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By taking the nucleon-to-quark phase transition within a neutron star as an example, we present a thermodynamically consistent method to calculate the equation of state of ambient matter so that transitions that are intermediate to those of the familiar Maxwell and Gibbs constructions can be described. This method does not address the poorly known surface tension between the two phases microscopically (as, for example, in the calculation of the core pasta phases via the Wigner-Seitz approximation) but instead combines the local and global charge neutrality conditions characteristic of the Maxwell and Gibbs constructions, respectively. Overall charge neutrality is achieved by dividing the leptons to those that obey local charge neutrality (Maxwell) and those that maintain global charge neutrality (Gibbs). The equation of state is obtained by using equilibrium constraints derived from minimizing the total energy density. The results of this minimization are then used to calculate neutron star mass-radius curves, tidal deformabilities, equilibrium and adiabatic sound speeds, and nonradial $g$-mode oscillation frequencies for several intermediate constructions. Various quantities of interest transform smoothly from their Gibbs structures to those of Maxwell as the local-to-total electron ratio $\eta$, introduced to mimic the hadron-to-quark interface tension from $0$ (Gibbs) to $\infty$ (Maxwell), is raised from $0$ to $1$. A notable exception is the $g$-mode frequency for the specific case of $\eta=1$ for which a gap appears between the quark and hadronic branches., Comment: 16 pages, 18 figures. Accepted by PRD. A Python realization of the framework uploaded to Github, https://github.com/sotzee/GibbsToMaxwell

Quasi-normal oscillation modes of neutron stars provide a means to probe their interior composition using gravitational wave astronomy. We compute the frequencies and damping times of composition-dependent core g-modes of neutron stars containing quark matter employing linearized perturbative equations of general relativity. We find that ignoring background metric perturbations due to the oscillating fluid, as in the Cowling approximation, underestimates the g-mode frequency by up to 10% for higher mass stars, depending on the parameters of the nuclear equation of state and how the mixed phase is constructed. The g-mode frequencies are well-described by a linear scaling with the central lepton (or combined lepton and quark) fraction for nucleonic (hybrid) stars. Our findings suggest that neutron stars with and without quarks are manifestly different with regards to their quasi-normal g-mode spectrum, and may thus be distinguished from one another in future observations of gravitational waves from merging neutron stars., 14 pages, 10 figures

We combine equation of state of dense matter up to twice nuclear saturation density ($n_{\rm sat}=0.16\, \text{fm}^{-3}$) obtained using chiral effective field theory ($��$EFT), and recent observations of neutron stars to gain insights about the high-density matter encountered in their cores. A key element in our study is the recent Bayesian analysis of correlated EFT truncation errors based on order-by-order calculations up to next-to-next-to-next-to-leading order in the $��$EFT expansion. We refine the bounds on the maximum mass imposed by causality at high densities, and provide stringent limits on the maximum and minimum radii of $\sim1.4\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$ and $\sim2.0\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$ stars. Including $��$EFT predictions from $n_{\rm sat}$ to $2\,n_{\rm sat}$ reduces the permitted ranges of the radius of a $1.4\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$ star, $R_{1.4}$, by $\sim3.5\, \text{km}$. If observations indicate $R_{1.4}1/2$ for densities above $2\,n_{\rm sat}$, or that $��$EFT breaks down below $2\,n_{\rm sat}$. We also comment on the nature of the secondary compact object in GW190814 with mass $\simeq 2.6\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$, and discuss the implications of massive neutron stars $>2.1 \,{\rm M}_{\odot}\,(2.6\,{\rm M}_{\odot})$ in future radio and gravitational-wave searches. Some form of strongly interacting matter with $c^2_{s}>0.35\, (0.55)$ must be realized in the cores of such massive neutron stars. In the absence of phase transitions below $2\,n_{\rm sat}$, the small tidal deformability inferred from GW170817 lends support for the relatively small pressure predicted by $��$EFT for the baryon density $n_{\rm B}$ in the range $1-2\,n_{\rm sat}$. Together they imply that the rapid stiffening required to support a high maximum mass should occur only when $n_{\rm B} \gtrsim 1.5-1.8\,n_{\rm sat}$., 26 pages, 17 figures; accepted for publication in PRC, appendices and references updated

The influence of thermal fluctuations on fermion pairing is investigated using a semiclassical treatment of fluctuations. When the average pairing gaps along with those differing by one standard deviation are used, the characteristic discontinuity of the specific heat at the critical temperature Tc in the BCS formalism with its most probable gap becomes smooth. This indicates the suppression of a second order phase transition as experimentally observed in nanoparticles and several nuclei. Illustrative calculations using the constant spacing model and the recently introduced random spacing model are presented.

Prospects of establishing the radii of massive neutron stars in PSR J1614-2230 and PSR J0740+6620 from NICER and Chandra observatories hold the potential to constrain the equation of state (EoS) of matter to densities well beyond those encountered in canonical stars of mass $\sim 1.4\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$. In this work, we investigate the relation between the radii of very massive neutron stars up to the maximum mass, $M_{\rm max}$, supported by dense matter EoSs. Results from models with hadronic matter are contrasted with those that include a first-order hadron-to-quark phase transition. We find that a lower bound on $M_{\rm max}$ with an upper bound on the radius of massive pulsars serves to rule out too soft quark matter, and an upper bound on $M_{\rm max}$ with a lower bound on the radius of massive pulsars strongly disfavors a transition into too-stiff quark matter appearing at low densities. The complementary role played by radius inferences from future gravitational wave events of inspiraling binary neutron stars is also briefly discussed., 15 pages, 10 figures, 3 tables; discussions and references added

The possible detection of a compact object in the remnant of SN 1987A presents an unprecedented opportunity to follow its early evolution. The suspected detection stems from an excess of infrared emission from a dust blob near the compact object's predicted position. The infrared excess could be due to the decay of isotopes like 44Ti, accretion luminosity from a neutron star or black hole, magnetospheric emission or a wind originating from the spindown of a pulsar, or thermal emission from an embedded, cooling neutron star (NS 1987A). It is shown that the last possibility is the most plausible as the other explanations are disfavored by other observations and/or require fine-tuning of parameters. Not only are there indications the dust blob overlaps the predicted location of a kicked compact remnant, but its excess luminosity also matches the expected thermal power of a 30 year old neutron star. Furthermore, models of cooling neutron stars within the Minimal Cooling paradigm readily fit both NS 1987A and Cas A, the next-youngest known neutron star. If correct, a long heat transport timescale in the crust and a large effective stellar temperature are favored, implying relatively limited crustal n-1S0 superfluidity and an envelope with a thick layer of light elements, respectively. If the locations don't overlap, then pulsar spindown or accretion might be more likely, but the pulsar's period and magnetic field or the accretion rate must be rather finely tuned. In this case, NS 1987A may have enhanced cooling and/or a heavy-element envelope., Comment: 21 pages, 6 figures, to be published in ApJ

This white paper informs the nuclear astrophysics community and funding agencies about the scientific directions and priorities of the field and provides input from this community for the 2015 Nuclear Science Long Range Plan. It summarizes the outcome of the nuclear astrophysics town meeting that was held on August 21–23, 2014 in College Station at the campus of Texas A&M University in preparation of the NSAC Nuclear Science Long Range Plan. It also reflects the outcome of an earlier town meeting of the nuclear astrophysics community organized by the Joint Institute for Nuclear Astrophysics (JINA) on October 9–10, 2012 Detroit, Michigan, with the purpose of developing a vision for nuclear astrophysics in light of the recent NRC decadal surveys in nuclear physics (NP2010) and astronomy (ASTRO2010). The white paper is furthermore informed by the town meeting of the Association of Research at University Nuclear Accelerators (ARUNA) that took place at the University of Notre Dame on June 12–13, 2014. In summary we find that nuclear astrophysics is a modern and vibrant field addressing fundamental science questions at the intersection of nuclear physics and astrophysics. These questions relate to the origin of the elements, the nuclear engines that drive life and death of stars, and the properties of dense matter. A broad range of nuclear accelerator facilities, astronomical observatories, theory efforts, and computational capabilities are needed. With the developments outlined in this white paper, answers to long standing key questions are well within reach in the coming decade.

Differences in the equation of state (EOS) of dense matter translate into differences in astrophysical simulations and their multimessenger signatures. Thus, extending the number of EOSs for astrophysical simulations allows us to probe the effect of different aspects of the EOS in astrophysical phenomena. In this work, we construct the EOS of hot and dense matter based on the Akmal, Pandharipande, and Ravenhall (APR) model and thereby extend the open-source SROEOS code which computes EOSs of hot dense matter for Skyrme-type parametrizations of the nuclear forces. Unlike Skrme-type models, in which parameters of the interaction are fit to reproduce the energy density of nuclear matter and/or properties of heavy nuclei, the EOS of APR is obtained from potentials resulting from fits to nucleon-nucleon scattering and properties of light nuclei. In addition, this EOS features a phase transition to a spin-isospin ordered state of nucleons, termed a neutral pion condensate, at supranuclear densities. We show that differences in the effective masses between EOSs have consequences for the properties of nuclei in the subnuclear inhomogeneous phase of matter. We also test the new EOS of APR in spherically symmetric core-collapse of massive stars with 15M⊙ and 40M⊙, respectively. We find that the phase transition in the EOS of APR speeds up the collapse of the star. However, this phase transition does not generate a second shock wave or another neutrino burst as reported for the hadron-to-quark phase transition. The reason for this difference is that the width of the coexistence region and the latent heat in the EOS of APR are substantially smaller than in the quark-to-hadron transition employed earlier, which results in a significantly smaller softening of the high density EOS.

Neutron star interiors provide the opportunity to probe properties of cold dense matter in the QCD phase diagram. Utilizing models of dense matter in accord with nuclear systematics at nuclear densities, we investigate the compatibility of deconfined quark cores with current observational constraints on the maximum mass and tidal deformability of neutron stars. We explore various methods of implementing the hadron-to-quark phase transition, specifically, first-order transitions with sharp (Maxwell construction) and soft (Gibbs construction) interfaces, and smooth crossover transitions. We find that within the models we apply, hadronic matter has to be stiff for a first-order phase transition and soft for a crossover transition. In both scenarios and for the equations of state we employed, quarks appear at the center of pre-merger neutron stars in the mass range $\approx 1.0-1.6\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$, with a squared speed of sound $c^2_{\rm QM}\gtrsim 0.4$ characteristic of strong repulsive interactions required to support the recently discovered neutron star masses $\geq 2\,{\rm M}_{\odot}$. We also identify equations of state and phase transition scenarios that are consistent with the bounds placed on tidal deformations of neutron stars in the recent binary merger event GW170817. We emphasize that distinguishing hybrid stars with quark cores from normal hadronic stars is very difficult from the knowledge of masses and radii alone, unless drastic sharp transitions induce distinctive disconnected hybrid branches in the mass-radius relation., Comment: 24 pages, 8 figures, 7 tables; accepted for publication in PRD

Recent developments in the theory of pure neutron matter and experiments concerning the symmetry energy of nuclear matter, coupled with recent measurements of high-mass neutron stars, now allow for relatively tight constraints on the equation of state of dense matter. We review how these constraints are formulated and describe the implications they have for neutron stars and core-collapse supernovae. We also examine thermal properties of dense matter, which are important for supernovae and neutron star mergers, but which cannot be nearly as well constrained at this time by experiment. In addition, we consider the role of the equation of state in medium-energy heavy-ion collisions., Comment: 87 pages, 20 figures, Accepted for Phys. Rep (Gerald E. Brown's Memorial Volume)

Analytical formulas for next-to-leading order temperature corrections to the thermal state variables of interacting nucleons in bulk matter are derived in the degenerate limit. The formalism developed is applicable to a wide class of non-relativistic and relativistic models of hot and dense matter currently used in nuclear physics and astrophysics (supernovae, proto-neutron stars and neutron star mergers) as well as in condensed matter physics. We consider the general case of arbitrary dimensionality of momentum space and an arbitrary degree of relativity (for relativistic mean-field theoretical models). For non-relativistic zero-range interactions, knowledge of the Landau effective mass suffices to compute next-to-leading order effects, but in the case of finite-range interactions, momentum derivatives of the Landau effective mass function up to second order are required. Numerical computations are performed to compare results from our analytical formulas with the exact results for zero- and finite-range potential and relativistic mean-field theoretical models. In all cases, inclusion of next-to-leading order temperature effects substantially extends the ranges of partial degeneracy for which the analytical treatment remains valid., 28 pages, 8 figures

In simulations of binary neutron star mergers, the dense matter equation of state (EOS) is required over wide ranges of density and temperature as well as under conditions in which neutrinos are trapped, and the effects of magnetic fields and rotation prevail. Here we assess the status of dense matter theory and point out the successes and limitations of approaches currently in use. A comparative study of the excluded volume (EV) and virial approaches for the $np\alpha$ system using the equation of state of Akmal, Pandharipande and Ravenhall for interacting nucleons is presented in the sub-nuclear density regime. Owing to the excluded volume of the $\alpha$-particles, their mass fraction vanishes in the EV approach below the baryon density 0.1 fm$^{-3}$, whereas it continues to rise due to the predominantly attractive interactions in the virial approach. The EV approach of Lattimer et al. is extended here to include clusters of light nuclei such as d, $^3$H and $^3$He in addition to $\alpha$-particles. Results of the relevant state variables from this development are presented and enable comparisons with related but slightly different approaches in the literature. We also comment on some of the sweet and sour aspects of the supra-nuclear EOS. The extent to which the neutron star gravitational and baryon masses vary due to thermal effects, neutrino trapping, magnetic fields and rotation are summarized from earlier studies in which the effects from each of these sources were considered separately. Increases of about $20\% (\gtrsim 50\%)$ occur for rigid (differential) rotation with comparable increases occurring in the presence of magnetic fields only for fields in excess of $10^{18}$ Gauss. Comparatively smaller changes occur due to thermal effects and neutrino trapping. Some future studies to gain further insight into the outcome of dynamical simulations are suggested., Comment: Revised manuscript with one additional figure and previous Fig. 4 replaced, 19 additional references and new text

We present a thermodynamically consistent method by which equations of state based on nonrelativistic potential models can be modified so that they respect causality at high densities, both at zero and finite temperature (entropy). We illustrate the application of the method using the high density phase parametrization of the well known APR model in its pure neutron matter configuration as an example. We also show that, for models with only contact interactions, the adiabatic speed of sound is independent of the temperature in the limit of very large temperature. This feature is approximately valid for models with finite-range interactions as well, insofar as the temperature dependence they introduce to the Landau effective mass is weak. In addition, our study reveals that in first principle nonrelativistic models of hot and dense matter, contributions from higher than two-body interactions must be screened at high density to preserve causality., 12 pages, 12 figures

Properties of hot and dense matter are calculated in the framework of quantum hadro-dynamics by including contributions from two-loop (TL) diagrams arising from the exchange of iso-scalar and iso-vector mesons between nucleons. Our extension of mean-field theory (MFT) employs the same five density-independent coupling strengths which are calibrated using the empirical properties at the equilibrium density of iso-spin symmetric matter. Results of calculations from the MFT and TL approximations are compared for conditions of density, temperature, and proton fraction encountered in astrophysics applications involving compact objects. The TL results for the equation of state (EOS) of cold pure neutron matter at sub- and near-nuclear densities agree well with those of modern quantum Monte Carlo and effective field-theoretical approaches. Although the high-density EOS in the TL approximation for neutron-star matter is substantially softer than its MFT counterpart, it is able to support a $2M_\odot$ neutron star required by recent precise determinations. In addition, radii of $1.4M_\odot$ stars are smaller by $\sim 1$ km than obtained in MFT. In contrast to MFT, the TL results also give a better account of the single-particle or optical potentials extracted from analyses of medium-energy proton-nucleus and heavy-ion experiments. In degenerate conditions, the thermal variables are well reproduced by results of Landau's Fermi-Liquid theory in which density-dependent effective masses feature prominently. The ratio of the thermal components of pressure and energy density expressed as $\Gamma_{th}=1+(P_{th}/\epsilon_{th})$, often used in astrophysical simulations, exhibits a stronger dependence on density than on proton fraction and temperature in both MFT and TL calculations. The prominent peak of $\Gamma_{th}$ at supra-nuclear density found in MFT is, however, suppressed in TL calculations., Comment: 53 page, 24 figures, and 3 tables

Some of the means through which the possible presence of nearly deconfined quarks in neutron stars can be detected by astrophysical observations of neutron stars from their birth to old age are highlighted., Comment: 8 pages, 6 figures, Plenary talk in Quark Matter 2006 to appear in J. Phys. G: Nucl. Part. Phys. 34 (2007)

We investigate how current and proposed observations of neutron stars can lead to an understanding of the state of their interiors and the key unknowns: the typical neutron star radius and the neutron star maximum mass. A theoretical analysis of neutron star structure, including general relativistic limits to mass, compactness, and spin rates is made. We consider observations made not only with photons, ranging from radio waves to X-rays, but also those involving neutrinos and gravity waves. We detail how precision determinations of structural properties would lead to significant restrictions on the poorly understood equation of state near and beyond the equilibrium density of nuclear matter., 70 pages, 19 figures, submitted to Hans Bethe Centennial Physics Reports

We explore the thermal properties of hot and dense matter using a model that reproduces the empirical properties of isospin symmetric and asymmetric bulk nuclear matter, optical model fits to nucleon-nucleus scattering data, heavy-ion flow data in the energy range 0.5-2 GeV/A, and the largest well-measured neutron star mass of 2 $\rm{M}_\odot$. Results of this model which incorporates finite range interactions through Yukawa type forces are contrasted with those of a zero-range Skyrme model that yields nearly identical zero-temperature properties at all densities for symmetric and asymmetric nucleonic matter and the maximum neutron star mass, but fails to account for heavy-ion flow data due to the lack of an appropriate momentum dependence in its mean field. Similarities and differences in the thermal state variables and the specific heats between the two models are highlighted. Checks of our exact numerical calculations are performed from formulas derived in the strongly degenerate and non-degenerate limits. Our studies of the thermal and adiabatic indices, and the speed of sound in hot and dense matter for conditions of relevance to core-collapse supernovae, the thermal evolution of neutron stars from their birth and mergers of compact binary stars reveal that substantial variations begin to occur at sub-saturation densities before asymptotic values are reached at supra-nuclear densities., Comment: 47 pages, 40 figures

The role of the equation of state in the structure of neutron stars is summarized. At densities beyond a few times the normal nuclear saturation density, the neutron-proton-electron sea can be supplemented with more exotic matter, usually involving strangeness, such as hyperons, kaon or pion condensates, and deconfined quark matter. In the case of a boson condensate or deconfined quark matter, the exotic matter may form a mixed-phase region with the hadronic matter. Global aspects of neutron stars, such as radii, moments of inertia and the maximum mass, can be related to specific properties of matter at selected density ranges. Recent observations of isolated neutron stars and pulsars in binaries are beginning to yield significant constraints on structural properties of neutron stars and hence on the properties and composition of neutron-rich nuclear matter.

We investigate the effects of very strong magnetic fields upon the equation of state of dense bayonic matter in which hyperons are present. In the presence of a magnetic field, the equation of state above nuclear density is significantly affected both by Landau quantization and magnetic moment interactions, but only for field strengths $B>5\times10^{18}$ G. The former tends to soften the EOS and increase proton and lepton abundances, while the latter produces an overall stiffening of the EOS. Each results in a supression of hyperons relative to the field-free case. The structure of a neutron star is, however, primarily determined by the magnetic field stress. We utilize existing general relativistic magneto-hydrostatic calculations to demonstrate that maximum average fields within a stable neutron are limited to values $B\le 1-3 \times10^{18}$ G. This is not large enough to significantly influence particle compositions or the matter pressure, unless fluctuations dominate the average field strengths in the interior or configurations with significantly larger field gradients are considered., 12 pages, 3 figures. To be submitted to Phys. Lett. B

The presence of quark matter in neutron star interiors may have distinctive signatures in basic observables such as (i) masses and radii [1], (ii) surface temperatures versus age [2], (iii) spin-down rates of milli-second pulsars [3], and (iv) neutrino luminosities from future galactic core collapse supernovae [4]. I highlight recent developments in some of these areas with a view towards assessing how theory may be confirmed by $\nu-$signals from future galactic supernovae in detectors like SuperK, SNO and others under consideration, including UNO [5], and by multi-wavelength photon observations with new generation satellites such as the HST, Chandra, and XMM., Comment: 4 pages, 2 figures. To appear in the proceedings of QM 2001. Uses fleqn.sty and espcrc1.sty

The formalism of next-to-leading order Fermi Liquid Theory is employed to calculate the thermal properties of symmetric nuclear and pure neutron matter in a relativistic many-body theory beyond the mean field level which includes two-loop effects. For all thermal variables, the semi-analytical next-to-leading order corrections reproduce results of the exact numerical calculations for entropies per baryon up to 2. This corresponds to excellent agreement down to sub-nuclear densities for temperatures up to $20$ MeV. In addition to providing physical insights, a rapid evaluation of the equation of state in the homogeneous phase of hot and dense matter is achieved through the use of the zero-temperature Landau effective mass function and its derivatives., Comment: 24 pages, 11 figures, Contribution to Gerry Brown's 90th Birthday Memorial Book

Gerry Brown has had the most influence on my career in Physics, and my life after graduate studies. This article gives a brief account of some of the many ways in which Gerry shaped my research. Focus is placed on the significant strides on neutron star research made by the group at Stony Brook, which Gerry built from scratch. Selected puzzles about neutron stars that remain to be solved are noted., Suggestions of the referee and the editor incorporated. 24 pages, 11 figures, 2 tables, Contribution to "Gerry Brown's Memorial Meeting", 45 Years of Nuclear Theory at Stony Brook: A Tribute To Gerald E. Brown. Article in press as: M. Prakash, Neutron star news and puzzles, Nuclear Physics A (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2014.04.017

Neutron stars have long been regarded as extra-terrestrial laboratories from which we can learn about extreme energy density matter at low temperatures. In this article, I highlight some of the recent advances made in astrophysical observations and related theory. Although the focus is on the much needed information on masses and radii of several individual neutron stars, the need for additional knowledge about the many facets of neutron stars is stressed. The extent to which quark matter can be present in neutron stars is summarized with emphasis on the requirement of non-perturbative treatments. Some longstanding and new questions, answers to which will advance our current status of knowledge, are posed., 18 pages, 3 figures, 3 tables, Review submitted to Pramana

We investigate the thermal properties of the potential model equation of state of Akmal, Pandharipande and Ravenhall. This equation of state approximates the microscopic model calculations of Akmal and Pandharipande, which feature a neutral pion condensate. We treat the bulk homogeneous phase for isospin asymmetries ranging from symmetric nuclear matter to pure neutron matter and for temperatures and densities relevant for simulations of core-collapse supernovae, proto-neutron stars, and neutron star mergers. Numerical results of the state variables are compared with those of a typical Skyrme energy density functional with similar properties at nuclear densities, but which differs substantially at supra-nuclear densities. Analytical formulas, which are applicable to non-relativistic potential models such as the equations of state we are considering, are derived for all state variables and their thermodynamic derivatives. A highlight of our work is its focus on thermal response functions in the degenerate and non-degenerate situations, which allow checks of the numerical calculations for arbitrary degeneracy. These functions are sensitive to the density dependent effective masses of neutrons and protons, which determine the thermal properties in all regimes of degeneracy. We develop the "thermal asymmetry free energy" and establish its relation to the more commonly used nuclear symmetry energy. We also explore the role of the pion condensate at supra-nuclear densities and temperatures. Tables of matter properties as functions of baryon density, composition (i.e., proton fraction) and temperature are being produced which are suitable for use in astrophysical simulations of supernovae and neutron stars., Comment: 44 pages, 40 figures, 6 tables

Baryon and quark superfluidity in the cooling of neutron stars are investigated. Observations could constrain combinations of the neutron or Lambda-hyperon pairing gaps and the star's mass. However, in a hybrid star with a mixed phase of hadrons and quarks, quark gaps larger than a few tenths of an MeV render quark matter virtually invisible for cooling. If the quark gap is smaller, quark superfluidity could be important, but its effects will be nearly impossible to distinguish from those of other baryonic constituents., Comment: 4 pages, 3 ps figures, uses RevTex(aps,prl). Submitted to Phys. Rev. Lett

A first order phase transition at high baryon density implies that a mixed phase can occupy a significant region of the interior of a neutron star. In this article we investigate the effect of a droplet phase on neutrino transport inside the core. Two specific scenarios of the phase transition are examined, one having a kaon condensate and the other having quark matter in the high density phase. The coherent scattering of neutrinos off the droplets greatly increases the neutrino opacity of the mixed phase. We comment on how the existence of such a phase will affect a supernova neutrino signal., Comment: 7 pages, 4 figures

We study the thermal and chemical evolution during the Kelvin-Helmholtz phase of the birth of a neutron star, employing neutrino opacities that are consistently calculated with the underlying equation of state (EOS). Expressions for the diffusion coefficients appropriate for general relativistic neutrino transport in the equilibrium diffusion approximation are derived. The diffusion coefficients are evaluated using a field-theoretical finite temperature EOS that includes the possible presence of hyperons. The variation of the diffusion coefficients is studied as a function of EOS and compositional parameters. We present results from numerical simulations of protoneutron star cooling for internal stellar properties as well as emitted neutrino energies and luminosities. We discuss the influence of the initial stellar model, the total mass, the underlying EOS, and the addition of hyperons on the evolution of the protoneutron star and upon the expected signal in terrestrial detectors., Comment: 67 pages, 25 figures

A protoneutron star is formed immediately after the gravitational collapse of the core of a massive star. At birth, the hot and high density matter in such a star contains a large number of neutrinos trapped during collapse. Trapped neutrinos generally inhibit the presence of exotic matter — hyperons, a kaon condensate, or quarks. However, as the neutrinos diffuse out in about 10–15 s, the threshold for the appearance of strangeness is reduced; hence, the composition and the structure of the star can change significantly. The effect of exotic, negatively-charged, strangeness-bearing components is always to soften the equation of state, and the possibility exists that the star collapses to a black hole at this time. This could explain why no neutron star has yet been seen in the remnant of supernova SN1987A, even though one certainly existed when neutrinos were detected on Feb. 23, 1987. With new generation neutrino detectors it is feasible to test different theoretical scenarios observationally.

Shear viscosity \eta and entropy density s of a hadronic resonance gas are calculated using the Chapman-Enskog and virial expansion methods using the K-matrix parametrization of hadronic cross sections which preserves the unitarity of the T -matrix. In the \pi-K-N-\eta- mixture considered, a total of 57 resonances up to 2 GeV were included. Comparisons are also made to results with other hadronic cross sections such as the Breit-Wigner (BW) and, where available, experimental phase shift parametrizations. Hadronic interactions forming resonances are shown to decrease the shear viscosity and increase the entropy density leading to a substantial reduction of \eta/s as the QCD phase transition temperature is approached., Comment: 16 pages and 14 figures

We study the mass-radius curve of hybrid stars, assuming a single first-order phase transition between nuclear and quark matter, with a sharp interface between the quark matter core and nuclear matter mantle. We use a generic parameterization of the quark matter equation of state, which has a constant, i.e. density-independent, speed of sound ("CSS"). We argue that this parameterization provides a framework for comparison and empirical testing of models of quark matter. We obtain the phase diagram of possible forms of the hybrid star mass-radius relation, where the control parameters are the transition pressure, energy density discontinuity, and the quark matter speed of sound. We find that this diagram is sensitive to the quark matter parameters but fairly insensitive to details of the nuclear matter equation of state. We calculate the maximum hybrid star mass as a function of the parameters of the quark matter EoS, and find that there are reasonable values of those parameters that give rise to hybrid stars with mass above $2\,M_\odot$., 11 pages, 8 figures. Changes to nomenclature, references added

This work extends the seminal work of Gottfried on the two-body quantum physics of particles interacting through a delta-shell potential to many-body physics by studying a system of non-relativistic particles when the thermal De-Broglie wavelength of a particle is smaller than the range of the potential and the density is such that average distance between particles is smaller than the range. The ability of the delta-shell potential to reproduce some basic properties of the deuteron are examined. Relations for moments of bound states are derived. The virial expansion is used to calculate the first quantum correction to the ideal gas pressure in the form of the second virial coefficient. Additionally, all thermodynamic functions are calculated up to the first order quantum corrections. For small departures from equilibrium, the net flows of mass, energy and momentum, characterized by the coefficients of diffusion, thermal conductivity and shear viscosity, respectively, are calculated. Properties of the gas are examined for various values of physical parameters including the case of infinite scattering length when the unitary limit is achieved., Comment: 79 pages, 55 figures, 3 tables, report (submitted to IJMP-E)

A protoneutron star is formed immediately after the gravitational collapse of the core of a massive star. At birth, the hot and high density matter in such a star contains a large number of neutrinos trapped during collapse. Trapped neutrinos generally inhibit the presence of exotic matter -- hyperons, a kaon condensate, or quarks. However, as the neutrinos diffuse out in about 10-15 s, the threshold for the appearance of strangeness is reduced; hence, the composition and the structure of the star can change significantly. The effect of exotic, negatively-charged, strangeness-bearing components is always to soften the equation of state, and the possibility exists that the star collapses to a black hole at this time. This could explain why no neutron star has yet been seen in the remnant of supernova SN1987A, even though one certainly existed when neutrinos were detected on Feb. 23, 1987. With new generation neutrino detectors it is feasible to test different theoretical scenarios observationally., Comment: 19 pages, 10 Postscript figures, Strangeness 96 paper to appear in Heavy Ion Physics

We explore the influence of three-particle interactions, in either the initial or final state, on the collision rate in a high temperature plasma, and on the rate of quark and anti-quark pair (flavor) production. When the interactions are taken to be screened at the Debye wave numberq d≈T, three-particle interactions contribute significantly to the collision rate, but only marginally enhance flavor production over that from two-particle interactions. The magnitudes of the rates are, however, sensitive to the infra-red thresholds, which emphasizes the need for a reliable analysis of this issue. Our results also highlight the importance of treating many-particle processes adequately in the space-time evolution of quarks and gluons produced in ultrarelativistic heavy-ion collisions.

Based on the Kaplan-Nelson Lagrangian, we investigate kaon condensation in dense neutron star matter allowing for the explicit presence of hyperons. Using various models we find that the condensate threshold is sensitive to the behavior of the scalar density; the more rapidly it increases with baryon density, the lower is the threshold for condensation. The presence of hyperons, particularly the $\Sigma^-$, shifts the threshold for $K^-$ condensation to a higher density. In the mean field approach, with hyperons, the condensate amplitude grows sufficiently rapidly that the nucleon effective mass vanishes at a finite density and a satisfactory treatment of the thermodynamics cannot be achieved. Thus, calculations of kaon-baryon interactions beyond the mean field level appear to be necessary., Comment: 13 pages, latex, 3 figures by fax/mail from ellis@physics.spa.umn.edu

The structure of newborn hot neutron stars is compared with that of cold catalyzed configurations. The role of the nuclear equation of state on the structural changes is investigated and some of the astrophysical consequences are briefly discussed.

The supernova remnant Cassiopeia A contains the youngest known neutron star which is also the first one for which real time cooling has ever been observed. I n order to explain the rapid cooling of this neutron star, we first present the fundamental proper ties of neutron stars that control their thermal evolution with emphasis on the neutrino emission processes and neutron/proton superfluidity/superconductivity. Equipped with these results, we present a scenario in which the observed cooling of the neutron star in Cassiopeia A is interpreted as being due to the recent onset of neutron superfluidity in the core of the star. The manner in which the earlier occurrence of proton superconductivity determines the observed rapidity of thi s neutron star’s cooling is highlighted. This is the first direct evidence that superfluidity and super conductivity occur at supranuclear densities within neutron stars.

The interpretation of the measured elliptic and higher order collective flows in heavy-ion collisions in terms of viscous hydrodynamics depends sensitively on the ratio of shear viscosity to entropy density. Here we perform a quantitative comparison between the results of shear viscosities from the Chapman-Enskog and relaxation time methods for selected test cases with specified elastic differential cross sections: (i) The non-relativistic, relativistic and ultra-relativistic hard sphere gas with angle and energy independent differential cross section (ii) The Maxwell gas, (iii) chiral pions and (iv) massive pions for which the differential elastic cross section is taken from experiments. Our quantitative results reveal that (i) the extent of agreement (or disagreement) depends sensitively on the energy dependence of the differential cross sections employed, and (ii) stress the need to perform quantum molecular dynamical (URQMD) simulations that employ Green-Kubo techniques with similar cross sections to validate the codes employed and to test the accuracy of other methods., To be submitted to PRC

A quantitative comparison between the results of shear viscosities from the Chapman-Enskog and relaxation time methods is performed for selected test cases with specified elastic differential cross sections: (i) the non-relativistic, relativistic and ultra-relativistic hard sphere gas with angle and energy independent differential cross section, (ii) the Maxwell gas, (iii) chiral pions and (iv) massive pions. Our quantitative results reveal that the extent of agreement (or disagreement) depends very sensitively on the energy dependence of the differential cross sections employed., Comment: Submitted to Cent. Eur. J.Phys

The correlation between the compression modulus and the skewness coefficient of the nuclear matter ground state implied by the breathing mode data is compared with predictions of the relativistic Hartree approximation (RHA). Retaining explicit dependence on the renormalization scale μ, employed in the RHA, this correlation, together with other considerations, suggests a value for μ/M ⋍ 1.2 .

The space—time evolution of matter produced in high energy nuclear collisions is explored using a three dimensional hydrodynamic model. A significant coupling between longitudinal and transverse hydrodynamic flows is observed. This coupling of flows may be used to infer the degree of stopping in heavy ion experiments. These results are illustrated by qualitative fits to the CERN NA35 data for S+S collisions at 200 GeV nucleon .

The determination of neutron star masses is reviewed in light of a new measurement of 1.97 M$_\odot$ for PSR J1614-2230 and an estimate of 2.4 M$_\odot$ for the black widow pulsar. Using a simple analytic model related to the so-called maximally compact equation of state, model-independent upper limits to thermodynamic properties in neutron stars, such as energy density, pressure, baryon number density and chemical potential, are established which depend upon the neutron star maximum mass. Using the largest well-measured neutron star mass, 1.97 M$_\odot$, it is possible to show that the energy density can never exceed about 2 GeV, the pressure about 1.3 GeV, and the baryon chemical potential about 2.1 GeV. Further, if quark matter comprises a significant component of neutron star cores, these limits are reduced to 1.3 GeV, 0.9 GeV, and 1.5 GeV, respectively. We also find that the maximum binding energy of any neutron star is about 25% of the rest mass. Neutron matter properties and astrophysical constraints additionally imply an upper limit to the neutron star maximum mass of about 2.4 M$_\odot$. A measured mass of 2.4 M$\odot$ would be incompatible with hybrid star models containing {\it significant} proportions of exotica in the form of hyperons, Bose condensates or quark matter.

The equilibration of hot hadronic matter is studied in the framework of relativistic kinetic theory. Various non-equilibrium properties of a mixture comprised of pions, kaons and nucleons are calculated in the dilute limit for small deviations from local thermal equilibrium. Interactions between these constituents are specified through the empirical phase shifts. The properties calculated include the relaxation/collision times, momentum and energy persistence ratios in elastic collisions, and transport properties such as the viscosity, the thermal conductivity, and the diffusion and thermal diffusion coefficients. The Chapman-Enskog formalism is extended to extract relaxation times associated with shear and heat flows, and drag and diffusion flows in a mixture. The equilibrium number concentration of the constituents is chosen to mimic those expected in the mid-rapidity interval of CERN and RHIC experiments. In this case, kaons and nucleons are found to equilibrate significantly more slowly than pions. These results shed new light on the influence of collective flow effects on the transverse momentum distributions of kaons and nucleons versus those of pions in ultra-relativistic nuclear collisions.

We study various non-equilibrium properties of a mixture comprised of pions, kaons and nucleons. The concentration of the constituents is chosen to mimic those expected in the mid-rapidity interval of CERN and RHIC experiments. The heavier kaons and nucleons are found to equilibrate more slowly than pions. These results shed new light on the influence of collective flow effects on the transverse momentum distributions of kaons and nucleons versus those of pions in ultrarelativistic nuclear collisions.

Gravitational waves from the final stages of inspiralling binary neutron stars are expected to be one of the most important sources for ground-based gravitational wave detectors. The masses of the components are determinable from the orbital and chirp frequencies during the early part of the evolution during which tidal effects provide small correction; however, during this phase the signal is relatively clean. The accumulated phase shift due to tidal corrections is characterized by a single quantity, the Love number, which is sensitive to the compactness parameter M/R and the star's internal structure, and its determination could constrain the star's radius. We show that the Love number of normal neutron stars are much different from those of self-bound strange quark matter stars and could therefore provide an important way to distinguish between these two classes of stars., 18 pages, 17 figures, 1 table

We study hadronic matter at temperatures close to the pion mass. In the dilute-gas stage, the relativistic virial expansion is used with empirical phase shifts to investigate the thermodynamic properties of an interacting gas of pions, kaons and nucleons. The interplay between the attractive and repulsive interactions which governs the size of the interacting contributions is discussed. In the dense gas stage characterized by the presence of many massive resonances, schematic models that include the effects of repulsive interactions are analysed. Limits on the size of repulsive interactions are established by causality constraints. The causal behaviour of some of the conventional excluded-volume approaches is examined. Since our work is also aimed at studying those equations of state which may be used in dynamical simulations of heavy-ion collisions, phase diagrams are constructed including the thermodynamics of the quark-gluon phase.

The correlation between the compression modulus and the skewness coefficient of the nuclear matter ground state implied by the breathing mode data is compared with predictions of the relativistic Hartree approximation (RHA). Retaining explicit dependence on the renormalization scale, μ, employed in the RHA, this correlation, together with other considerations, suggests a value for μ M ⋍ 1.2 .