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Este artículo busca una primera aproximación que permita una mejor comprensión sobre la iconografía de San Sebastián tomando, en primer lugar, como referencia lo que sobre él recogen las fuentes literarias tales como la Passio y su reflejo en el arte. En segundo lugar, se analiza la evolución de la iconografía de este santo militar hasta el arte contemporáneo, partiendo de las fuentes escritas, así como la influencia de su modelo iconográfico y su primer martirio en los medios audiovisuales actuales, tomando como ejemplo una gran cantidad de obras representativas entre las que se destacan seis pinturas medievales, siete pinturas renacentistas, un grabado del siglo XV, una escultura renacentista, cinco pinturas barrocas, dos dibujos del siglo XX, dos ejemplospictóricos siglo XXI y cuatro fotogramas de películas representativas, tanto de su contexto europeo como americano. This ’article aims to show a first approximation which allows a better understanding of the iconography of St Sebastian. Firstly, it will be considered what literary sources such as Passio refers about him. Secondly, this thesis will analyze the evolution of the iconography of this military saint until Contemporary art, taking into account some written sources. Finally, it will be given consideration to the influence of his iconographic model and his first martyrdom in audiovisual media, taking as an example a large number of representative works, among which six medieval paintings, seven Renaissance paintings, a fifteenth-century engraving, a Renaissance sculpture, five baroque paintings, two twentieth-century drawings, two XXI-century pictorial examples and four stills stand out. of representative films, both from its European and American context.

Usprkos višestoljetnom proučavanju, problematika razumijevanja kristijanizacije Rimskoga Carstva izazov je suvremenim znanstvenicima, koji su ponudili niz potencijalnih uzroka zbog kojih je marginalna vjerska zajednica od nekoliko stotina ljudi do kraja 4. stoljeća uspjela postati dominantnom religijom Rimskoga Carstva. Jedan od uzroka koji se apostrofira jest i fenomen mučeništva. Prema takvu rezoniranju, hrabrost kršćanskih mučenika djelovala je kao element privlačnosti među rimskim pukom koji je tomu svjedočio. U prvom dijelu članka predstavljena je sinteza najčešćih uzroka koje (od Edwarda Gibbona i Adolfa von Harnacka do Barta Ehrmana) suvremena historiografija ističe pri raspravi o trijumfu kršćanstva u Rimskom Carstvu. Potom se u članku predstavila i teorija o mučeništvu kao pozitivnom faktoru u kristijanizaciji Rimskoga Carstva, koja se još može nazvati (prema Tertulijanovoj krilatici) teorija semen est sanguis Christianorum. U drugom dijelu članka predstavljene su uobičajene primjedbe koje dovode u pitanje historiografsku točnost spomenute teorije. Na kraju autor članka nudi novi argument koji dodatno opovrgava tezu o mučeništvu kao pozitivnom faktoru u širenju kršćanstva tako što u raspravu uvodi relevantnost fenomena otpadništva u ranom kršćanstvu. Osnovna se teza članka može definirati na sljedeći način: Nezaobilazan problem svake teorije semen est sanguis Christianorum ustvari su otpadnici, koji, usprkos tvrdnjama pojedinih crkvenih autora, nisu bili irelevantna manjina na marginama života prve Crkve. Progoni kršćana i društveni pritisci kojima su bili izloženi otvarali su prostor za pojavu otpadništva, koje je djelovalo negativno na demografski rast nove religijske zajednice. Shodno tomu, pristupajući temi otpadništva iz historijske i sociološke perspektive, autor članka zaključuje da su otpadnici bili ozbiljan problem u ranokršćanskim zajednicama. Stoga svaka predodžba da je mučeništvo per se pozitivno djelovalo na kristijanizaciju mora uzeti u obzir i problem otpadništva, koje se u suvremenim raspravama gotovo potpuno zanemaruje., In spite of more than a century of historical research, the question of Christianization of the Roman Empire still poses a challenge to scholars. Numerous theories have been proposed as a way of explaining how the marginal religious community of several hundred persons managed to become, by the end of the 4th century, the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. In the first part of this paper, the author presents the most common theories put forward by scholars going back to Adolf von Harnack, with their critical evaluation. Special emphasis is placed on a specific theory, summarized already by Tertullian, who stated in one of his works: Semen est sanguis Christianorum. In the second part of the article, the author presents the standard criticism of Tertullian’s notion offered by contemporary scholars, as well as some new arguments related to the phenomenon of early Christian apostasy. Thus, the basic argument of the paper is as follows: The crucial problem of any “Semen est sanguis Christianorum theory” is the existence of apostates who, despite claims made by several early Church leaders, were not an imperceptible minority in the early Christian period. Approaching the subject of apostates from a historical and sociological (sociology of deviance) point, the author concludes that the apostates posed a serious problem to the stability and security of the new religion. Therefore, any hypothesis that martyrdom as such helped the process of Christianization has to account for the problem of apostasy, which is hardly taken into the consideration in discussions of the triumph of Christianity in the Roman Empire.

The so-called Iranian revolutionary youth’s aspirations for martyrdom are not based merely on Islamist doctrines or Islamic ideologies. They readily place all fallen combatants in a ‘martyrdom box’, linking them to Islamic sacrality and claiming they feel martyrs via martyrs’ ghostly whispers. Through ethnographic journeys in Iran, Lebanon and Iraq, I unpack how they craft the ‘martyrdom box’ and communicate with the ghostly whispers. I argue that the Iranian revolutionary youth’s perceptions of martyrdom and militant subjectivities emerge in relation to disbelieving histories that contest the state’s narratives and their mystical relationships with martyrs. This article takes Iranian revolutionary youth as exemplars to explain how individuals implicated in political violence craft acts of ‘knowing’ and render death and dead ‘knowable’. In other words, instead of asking what is known, I proceed by unpacking how what is known becomes real and how the act of knowing contributes to the emergence of reality.Résumé : En Iran les aspirations de la soi-disant jeunesse révolutionnaire pour le martyre ne sont pas basées simplement sur les doctrines islamistes ou les idéologies islamiques. Ces aspirations visent à mettre toutes les personnes qui sont mort au combat dans une “boîte de martyre” afin de les unir au sacré islamique. La jeunesse prétend pouvoir ressentir la présence des martyrs grâce au chuchotement-fantôme. À travers des voyages d’ethnographie en Iran, en Liban, et en Iraq, j’étudie leurs façons de construire la “boîte de martyre” et de communiquer avec le chuchotement-fantôme. L’idée que les jeunes révolutionnaires iraniennes se font de martyre et de militantisme émerge dans le contexte du scepticisme face à l’histoire, ayant comme but de contester les récits de l’état et les relations mystiques avec des martyres. Cet article montre que la jeunesse révolutionnaire en Iran pourrait servir comme modèle pour expliquer comment des individus qui sont impliqués dans des violences politiques se présentent comme artisans-créateurs des “connaissances”. Ils essayent de se rapprocher des morts et de rendre la mort compréhensible. Mon objectif c’est de mettre de côté le questionnement sur la connaissance elle-même, afin d’établir comment la possession des connaissances contribue à l’apparition de la réalité.

Les villes et villages de Lorraine connurent deux grands types de martyres pendant la Première Guerre mondiale. Le premier était lié aux atrocités allemandes lors de l’invasion de l’été 1914, le second à des bombardements aériens ou d’artillerie répétés tout au long de la guerre. Dans les deux cas, la violence de guerre abolissait la frontière entre civils et combattants. Les cités martyres devinrent un thème privilégié de la guerre du droit et leur mémoire fut entretenu pendant tout le conflit. Celle-ci demeure localement bien vivante encore aujourd’hui, comme à Nomeny ou à Gerbéviller. The towns and villages of Lorraine were twice martyred during the First World War. First came the atrocities of the German invasion in summer 1914. These were followed by the repeated aerial and artillery bombardment that continued the rest of the war. In both cases, the violence of war abolished the frontier between civilians and combatants. The martyred cities became a favorite theme of the war of law and their memory was maintained during the conflict. To this day, the latter is alive and well at the local level in towns such as Nomeny and Gerbéviller.

В научной статье рассматривает религиозно-философское учение блаженного Августина о мученичестве и святости. Для Августина было важно не описать жизни святых мучеников, а найти религиозно-философский и теологический смысл мученичества. Для этого он в своих «Рассуждениях» синтезирует все имеющеюся у него данные о святых мучениках и связывает их со Священным Писанием. Раннее в религиозно-философской литературе не обращалось особого внимание на этот аспект в учении блаженного Августина как некого историософского феномена. Вместе с тем проведенный в статье анализ раскрывает как отдельное направление в религиозной философии святого отца как «учение блаж. Августина о святом мученичестве». В результате исследования также установлено, что для блаженного Августина, путь христианина к святости полностью зависит от непосредственных отношений со Христом и ближним: с одной стороны, жизнь во Христе есть основание вечного счастья, а с другой стороны, христианин в свою очередь предлагает другим свои вид от своего дара, с целью укрепления связи во Христе. Религиоведческое и философско-антропологическое исследование религиозной философии блаженного Августина выраженное в «учении о святом мученичестве» позволило выделить его в отдельный феномен в трудах Иппонийского святителя, который во многом предопределил дальнейшее развитие концепции мученичества прежде всего в западно-христианском богословии как юридическое свидетельство истинности веры во Христа., The research paper examines the religious and philosophical teaching of Blessed Augustine on martyrdom and holiness. For Augustine, it was important not to describe the lives of holy martyrs, but to find the religious-philosophical and theological meaning of martyrdom. For this aim he synthesizes in his "Revelations" all the data he had on the holy martyrs and relates them to the Holy Scriptures. Earlier in religious-philosophical literature, no special attention was paid to this aspect of Blessed Augustine's teaching as a certain historiosophic phenomenon. At the same time, the analysis carried out in the article reveals as a separate direction in the religious philosophy of the holy father as "Blessed Augustine's teaching on holy martyrdom". The research also establishes that for Blessed Augustine, the Christian's path to holiness depends entirely on a direct relationship with Christ and neighbour: on the one hand, life in Christ is the foundation of eternal happiness, and on the other hand, the Christian in turn offers others his views from his gift, with the aim of strengthening the bond in Christ. The religious and philosophical-anthropological study of Blessed Augustine's religious philosophy expressed in the "teaching on holy martyrdom" made it possible to identify it as a separate phenomenon in the writings of the Hipponic saint, which in many ways predetermined the further development of the concept of martyrdom primarily in Western Christian theology as a juridical witness to the truth of faith in Christ., Международный научно-исследовательский журнал, Выпуск 7 (133) 2023

This article advances an interdisciplinary and multifactorial socio-cultural approach to the fascistization of the Ustaša in interwar Yugoslavia, leading to terrorism and racial cleansing. It concentrates on the life-trajectories of Mijo Babić and Zvonimir Pospišil, two nationalist activists notoriously known as the first Ustaša terrorists. Drawing on the previously unknown political memoirs of Pospišil and Babić, the article argues that the two activists bridged several phases of cumulative radicalization in the Ustaša organization, from the adop- tion of political violence at the grass-root level in the 1920s to international terrorism in the 1930s and then state-sponsored genocide in the first half of the 1940s. The article points out that Ustaša underwent most forms of political radicalization to terrorism identified by McCauley and Moskalenko (2008), but it also adds to their typology a case of radicalization to mass violence in the regime phase. Ustaša’s trajectory thus illustrates a rare process of transition from the radicalization of an oppositional, non-state group to mass radicaliza- tion leading to racial genocidal policies under a fascist-totalitarian regime. It is hoped that the biographical approach to radicalization advanced by the article contributes to a better understanding of politically motivated terrorism and mass violence in post-1918 Europe

This thesis investigates one of Iran’s grand narratives, the myth of victimisation, as a tool of the Iranian political elite to achieve foreign policy goals. It studies the leadership of Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi (1941-1979), Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddeq (1951-1953), Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini (1979-1989), and President Mahmood Ahmadinejad (2005-2013) to argue that the sense of grievance of justice denied has had a cultural provenance, rooted in historical, literary and religious references spanning centuries. Accordingly Iranian leaders have been able to pursue and perpetuate narratives that have served to cast Iranians as victims of foreign intrigue, thus relieving themselves from accountability and inaction. The narrative of grievance has had a resurgence with the rise of populism around the world, but as an ideational catalyst in Iranian politics, where it has been at play for decades, it has received scant attention. The leaders studied in this thesis have each employed this narrative to varying degrees and effects, to cast the world as a battleground between victim and victimizer. This process was most evident in the lead up to and in the aftermath of the Islamic Revolution, when Ayatollah Khomeini and President Ahmadinejad repurposed the myth of victimisation to launch and export the revolution. While the Shah and Prime Minister Mosaddeq disseminated such myths to extract favourable concessions from foreign powers, mainly the United States and Great Britain. As a result, the grounding of Iran’s most exigent foreign policy issues in myths and populist narratives has led to an incongruity between its potential and its current standing in the community of nations.

Historical context of the beatification process of the martyrs of Pratulin and their spiritual heritage today The trial of the Uniate martyrs from Pratulin in 1874 was started in 1919 by Bishop Henryk Przeździecki, the first ordinary of the resurrected diocese of Janów, i.e. Podlasie. The beatification of the Servants of God, Wincenty Lewoniuk and XII companions, was carried out in Rome on October 6, 1996 by Pope John Paul II. The attitude of the blessed Pratulin martyrs was shaped above all by the liturgy. The Synod of the Uniate Church, held in Zamość in 1720, contributed to the revival of religious life in Uniate dioceses through the in-depth formation of pastors and certain changes in liturgical rituals. Blessed martyrs from Pratulin grew up to sanctity in a climate of persecution provoked by politicized Orthodoxy. Their heroic testimony is the spiritual heritage of the Diocese of Siedlce. 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The actuality of the testimony of the blessed martyrs of Pratulin The jubilee of the session of the Collegiate Chapter of Łuków on the occasion of its 25th anniversary was an opportunity to recall the spiritual heritage of the blessed martyrs of Pratulin. It also became an obligation for the canons of this chapter to disseminate it. And this heritage is: life according to the Gospel, courageous profession of faith, evangelical hierarchy of values, faithfulness in small things, love of the Church and the Homeland., {"references":["Bandurewicz, M. Sprawa chłopska w polskich powstaniach narodowych. Pobrano z http://www.edulandia.pl/edukacja/1,124764,6745419,Sprawa_chlopska_w_polskich_powstaniach_narodowych.html#ixzz3QIFvGTgC [12.09.2022].","Białokozowicz, B. (1994). Mikołaj Jańczuk wobec kasaty unii. W: R. Łużny, F. Ziejka, A. Kępiński (red.), Unia brzeska: geneza, dzieje i konsekwencje w kulturze narodów słowiańskich (378- 402). Kraków: Universitas.","Bogusz, A. (1903). Wieś Siedliska – Bogusz – monografia zebrana z dokumentów i wspomnień rodzinnych ze szczególnym uwzględnieniem wypadków roku 1846 i życiorysu Jakuba Szeli. Kraków: Drukarnia Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.","Czy chrześcijanin powinien być patriotą. Pobrano z: https://pl.aleteia.org/2016/11/11/czy-chrzescijanin-powinien-byc-patriota-co-mowi-na-ten-temat-kosciol/ [16.10.2022].","Droga synodalna w Niemczech. Pobrano z: https://www.ekai.pl/tag/droga-synodalna-w-niemczech/ [12.06.2022].","Dylągowa, H. (1989). Unia brzeska i unici w Królestwie Polskim. Warszawa: Kuria Metropolitarna Warszawska.","Dylągowa, H. (1994). Unia brzeska - pojednanie czy podział? W: R. Łużny, F. Ziejko, A. Kępiński (red.), Unia brzeska: geneza, dzieje i konsekwencje w kulturze narodów słowiańskich (45-53). Kraków: Universitas.","Geresz, J. (1991). Unitów podlaskich droga do świętości. Biała Podlaska: Podlaska Oficyna Wydawnicza \"Rapid-Press\".","Jan Paweł II, (1995). Encyklika Ut unum sint (25.05.1995). Pobrano z: https://opoka.org.pl/biblioteka/W/WP/jan_pawel_ii/encykliki/ut_unum_1.html [10.04.2022].","Jan Paweł II, (1996). Homilia. L'Osservatore Romano (wyd. polskie) 17, nr 11-12 (188), 39-41.","Kasprowicz, J. (1889). Moskwa wobec Unii i Polski, Lwów: Towarzystwo Imienia Stanisława Staszica.","Kazimierski, J. (1993). Walka unitów o zachowanie wiary i polskości na Podlasiu 1836-1905. Prace archiwalne - konserwatorskie na terenie województwa siedleckiego, z. 8, 61-78.","Kieniewicz, S. (1972). Powstanie styczniowe. Warszawa: Wiedza Powszechna.","Kieniewicz, S. (1997). Trzy powstania narodowe: kościuszkowskie, listopadowe, styczniowe. Warszawa: Książka i Wiedza.","Kołbuk, W. (2013). Wokół kwestii tożsamości narodowej unitów podlaskich. Studia Białorutenistyczne 7, 11-24.","Krasnowska-Dyńka, J. (2013). Wywiad z Piotrem Pikułą, praprawnukiem Pawła Pikuły z Derła, który brał udział w obronie pratulińskiej cerkwi. Pobrano z: https://opoka.org.pl/biblioteka/P/PR/echo201305-pratulin.html [20.05.2022].","Krawczak, T. (1995). Ksiądz generał Stanisław Brzóska. Pruszków-Sokołów: Oficyna Wydawnicza \"Ajaka\".","Ks. Oko musi zapłacić grzywnę. Tuż po procesie mówił: \"Teraz mogę myśleć o wydaniu całej książki\". Pobrano z: https://niezalezna.pl/443351-ks-oko-musi-zaplacic-grzywne-tuz-po-procesie-mowil-teraz-moge-myslec-o-wydaniu-calej-ksiazki [21.05.2022].","Likowski, E. (1875). Historia unii Kościoła ruskiego z Kościołem rzymskim. Poznań: M. Leitgeber i Spółka.","Łojek, J. (1986). Szanse powstania listopadowego: rozważania historyczne. Warszawa: Instytut Wydawniczy Pax.","Mokry, W. (2010). Rola rodzimego języka ukraińskiego w zachowaniu tożsamości i w rozwoju kultury narodowej Ukraińców drugiej połowy XVI i pierwszych dziesięcioleci XVII wieku. W: W. Mokry(red.), Język, kultura, mentalność a tożsamość narodowa Ukraińców (5-45). Kraków: Wydawnictwo \"Szwajpolt Fiol\".","Paluszkiewicz, F. (1987). W cieniu Hermesa. Bohaterzy Podlasia. London: Katolicki Ośrodek Wydawniczy Veritas.","Pikuła, P. (2013). Dla nas wszystkich tylko jedna droga… Paweł Pikuła a tajna misja jezuitów na Podlasiu. Nasza przeszłość, t. 119, 197-227.","Pius IX, (1874). Encyklika Omnem sollicitudinem (13.05.1874). Pobrano z: http://www. totustuustools.net/magistero/p9omnems.htm [13.02.2013].","Positio super martyrio, (1995). Roma.","Pruszkowski, J. (1905). Martyrologium czyli męczeństwo Unii na Podlasiu. Z wiarygodnych i autentycznych źródeł zebrał i napisał P.J.K Podlasiak. Kraków: Drukarnia A. Koziańskiego.","Szarek, J. (2013). Powstanie styczniowe: Zryw wolnych Polaków. Kraków: Wydawnictwo AA.","Szymańska, A. Chłopi w powstaniach narodowych. Pobrano z: https://nikidw.edu.pl/2021/01/26/chlopi-w-powstaniach-narodowych/ [12.10.2022].","Śliwiński, A. (2013). Powstanie listopadowe. Warszawa: Rytm.","Śniegocki, R. (2007). Historia. Od kongresu wiedeńskiego do I wojny światowej. Warszawa: Nowa Era.","Urban, J. (1923). Wśród unitów na Podlasiu. Pamiętniki wycieczek misyjnych. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Księży Jezuitów."]}

Evharistija je zakrament, ki ga je postavil Jezus Kristus pri zadnji večerji, ko je učencem izročil svoje telo in kri pod podobama kruha in vina ter naročil, naj ta obred ponavljajo v njegov spomin. Kristjani so že od začetka zvesto izpolnjevali to naročilo. S širjenem krščanstva in večanjem skupnosti so se obred, prostor in način obhajanja sčasoma spreminjali glede na nove razmere. Evharistija se je osamosvojila od obeda in začela potekati v obredom namenjenih dvoranskih cerkvah. Z razvojem teologije in uveljavljanjem krščanskega Svetega pisma je evharistija vedno bolj dobivala značaj daritve in spomina na Kristusovo trpljenje. Škof Ciprijan, ki je deloval v sredini 3. stoletja v Kartagini, je prvi, od kogar imamo ohranjeno delo, ki v celoti govori o evharistiji. To je Pismo 63, v katerem Ciprijan jasno pove, da je pri obhajanju evharistije potrebno uporabljati vino in vodo, saj je treba posnemati to, kar je Jezus naredil pri zadnji večerji. Poleg tega Ciprijan jasno poveže evharistijo in Kristusovo odrešilno smrt na križu ter naredi vzporednico med Kristusom in duhovnikom ali škofom. Njegovo razumevanje Kristusove navzočnosti v evharistiji je zelo realistično. V njegovi misli evharistija uresničuje združenje vernikov s Kristusom ter vernikov med seboj, torej v Cerkvi. Evharistija je tudi orožje in ščit, ki v času preganjanja omogoča stanovitnost vse do mučeniške smrti. The Eucharist is the sacrament instituted by Jesus Christ at the Last Supper, when he gave His Body and Blood to his disciples under the species of bread and wine and ordered them to repeat this rite in his memory. From the beginning, Christians have faithfully obeyed this command. As Christianity spread and the community grew, the rite, place and manner of celebration changed over time according to the new circumstances. The Eucharist became independent from the meal and began to be celebrated in ceremonial hall churches. With the development of theology and the introduction of Christian Scripture, the Eucharist increasingly took on the character of sacrifice and a memorial of Christ's Passion. Bishop Cyprian, who was active in Carthage in the middle of the 3rd century, is the first person from whom we have an extant work that deals entirely with the Eucharist – Epistle 63. There Cyprian makes explicit the necessity to use wine and water in the celebration of the Eucharist, because it is key to imitate what Jesus did at the Last Supper. In addition, Cyprian makes a clear connection between the Eucharist and Christ's atoning death on the Cross and draws a parallel between Christ and the priest or the bishop. His understanding of Christ's presence in the Eucharist is very realistic. In his thought, the Eucharist realizes the union of the faithful with Christ and of the faithful with one another, that is, in the Church. The Eucharist is also a weapon and a shield which, in times of persecution, makes possible being faithful until martyrdom.

The study entitled : La missione del sacerdote nel pensiero del beato don Jerzy Popiełuszko – un martire contemporaneo della Polonia ( “ The Mission of the Priest in the thought of Bl. Jerzy Popiełuszko, a modern priest-martyr from Poland ” ) explores the theology of priesthood in the light of the thought and example of Bl. Father Jerzy Popiełuszko. The essay covers the following issues: 1) Fr Jerzy Popiełuszko in the context of the times he lived in; 2) The mission of the priest is to be close to God and to people; 3) The mission of the priest is to proclaim the Good News; 4) The mission of the priest is to minister the Sacraments; 5) The mission of the priest is to nurture hope; 6) The mission of the priest is to die for the Faith. The Author concludes that the phenomenon of Fr Jerzy Popiełuszko, which came into its full force after his martyr’s death, allows us to see him as a clear model for modern priests. The blessed martyr from Warsaw reminds us that sanctity can be attained and lived in all historical contexts. Fr Jerzy also comes across as an exemplar of a very engaged shepherd of souls who walked the path to holiness whilst also working closely with many lay people who showed a special readiness to work with him and solicitude for the good of the Church in a world at war against God, the Church and its priests.

Even though Turkey’s ruling party’s (Justice and Development Party, the AKP) nation-building and desired citizen creation policies have been studied, its use of necropolitical narratives and propaganda in education has not been investigated. This paper addresses this gap by examining how the Turkish state ruled by the AKP has propagated its religious necropolitical narrative through the national curriculum and Directorate of Religious Affairs (Diyanet) in school textbooks, and magazines and comic books for children. The paper shows that these texts and comics try to indoctrinate children into a religious cult of martyrdom in different ways by encouraging them to view tragic death and getting killed for the nation as a positive event. This paper argues that these propaganda efforts are part of a religious necropolitical indoctrination campaign that seeks to create a new Islamist and jihadist generation of lifelong supporters of the AKP, which portrays itself in the educational texts as the embodiment of Islam, the Muslim Turkish nation and even the global Muslim community (ummah). This new religious generation is expected to believe that dying for the Islamist populist authoritarian regime is the greatest honour a person can bring upon themselves. This paper contributes to the necropolitics literature by showing that not only adults but also children have been targeted by authoritarian rulers’ necropolitical propaganda attempts to create desired citizens who are ready to die for the regime, believing this is a religious obligation. Further research is needed to assess if and to what extent this propaganda has an impact on children.

Susan Sontag, a controversial political activist and philosopher, interrogated ways of seeing photographs, taking photographs and depicting the pain of others. Her system of thoughts teaches how to ask relevant questions before and during any fieldwork where an anthropologist examines configurations of realities and meaning-making processes around visual mediums. She uses them to examine operations of representations without limiting images to either frames or contents. Furthermore, she pushes the definition of frame beyond the limits of the rectangular borders around each photograph or image. Therefore, this chapter explores Tehran, the Iranian capital and visual representations of the Iran-Iraq war (1980–1988) along Susan Sontag to locate and unpack the universe of meanings which is produced by Iranian propaganda machinery and received in various ways by Iranians. The main argument stresses a photograph can represent at best if only its photographer does not try to report or to transfer assumptions about reality but instead allows a photographic composition to emerge from the encounter with others. This chapter follows such encounters through ethnographic stories and fieldworks in Iran and demonstrates what Susan Sontag calls a mystic receptivity between viewers and visual representations turns photographs into the beginning of fieldwork rather than its end.

In the Roman Empire, there was a trend to formulate total devotion to a deity as being a slave to a master. My contribution analyses how this relationship is elaborated in the Acts of Peter, a late second-century Christian apocryphal text. As Christianity was still an emerging religion, total devotion was not a given but a quality that needed to be nurtured as it was continuously under threat. The narrative of the Acts of Peter illustrates the nature of the right relationship with Christ and God, but it also highlights the dangers of earthly patrons and heretics. Finally, in line with the insights of Atran [2016. ‘The Devoted Actor.’ Current Anthropology 57 (Supplement 12): S192–S203], it shows that martyrdom, that is, to die for Christ, to die like Christ, is the ultimate form of Christian total devotion.

Despite the presumed prominence of crucifixions of Christians in Early Christianity, we have a surprising lack of sources on crucified Christians. While recent research collected a mere six sources – but not all are agreed upon – one would expect many more instances: crucified like Jesus Christ would be the summum of the Imitatio Christi! Curiously, the reason why we have so few sources on crucified Christians is not addressed. In this short note, I suggest two answers: (1) Perhaps crucifixion was not as common as modern scholars tend to assume, and (2) because crucifixion was reserved for slaves, rebels and peregrini, the great spread of Roman citizenship in the third century likely reduced the chance of crucifixion.

The paper explores the genealogy of the concept of Holy Rus’ (or Holy Russia) in Russian literature and culture from the nineteenth century onward. An integral part of Russian sacred geography, Holy Rus’ underwent some profound semantic transformations in order to become an epitome of religious and ethnic purity in the context of Russia’s imperial expansion. Focusing on the literary manifestations of Russia’s contacts with the ethnic and religious Other as well as on its struggle with the universalist claims of the European Enlightenment, the study highlights the colonial aspects of the notion of Holy Rus’, thus questioning its potential of providing a viable ‘indigenous’ alternative to the Western epistemological hegemony. Finally, the paper offers a critical review of the present-day exploitation of Holy Rus’ as a transcendental model of both a unifying national force and inter-confessional dialogue.

Alors que la scène d’exécution semble être une « scène à faire » dans la tragédie du XVIIe siècle, elle se dissout parfois dans le néant. Dans Polyeucte martyr de Corneille et dans Athalie de Racine, elle devient une « scène à faire valoir » parce qu’elle s’efface devant des enjeux religieux supérieurs. De leur côté, dans Le Véritable Saint Genest et dans La Mort d’Agrippine, Rotrou et Cyrano de Bergerac ne développent pas l’exécution précisément parce qu’elle constitue d’ordinaire une « scène à faire ». Comme l’un rejette la tradition qui fait du martyre une gloire universellement reconnue, et que l’autre cherche à heurter son public de front, l’exécution devient une « scène à éviter ». Ainsi n’est-elle pas toujours une fin dans la tragédie du XVIIe siècle. Against all expectations, executions were not always staged or reported in seventeenth-century French tragedies. In Polyeucte martyr and in Athalie, Corneille and Racine barely mention the executions of their protagonists because they point to higher religious stakes. As for Rotrou and Cyrano de Bergerac, they chose not to stage executions in Le Véritable Saint Genest and in La Mort d’Agrippine precisely because they both knew that executions are almost a prerequisite for tragedies. Indeed, Rotrou rejected the tradition that perceives martyrdom as something that is universally acknowledged, and Cyrano de Bergerac aimed at outraging his audience in every way. Either way, staging the execution would have been counterproductive. That is why executions are not necessarily the dramatic climax of seventeenth-century French tragedies.

Hope for a messianic future and the Messiah’s return emerge from everyday life negotiations of some Iranians within the Islamic Republic of Iran. The Islamic Republic has co-opted the religion, messianic hope and the Messiah to build a mode of religious governance and to maintain pro-regime families and the revolu-tionary youth. I will demonstrate politics of hope in Iran and argue that subscribing to the messianic hope by pro-regime families may appear as a religious expression of futurity or compliance with the Islamic Republic at first glance. However, messianic hope is a mode of world-making to endure militancy, militarization of everyday life, political Islam and the pain caused by a stream of dead bodies coming from different conflict zones. This article builds on the existing debates of hope to show how the reality of ‘the future’ becomes messianic for Shia believers and how social actors carving hope amidst precarities is not an orientation towards the future but rather a mode of making-do.

Narratives, stories and memories of pasts mutate through times, politics and sociocultural practices. The mute-ability of past is a visible trend in post-war societies like Iran, where the state apparatus operates incessantly as a memory machine. However, muting the past cannot be limited to the state as a political actor. I have explored the role of social actors in sociocultural processes that mute the pasts. I draw from my ethnographic encounters and fieldwork among Iranian revolutionary youth who display commitment to political Islam and armed resistance to explain how social actors consume memories of past conflicts and contribute to muting/mutating histories. I argue the mute-ability of a past is not about changes and transformation of the past but about what social actors do with the past and how they render it mute to manage the present era. An exploration of mute-ability and how pasts are rendered silent is required, via an anthropology of history/past to show agency in compliance and agentive capacities of people in shaping the past from the present era. This article explores how remembering works when forgetting is not an option and the remembrance of martyrdom is the standard of civic piety in Iran.

Dans les Panégyriques de saint Gorgon, Bossuet exploite la topique du manger et du boire, et la recatégorise en fonction du paradigme du dogme catholique : elle ne participe plus à l'expression de l'abaissement, mais à l'expression de la grandeur du christianisme. Cette construction paradoxale du sublime chrétien sous-tend une conception du langage comme manducation et comme digestion : la construction topique fait émerger la dimension légendaire du récit du martyre - cas-limite de fiction narrative -, qui est une composante de la poétique du panégyrique., In the Panegyrics of saint Gorgon, Bossuet uses the topics of eating and drinking, and changes its meaning under the paradigm of catholic dogma : it doesn't help any more to express humiliation, but to express the greatness of christianism. This paradoxical construction of christian sublime forms the bedrock of an approach of language as eating and digesting : the topical construction raises the legendary aspect of the narrative of martyrdom - a border case of narrative fiction -, which is itself a component of the poetics of panegyric.

Askerlik, Türk milleti için peygamber ocağı sayılan, erkekler için asıl hayatın başladığı, öncesi ve sonrasıyla önemli bir eşik kabul edilen önemli bir olgudur. Her ne kadar askere gitmek ve asker olmak erkekler nezdinde yaşanan bir durum gibi görünse de, dolaylı olarak aile kurumunu, kadınları (anne, eş, evlat, kardeş gibi) ve toplumsal yapıyı da etkileyen bir forma sahiptir. Erkeğin iş gücü olarak aileden uzaklaşması, kadınların hasretliği ve gurbeti duygusal olarak babaya, abiye göre daha derinden yaşaması ve yansıtması, toplumun askerliğini yapan ile yapmamış olana bakışı (iş verme, evlenme, olgunlaşma/erginlenme bakımından) gibi olgular askerlik etrafında şekillenen durumlardan sadece birazıdır. Askerlik ile toplumsal yapı arasındaki bu etkileşim, askerliğin hukuki statüsü dışında folklorik bir dünyanın meydana gelmesine de aracılık etmiştir. Bu dünyanın en geniş yansımasını “türkü” formuyla yakılmış ezgilerde bulmak mümkündür. Bu çalışmada türkü metinlerinden yola çıkarak askerlik olgusu, şu başlıklar etrafında irdelenecektir: Askere gitme ve asker gönderme aşamasında yaşananlar, askerlik süresince yaşananlar, asker tarafından ve ailesi tarafından çekilen hasretin ifade edilişi, geride kalanlarca askerlik kurumuna dair yakınmaların türkülere yansıması, gurur kaynağı olarak Mehmetçiğin ve vatanın türkülere yansıması, şehitlik mertebesi ile ilgili türküler, askerlikle ilgili terimlerin türkülere yansıması. Eldeki verilerin genişliği dikkate alınarak çalışma TRT repertuarına kayıtlı türkülerle sınırlandırılmıştır.

The article is accompanied by a Supplementary Data Code Book and 4 tables., The cataclysmic rise to prominence of the Radical Islamic Network (RIN) in Trinidad and Tobago afforded this small twin island developing state, the unenviable title of Highest Exporter of ISIS foreign terrorist fighters (FTF) per capita in the Western Hemisphere. Such notoriety jolted the nation to re-examine and revise its strategies to treat with radicalisation and religious extremism, with special emphasis on transnational militancy. As such, this research effort explores the FTF issue through the lens of the radical social network and the Radical Milieu from which these fighters emerged. This network centric approach to Islamic militancy in Trinidad and Tobago is a novel one that illuminates on the intersection of people, places and events, that integrated ideas and mobilized resources into the complex geoclustered network of FTFs. The application of Social Network Analysis (SNA) has provided an opportunity to gain a deeper understanding of the defining relationships within the RIN and how the structural properties of the network protected some members whilst it progressed others to Jihad and Martyrdom., peer-reviewed

Resumo O presente artigo traz à baila uma reflexão teórico-narrativa acerca daquela que tem sido chamada «Espiritualidade Martirial». A conceituação sobre espiritualidade e martírio deu-se por meio de pesquisa exploratório-bibliográfica. A discussão central foi tecida em diálogo, sobretudo, com os estudos teológicos de Casaldáliga, Sobrino e Gutierrez. As conclusões apontam no sentido de que a Espiritualidade Martirial não está relacionada ao desejo de ser mártir. Tampouco o martírio relaciona-se à concepção de sacrifício cruento como redentor de pecado. A Espiritualidade Martirial diz respeito à fidelidade ao Evangelho do perseguido e mártir, Jesus de Nazaré. De igual modo, diz respeito à fidelidade à realidade histórica atual e concreta na qual o cristão deve anunciar boas notícias aos pobres e denunciar a injustiça estrutural. Por fim, diz respeito à memória da morte dos inocentes e à fileira dos seguidores de Jesus que foram martirizados. Abstract This article brings up a theoretical-narrative reflection on what has been called «Martyrial Spirituality». The conceptualization of spirituality and martyrdom took place through exploratory-bibliographic research. The central discussion was woven in dialogue, above all, with the theological studies of Casaldáliga, Sobrino and Gutierrez. The conclusions point in the sense that Martyrdom Spirituality is not related to the desire to be a martyr. Nor is martyrdom related to the conception of the bloody sacrifice as the redeemer of sin. Martyrdom Spirituality concerns fidelity to the Gospel of the persecuted and martyr, Jesus of Nazareth. Likewise, it concerns fidelity to the current and concrete historical reality in which the Christian must announce good news to the poor and denounce structural injustice. Finally, it concerns the memory of the death of the innocent and the line of followers of Jesus who were martyred. Resumen Este artículo plantea una reflexión teórico-narrativa sobre lo que se ha denominado «Espiritualidad martirial». La conceptualización de la espiritualidad y el martirio se realizó a través de una investigación exploratorio-bibliográfica. La discusión central se tejió en diálogo, sobre todo, con los estudios teológicos de Casaldáliga, Sobrino y Gutiérrez. Las conclusiones apuntan en el sentido de que la espiritualidad del martirio no está relacionada con el deseo de ser mártir. El martirio tampoco está relacionado con la concepción del sacrificio sangriento como redentor del pecado. La espiritualidad del martirio se refiere a la fidelidad al Evangelio del perseguido y mártir, Jesús de Nazaret. Asimismo, se trata de la fidelidad a la realidad histórica actual y concreta en la que el cristiano debe anunciar la buena nueva a los pobres y denunciar la injusticia estructural. Finalmente, se trata del recuerdo de la muerte de los inocentes y de la línea de seguidores de Jesús que fueron martirizados.

Şehitlik kavramı günümüzde, pek çok farklı olayda, farklı bağlamlarda, çeşitli nitelendirmelerle yer almaktadır. Esasında dinî bir terim olan şehitlik, dinî olduğu kadar politik ve ideolojik çatışmalarda da sıkça başvurulan bir kavram haline gelmiştir. Bu çalışmada şehitlik olgusunun bu geniş kullanım alanına yayılma süreci ele alınacaktır. Çalışmanın temel amacı, şehitlik olgusunun, belli bir zamana ve belli bir dinî ya da kültürel geleneğe özgü olmayıp, dinler ve kültürler üstü, insanî bir olgu olduğunu ortaya koymaktır. Bu amaçla, öncelikle monoteist gelenekte şehitliğin ortaya çıkışı, teolojik ve sosyo-kültürel inşası ele alınmıştır. Sonrasında Greko-Romen kültürde asil ölüm ideali incelenmiştir. Böylelikle bugün ulus-devletleşme sürecinde şehitliğin kazandığı yeni anlamların kök uzantıları işaret edilmiştir. Çalışmada, nitel araştırma paradigmasına dayanan deskriptif bir yöntem benimsenmiştir. Çalışmanın veri kaynaklarını şehitlikle ilgili birincil ve ikincil kaynaklar ile kutsal metinler, ilahiler, şarkılar, destanlar, hikayeler gibi kültürel unsurlar oluşturmaktadır. İlgili metinler, şehitlikle ilgili tarihsel kırılma niteliğindeki olaylar bağlamında incelenerek yorumlanmıştır. Elde edilen verilerden hareketle şehitlik olgusunun bir toplumun kuruluşunda, kriz zamanlarının üstesinden gelebilmesinde, birlik ve bütünlüğünün sağlanmasında önemli rol ve işlevlerinin olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bunun yanında şehitlik olgusunun toplumsal hareketlerin vazgeçilmez bir unsuru olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Ayrıca şehitlik, dinî bir kavram olmasının yanı sıra, tarih boyunca farklı bağlamlarda politik olanla iç içe olmuştur. The concept of martyrdom is used in many different events, in different contexts and with various characterizations today. Martyrdom, which is essentially a religious term, has become a concept that is frequently used in political and ideological confrontations as well as religious ones. In this study, the process of the martyrdom phenomenon spreading to this wide area of use will be analyzed. The main purpose of the study is to demonstrate that the phenomenon of martyrdom is not specific even to a certain time and a certain religious or cultural tradition, but is a trans-religious and transcultural human phenomenon. For this purpose, the emergence of martyrdom in the monotheistic tradition and its theological and socio-cultural construction are examined. Then, the idea of noble death in Greco-Roman culture is analyzed. In this way, the root branches of the new meanings that martyrdom has gained in the process of nation-statization today are pointed out. The study adopts a descriptive method based on the qualitative research paradigm. The data sources of the study consist of primary and secondary sources on martyrdom and cultural materials such as sacred texts, hymns, songs, epics and stories. The relevant texts were analyzed and interpreted in the context of historical breaking events related to martyrdom. Based on the data it was concluded that the phenomenon of martyrdom has important roles and functions in the establishment of a society, overcoming times of crisis, and ensuring its unity and integrity. In addition, it was understood that the phenomenon of martyrdom is a structural element of social movements. In addition to being a religious concept, martyrdom has been intertwined with the political in different contexts throughout history.

Şehitlik kavramı günümüzde pek çok farklı durumda başvurulan, üzerine söz söylenen, tartışma konusu olan bir olgu haline gelmiştir. Medyada “vatan şehidi,” “demokrasi şehidi,” “devrim şehidi,” “yangın şehidi,” “futbol şehidi” gibi her yeni durumda bir yenisi eklenen farklı şehitlik nitelemeleri ile karşılaşılmaktadır. Öte yandan bilimsel çalışmalarda şehitlik kavramı üzerinden bir araştırma yapıldığında bilhassa Batı literatüründe şehitliğin cihatla ilişkili olarak terör ve intihar eylemleri bağlamında ele alındığı görülmektedir. Bu nedenle şehitlik olgusunun ilk ortaya çıkış bağlamının, “şehîd” kelimesinin bugünkü manalarını kazanma sürecinin ortaya çıkarılması mevzubahis kullanım alanlarını ve şehitlikle ilgili güncel tartışmaları anlamaya ışık tutması açısından önem arz etmektedir. İlgili literatürde şehitlik olgusunun kökeni ile ilgili bir inceleme yapıldığında, kavramın İngilizce literatürdeki karşılığı olan “martyrdom” kelimesinin kökeni ve bugünkü manayı kazanma süreci hakkında kesin ve detaylı bilgilere ulaşmak mümkün iken İslamî şehitlik olgusu hakkında bir muğlaklık söz konusudur. Bu durumun iki açıklaması olabileceği düşünülmektedir: İlki, Batı literatüründeki çalışmalarda şehitliğin kökeni ile ilgili, şehitlik olgusunun Grek-Helen ve Yahudi-Hıristiyan geleneğinden ödünç alındığı, “şehîd” teriminin de Latin dillerindeki karşılığı olan “martus”tan tercüme edildiği iddiasına dayanılmasıdır. İkincisi ise Türkçe literatürdeki ilgili çalışmalarda böyle bir köken araştırmasına hiç girilmeyerek “şehîd” kelimesinin sözlük anlamları ile şehitlikle ilgili âyet ve hadislere yer verilmekle yetinilmesidir. Bu çalışmanın amacı, şehîd ve şehâdet kavramlarının anlam yörüngesinin açığa çıkarılması, zamanla yüklendikleri manâların tespit edilmesi ve kavramın kullanıldığı çağdaş durum ve vakalarla nasıl ilişkilendirilebileceğini analiz etmektir. Konunun tarihsel boyutuna özellikle dikkat ederek, ilgili literatürde karşımıza çıkan belirli olayları metinselligi içinde değerlendirip anlamlarını anlaşılır kılmayı amaçlayan betimleyici bir yöntem kullandık. Bu literatür, İslam tarihinin birincil kaynakları, Arap kültür ve toplumsal yapısını yansıtan Arap şiiri ile şehitlikle ilgili ayet ve hadisleri içermektedir. Batılı araştırmacıların ödünç alma iddialarının somut bir delile dayanmadığı; savaşmanın ve savaşta ölme idealinin İslamiyet öncesi Arap toplumunda da asil bir eylem olarak algılandığı; şehîd kelimesini oluşturan “ş-h-d” fiil kökünün Arap şiirlerinde “savaşa katılmak” manasında kullanılmakta olduğu; bugünkü manâda şehit kavramının ilk olarak Mûte Savaşı’nda şehit olanlara dair, Hassân b. Sâbit’in şiirinde “müsteşhidîn” olarak kullanıldığı çalışmada ulaşılan temel sonuçlar olmuştur., The concept of martyrdom (shahāda) has been used and discussed in various cases and situations in the media and academia today. Different definitions of martyrdom are encountered in the meantime, with a new addition almost in every new case such as "martyr of homeland," "martyr of democracy," "martyr of revolution," "martyr of fire," even "martyr of football." However, when the literature, especially Western literature, on martyrdom is analyzed, it becomes clear that the concept is studied in the context of terrorism and suicide attacks in relation to jihād. Therefore, it is essential to reveal the context in which the concept (shahīd) was coined and the process through which it has gained its various current meanings to shed light on the usage areas mentioned above. However, when examining the origin of the phenomenon of martyrdom in the relevant literature, it is possible to have precise and sufficient knowledge about the origin of the word "martyrdom" and the trajectory of its current meaning. In contrast, the ambiguity about the origin of the phenomenon of Islamic martyrdom (shahāda) still obtains. There may be two explanations for this: First, the concept of martyrdom in Western literature was borrowed from the Greko-Roman and Judeo-Christian traditions, and the term "martyr" was translated from the Latin equivalent of "martus." Second, similar research on the origin of the concept is wanting in Turkish/Islamic literature; scholars seem to have been content with only the lexical definitions of the word "shahīd" and how it occurred in verses and hadiths. The purpose of this presentation is to figure out the trajectory of the concepts (shahīd and shahāda) and determine the meanings it has assumed over time and to analyze how it can be related to contemporary situations and cases in which the concept is used. Paying specific attention to the historical dimension of the subject matter, we used a descriptive method whose aim is to make intelligible the meaning of particular text-like events as they appeared in the literature. They include the primary sources of Islamic history, Arabic poetry reflecting the-then Arab culture and social structure, and verses and hadiths about martyrdom. We conclude that Western scholars’ argument that Muslims borrowed the concept of martyrdom from other cultures is not based upon any concrete and credible historical evidence because the ideal of fighting and dying at wars was perceived as a noble act even in pre-Islamic Arab society; that the root of the verb "sh-h-d" forming the word martyr (shahīd) has been used in the sense of "joining the war" in Arabic poetry; and that the concept, as used today, was coined as "mustashhedīn" by Hassan Ibn Thabit to honor those who died at the Battle of Mu’ta.

Nikaia kenti tarih boyunca birçok önemli olaya sahne olmuş, özellikle de Erken Hristiyanlık döneminde bünyesinde toplanan iki konsile ev sahipliği yapması ününü daha da arttırmıştır. Konsil döneminden ve Hristiyanlığın Büyük Konstantin tarafından serbest hale gelmesinden önce kentte ciddi bir Hristiyan nüfusun bulunduğu şehit edilen azizlerden anlaşılmaktadır. Buna bağlı olarak, İznik Gölü Su Altı Bazilikal Kilisesi'nde yer alan ve ilk başta diakonikon olarak adlandırılan pastophoria odasının Erken Hristiyanlık döneminde martyrium olarak inşa edilip kullanıldığı saptanmaya çalışılmıştır. Mekân, yerinde incelenen, mimarisi, taş sırası, duvar örgüsü, iç dekorasyonu, mezarları ve buluntularıyla batıda ve doğuda inşa edilmiş ilk bağımsız martyriumlarla karşılaştırılmıştır. Tarihsel süreçte bu martyriumlara eklenen kilise örnekleriyle, bazilikal ana yapı mimarisi kıyaslandığında özellikle Kilikia ve Suriye bölgelerinde yer alan doğu martyrium-kilise mimarisiyle benzerlik gösterdiği anlaşılmıştır. Ancak bu kadar kuzeyde bulunmasıyla da şaşırtıcı bulunan bazilikal kilisenin, ilk evresinin martyrium olduğu, mekânın mimarisinin yanında tarihlendirilmesi yapılmış buluntuları ve kentin antik çağ tarihçesiyle desteklenmiş; yapının Aziz Neophytos için inşa edildiği, martyr azizin kent dışında, göl kenarında şehit edilmesi ve gömüldüğü yere de bir kilise yapılmasıyla ilişkilendirilmiştir. The city of Nikaia has been the scene of many important events throughout history, especially in the Early Christian period, hosting two councils, which increased its reputation even more. It is understood from the martyred saints that there was a serious Christian population in the city before the Council period and Christianity was liberated by Constantine the Great. Accordingly, it has been tried to determine that the pastophoria room, which is located in the Lake Iznik Underwater Basilica Church and was called the diaconicon at first, was built and used as a martyrium in the Early Christian period. The space, with its architecture, stone row, masonry, interior decoration, tombs and finds, has been compared with the first independent martyriums built in the west and east, which were examined in situ. When the basilical main building architecture is compared with the church examples added to these martyriums in the historical process, it has been understood that it is similar to the eastern martyrium-church architecture, especially in the Cilicia and Syria regions. However, the basilica church, which is surprising to be found so far to the north, was supported by the finds that were dated as well as the architecture of the place and the ancient history of the city; It is associated with the fact that the building was built for St. Neophytos, the martyr saint was martyred outside the city, by the lake, and a church was built on the place where he was buried.

L’application d’une peine après la mort du condamné est rare dans la Rome antique. Toutefois, lorsque les actions du criminel ou du traitre menacent les fondements de la société, une condamnation de la mémoire est mise en œuvre. Cette condamnation se traduit de différentes manières et emporte des effets directs et indirects sur le condamné. Les effets directs se concentrent sur le corps ennemi. Ils consistent en la mort infamante, l’outrage au cadavre ou la destruction des restes humains. Les effets indirects atteignent l’honneur du défunt et cherchent à l’exclure de l’histoire de Rome. Ils se traduisent par la prohibition des cérémonies commémoratives, l’interdiction de la sépulture et la destruction des portraits de l’ennemi. Cette palette de sanctions permet à la société d’exprimer sa violence avant de se reconstruire. The application of a sentence after the death of the condemned person is rare in ancient Rome. However, when the actions of the criminal or traitor threaten the foundations of society, a memory sanction is implemented. This sanction is expressed in different ways and has both direct and indirect effects. Direct effects focus on the enemy’s body and consist of the humiliating death, the corpse abuse and the destruction of human remains. Indirect effects hit the deceased’s honor and try to ban them from the Roman history. They are reflected in the prohibition of funeral, the ban on burial and the destruction of the enemy’s portraits. This range of sanctions allows the community to express its violence before rebuilding itself.

Book chapter of M. Paiano, Violenza sacra, 2: Guerra santa, sacrificio e martirio in età contemporanea (Rome: Viella, 2022), pp. 243-298 (I libri di Viella, 423).

Christian communities in Palestine and Al-Andalus faced similar challenges during the ninth century. Although Muslim authorities tolerated Christianity and enshrined a certain degree of religious freedom, they downgraded these communities and encouraged conversion to Islam. In the long span, Christian communities decreased because many of their leading members emigrated or converted. Moreover, many of those that remained adopted the Arabic language, dressed like Muslims, and became increasingly assimilated into the ruling elite Muslim culture. This article suggests that the contacts and reciprocal influence between Christian communities from Palestine and Spain during this period were more substantial than hitherto perceived. Thus, they used the same methods with some local adaptations to tackle their critical situation. They introduced a growing use of Arabic in religious life, established and upgraded important pilgrimage shrines, and some extremist monastic communities fostered and encouraged martyrdom.

Publisher Copyright: © 2021 Anna-Liisa Rafael, published by De Gruyter. This article employs Galit Hasan-Rokem's notions of vertical and horizontal axes of transmission for the study of biblical reception history, presenting the reception of the story of the mother and her seven sons in Origen's writings as a case study. I suggest that Hasan-Rokem's vertical axis of intergenerational transmission corresponds to reception history: it also involves us and thus demands our critical awareness. The horizontal axis of intergroup transmission, then, calls for our sensitivity toward the diverse interpersonal and intercultural exchanges that reception history presents less frequently as authoritative or even manifest. My analysis scrutinizes Origen's pronouncedly bookish relation to the story of the mother and her seven sons, and I provide a reading of this relation as entailing both (inter)personal and intercultural encounters. I use both Eusebius' biography of Origen and recent studies on late antique rabbinic discourse as means by which to broaden our perspective on Origen's horizon of expectation. In conclusion, I suggest that Origen's portrayal of the mother indicates some ambivalence toward this figure: her words of wisdom have undisputed authority over Origen, while her embodied wisdom makes him reserved. Thus, the reception of the story of the mother and her seven sons in Origen's writings could strengthen the prospect that the story was a living reality for Origen as well as for others in third-century Palestine.

AbtractIn the Gospel of John, Jesus declares himself to be the way to the Father; in the First Apocalypse of James, Jesus explains exactly what this way entails. This article analyzes how 1 Apoc. Jas. uses the Johannine christological themes of identity, death and ascension and makes them applicable for human salvation. The identity of Jesus as a son of the Father, as opposed to the inhabitants of the world/cosmos, his autonomous death that conquers cosmic evils, and his immediate ascension and fleshly return are all Johannine motifs that are reformulated in 1 Apoc. Jas. Jesus reveals to James that he too is a son of the Father, and James must declare this identity during his postmortem journey through the celestial toll-collectors. He must not fear his impending stoning as, like other martyrdom literature, the martyr is immune to earthly concerns, and the real challenge lies in the cosmic sphere.

This paper focuses on the protagonists of two dramas A Man for All Seasons and Murder in the Cathedral to be studied through the critical prospective of psychoanalysis. The protagonists of the dramas meet their death at the end of the play and their death is appreciated as martyrdom by the readers of the plays without seeing critically their mottos behind their death. Challenging that, this paper varies in the stance that Beckett’s death is a suicide rather than martyrdom, thus questioning the traits of the personalities of the protagonists and their mottos behind their deaths. Taking Freud’s Psychoanalytical theory as a theoretical framework; Jung model of Psychoanalysis for conceptual terminologies and conducting close textual analysis, this study aims to conclude with references. The study is significant in a sense that it widens the dimensions of comparative studies of the modern literary works through contemporary critical theories. It also highlights the application of psychology in the literature in general and the English literature in specific.

The aim of this paper is to explore the patterns and meanings to be found in the characters of Yugoslav national heroes who met a violent death in World War II. These are heroes who belong to the type of martyr heroes, and their sacrifice is highly rated in all patriotic mythologies. Created to denote the heroism of the chosen, they have sublimated the meaning and symbolism of one remembrance of the war. The death of these national heroes will be analyzed through their official biographies, which served to represent the characters of the National Heroes of Yugoslavia and keep the heroic symbol-names ever present in the collective group memory. Through their characters, a specific wartime experience and the martyr’s death of the national hero who died for the freedom of the Yugoslav peoples, as seen by the victors in this war drama, were transmitted to the citizens of Yugoslavia. Various patterns of wartime heroism (warrior, martyr, leader heroism) were represented as national patriotism, and the fighters and martyrs of the war of national liberation were named. The characteristics of the reputational entrepreneurship of these heroes’ characters are specifically explored, taking into account the characteristics of the discourse through which they were interpreted and presented. On the other hand, the limitations of this discourse provide an opportunity to deconstruct certain common traits of a certain hero type and discover the latent meanings conveyed by the characters of Yugoslav national heroes as actors of a historical-political myth.

Iranian Shi’i believers claim that capturing sorrow and lamentation in their fullest sense falls beyond language and reason. They constantly refer to their inability to articulate in order to explain martyrdom and highlight a form of unsaid that explains all that appears impalpable for them. I undertake a journey among Iranian Shi’i youth to trace the unarticulated and the sense of wonder generated via religious experiences. By way of an ethnography of Muharram lamentation ceremonies, this article highlights how the unarticulated and the unsaid are socially and politically used in service of Shi’i militancy. I explore those uncharted terrains in the darkness of the Lacanian Real and in terms of how the Real is authenticated in order to address how realities are crafted and religious subjectivities are enacted in the realm of militancy.

National myths are useful, even fundamental, in establishing the legitimacy of a given regime. In the European context, states have sometimes had recourse to myths around medieval kings. King Arthur in England, King Olav in Norway, King István (Stephen) in Hungary, and Prince Lazar in Serbia,– all canonized except for the Celtic King, Arthur – have figured in the national myths of their respective countries. Both Olav and Lazar are said to have had visions of heaven the evening before taking their troops into battle, both died resisting Ottoman forces, both are said to have welcome martyrdom, and both, as well as István, have been credited with performing miraculous cures for pilgrims visiting their graves. All four myths were put to political use: The cult of King Arthur, who led the Celts in an effort to stave off invading Angles and Saxons in the late fifth and early sixth centuries, was used to legitimate the rule of the House of Normandy, which came to power by defeating the army of the Saxon king in 1066. The cult of King-Saint Olav (1030) contributed to the strengthening of Christianity and a sense of national consciousness among Norwegians, while the canonization of King István in 1083 play the same dual role among Hungarians. Finally, in Serbia, the promotion of the cult of Prince Lazar (1389), said to have been canonized, was actively promoted during World War Two, and subsequently put to use in the late 1980s and early 1990s to inspire Serbia’s expansionist program.

The assassination of Talat Pasha by Soghomon Tehlirian on 15 March 1921 in Berlin, as well as Tehlirian’s trial and acquittal on 2–3 June 1921, have contributed to the formation of conflicting legacies of the Armenian Genocide. Though minuscule in terms of violence and legal ramifications, these events and their reimagination in contentious narratives have shaped a dominant prism of sensemaking in Turkish-Armenian relations. In the imagination of rival groups, Talat and Tehlirian compete for the very same normative categories of hero and victim at once and each are demonized as a villain and perpetrator. Moreover, it is each figure’s embodiment of martyrdom and revenge that explains why their heroizations have proved so enduring and effective across time and space. This mutual framework of sensemaking, which I call the Talat-Tehlirian complex, ultimately denies the chances of historical reconciliation. In terms of its theoretical implications, this case study explains how a martyr-avenger complex can continuously demand solidarity, sustain grievances, and sacralize violence in post-conflict societies. Based on a thick description of what happened in Berlin in 1921 and its contentious narratives across different generations, this paper calls for a transition to a post-heroic age in Turkish-Armenian relations.

Cet article analyse la représentation dans la pièce historique Sir Thomas More de trois formes de violence qui structurent la société Tudor : la guerre, l’exécution publique et la révolte. Si les deux premières sont théorisées comme légitimes et la dernière comme criminelle, la pièce s’attache cependant à brouiller cette ligne de partage défendue par l’orthodoxie royale. Le récit de l’histoire officielle montre, voire spectacularise, certaines violences tout en en faisant disparaître d’autres. Cette mise en forme, qui passe par une régulation du discours, se fait par ailleurs souvent au détriment de la visibilité des corps sur lesquelles ces violences s’exercent. Or, la pièce propose un retour à la surface de ces corps, à qui elle offre une place et même une voix, tandis que le roi, lui, reste à l’arrière-plan. J’émets ainsi l’hypothèse que, en décentrant la perspective et en replaçant la souffrance au cœur de la mise en scène de l’histoire, Sir Thomas More interroge l’univocité du récit historique et fait par conséquent naître chez le spectateur un doute sur la légitimité de la violence d’État. This article focuses on the history play Sir Thomas More and its representation of three types of violence at the core of Tudor society: war, public execution, and rebellion. The first two are presented as legitimate while the third one is deemed criminal; yet, the play blurs such an orthodox delimitation. Official history makes some forms of violence visible, even spectacular, while erasing others from its narrative. Moreover, this framing, which is particularly present in language, tends to hide the concrete and physical effects of such violence on bodies. Nevertheless, the play brings those bodies back to the surface, giving them an existence and a voice, whereas the royal figure remains in the background. Thus, Sir Thomas More stages history in such a way that it offers multiple perspectives on violence and places suffering at the centre of the stage. In so doing, the play questions both the univocality of history and the legitimacy of state violence.

Arguing that cultural factors determine the foreign policy of the Islamic Republic of Iran, the article provides an analysis of the Iran-Syrian relations through the prism of constructivism. Considering the role and importance of religion in a process of symbolization of Syria in the Iranian political discourse, the article focused on the usage and exchange of revolutionary and Shia concepts relating to ‘resistance’ and "martyrdom". Such concepts help to describe a common yet imagined experience of Iranians and Syrians. In turn, they produce a new category of identity, an inclusive and expansive which embraces the particular identities synthesizes them into a common religious one.

This paper analyses the cultic texts for St George of Kratovo, a martyr who died in Sofia in 1515. The hagiography of George of Kratovo differed from those of other martyrs that suffered during the Ottoman conquests of the Central Balkans by mirroring the evangelical model and the martyrial tradition of Asia Minor (possibly also the Martyrdom of Polycarp). This shows that different models of martyrdom co-existed throughout the centuries and that they could influence new experiences of holiness in the process of premediation. The evangelical model was revived because of the specific social and political circumstances, thus again demonstrating that nurturing the memories of saints was a dynamic process, closely connected to present realities of life, which were reflected and given meaning in cultic texts. Some of the studies gathered in this volume were presented in the homonymous round table organized at the 12th international congress of South-East European studies (Bucharest, 2-6 September 2019). - N° de : "Études byzantines et post-byzantines", ISSN 0259-0913, (2022)N.S. tome IV (XI)