaging depth-resolved epithelial structure could greatly improve early diagnosis and long-term monitoring in patients. Here, we have used tissue-engineered (TE) models of normal skin and oral mucosa to generate models of melanoma and oral cancer. We have used these to determine the ability of OCT to image epithelial differences in vitro. We report that while in vivo OCT gives reasonable depth information for both skin and oral mucosa, in vitro the information provided is less detailed but still useful. OCT can provide reassurance on the development of TE models of skin and oral mucosa as they develop in vitro. OCT was able to detect the gross alteration in the epithelium of skin and mucosal models generated with malignant cell lines but was less able to detect alteration in the epithelium of TE models that mimicked oral dysplasia or, in models where tumor cells had penetrated into the dermis. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is an imaging technique based on the low coherence interferometry, in which signals are obtained based on the coherent addition of the back reflected light from the sample. Applying computational methods and automated algorithms towards the classification of OCT images allows a further step towards enhancing the clinical applications of OCT. One attempt towards classification could be achieved by statistically analyzing the texture of the noisy granular patterns - speckles that make the OCT images. An attempt has been made to quantify the scattering effects based on the speckle texture patterns the scatterers produce. Statistical inference is drawn from the textural analysis of the features based on the spatial intensity distribution on the agar phantoms with different concentration of Intralipid solutions. This preliminary study conducted on agar-Intralipid solution has showed us that it is possible to differentiate between different types of scatterers based on the speckle texture studies. The texture analysis has also been extended in an attempt to identify the invasion of melanoma cell into tissue engineered skin. However using the same approach of texture analysis, we have not obtained satisfactory results for carrying on with the computer-based identification of the invasion of the melanoma in the tissue engineered skin, the reason for which has to be further studied and investigated upon. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

We present a high-power (18 mW continuous wave exiting a single-mode fiber and 35 mW exiting the facet), broadband (85 nm full-width at half-maximum) quantum dot-based superluminescent diode, and apply it to a time-domain optical coherence tomography (OCT) setup. First, we test its performance with increasing optical feedback. Then we demonstrate its imaging properties on tissue-engineered (TE) skin and in vivo skin. OCT allows the tracking of epidermal development in TE skin, while the higher power source allows better sensitivity and depth penetration for imaging of in vivo skin layers.

There is an increasing need for a robust simple to use non-invasive imaging technology for monitoring tissue engineered constructs as they develop. We have applied optical coherence tomography (OCT), a relatively new optical technique, to image tissue engineered constructs. Our aim was to evaluate the use of swept-source optical coherence tomography (SSOCT) to non-invasively image reconstructed skin as it developed over several weeks. The epidermis of the reconstructed skin was readily distinguished from the neodermis when examined with standard histology - a destructive imaging technique - of samples. The development of reconstructed skin based on deepithelialised acellular dermis (DED) was accurately monitored with SS-OCT over three weeks and confirmed with conventional histology. It was also possible to image changes in the epidermis due to the presence of melanoma and the healing of these 3D models after wounding with a scalpel, with or without the addition of a fibrin clot. SS-OCT is proving to be a valuable tool in tissue engineering, showing great promise for the non-invasive imaging of optically turbid tissue engineered constructs, including tissue engineered skin.

We demonstrate imaging performance of a high power quantum-dot superluminescent diode (15mW CW exiting single mode fiber, 85nm bandwidth). We present images from tissue engineered skin and in vivo skin.

We present results of OCT and polarization-OCT applied to various ex vivo tissue samples and discuss related issues of image contrast, comparing in vivo and ex vivo preparations. Time-domain and frequency-domain OCT at 835nm and 1300nm have been applied to ex vivo skin and rabbit cornea. We can distinguish rabbit cornea epithelium for up to a month after excision. However, the skin loses all contrast upon excision and despite numerous experiments we cannot distinguish epidermis, which is clearly visible in vivo. Using a time-domain system, birefringence is clearly visible for decalcified tissue but can also be detected more weakly on fully mineralised tissue. Analysis suggests that demineralization increases the birefringence value.