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Forming almost two-thirds of the global ocean, the High Seas and seabed areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) support some of the highest levels of biodiversity on the planet. However, these vital areas are increasingly under threat from human and climate change-induced pressures. The current governance regime related to the conservation of marine biodiversity beyond national jurisdiction (BBNJ) is fragmented (in terms of institutional mandates, powers and resources) and characterised by significant gaps (in terms of species and geographical coverage). In response, the United Nations has negotiated an internationally legally binding instrument (ILBI) to protect the High Seas. A key aspect of the draft agreement is that that new instrument should “not undermine” existing bodies, instruments and frameworks, which raises key questions relating to interplay between the new ILBI and existing bodies. My research seeks to understand how the agreement can be effectively operationalised by analysing two related strands: (1) The need for the agreement to be effectively implemented by existing institutions, and (2) Due to the migratory nature of BBNJ and governance gaps, the need for existing institutions to work together effectively. I argue under (1) that four candidate conditions are likely to be important for implementation and deploy Qualitative Comparative Analysis (QCA) to identify one condition necessary for successful implementation (multi-party coordination) and three conditions (access to/management of data, multi-party coordination and adaptive management) which are sufficient to lead to a successful outcome. Under (2) a case study of the Northern Atlantic institutional regime is used to characterise and help explain the forces and factors influencing institutional interplay. Taken together, the two parts to the research generate insights into effective institutional arrangements for the future governance of BBNJ. "This work was partially supported by the Robertson Postgraduate Scholarship Trust."--Funding

Enforcement and compliance have been identified as key to the ecological effectiveness of no-take Marine Protected Areas (NTMPAs), which prohibit resource extraction in the marine realm. However, the human costs of abiding by NTMPAs have received little attention in comparison to the ecological benefits. As coverage of NTMPAs continues to rise worldwide, understanding human costs is important to the successful establishment and management of social relations around MPAs. Using key informant interviews and an online survey, this study identifies 18 human costs of compliance and enforcement and analyses their prevalence in time and space, as well as providing some suggested approaches to mitigating these costs. Results reveal transparency and communication in the establishment and management of NTMPAs, including engagement and education of local communities and training of enforcement officers, are key to mitigating the human costs of compliance and enforcement felt by enforcers and illegal and legal resource users.

For millennia, the ocean has been seen as beyond human reach. However, human activities are increasingly advancing into marine spaces. As persistent submerged or semi-submerged structures, human-made reefs (HMRs) represent the embodiment of human influence in the ocean and create new opportunities for social meaning and culture underwater. Though some HMRs such as shipwrecks, fishing traps and oil rigs may be long-established, others are increasingly being used to advance political or artistic aims, and as tools to restore or transform the marine environment. Their creation can have significant implications for marine life. In order to carry out marine conservation in a changing ocean, it is crucial to understand both the ecological and social roles of HMRs. While ecological assessment is making progress, it remains focused on a few HMR types, and social assessment is lagging behind. In this thesis, I explore the historical and current use of diverse HMRs and propose a social and ecological framework to evaluate their conservation potential, regardless of origin. I apply this framework to a case study on the island of Cozumel, Mexico. Here, I locate and characterise over 70 unique HMR sites – over ten times as many sites as previously identified. These included shipwrecks, sculptures, debris, coral restoration modules, infrastructure and rock piles. I observe differences in stakeholder awareness across types and locations of HMRs, typify modes of encounter and describe location sensitivity and barriers to access. Through a socio-cultural analysis, I characterise the provision of a wide range of ecosystem services including cultural services, and identify key factors affecting people’s attitudes to HMRs, as well as their costs, benefits and impacts. The results indicate HMRs play complex, unacknowledged and powerful social and cultural roles. I analyse conservation-relevant synergies and conflicts between stakeholders, considering differences in activities and preferences in relation to marine life and suggesting ways forward for collaborative conservation. Finally, I suggest a method for conducting rapid ecological assessments on a variety of HMRs and demonstrate its usefulness in a survey of 70 individual HMR structures, identifying 78 species of fish and five species of mobile invertebrates. The results suggest that structures which are deeper, larger, and contain more holes and internal space are likely to have higher species richness and abundance. Overall, this thesis suggests that HMRs have significant social and ecological conservation value for marine management, and may already be much more prevalent than expected. HMRs offer a wide variety of ecosystem services and are culturally and emotionally important to the people who create and use them. They can host diverse and abundant communities of marine organisms, which may be curated through processes such as fishing, cleaning or coral “planting”. Cooperation between stakeholders to fulfil conservation aims offers challenges, but also many potential rewards, enriching the relationship between human endeavour and marine life in future oceans.

Other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs) create an opportunity to rethink what constitutes conservation by recognizing areas that may not have a conservation objective but that deliver conservation outcomes. In 2010, OECM was introduced as a term during negotiations for the Convention on Biological Diversity’s Aichi Target 11, which aims to protect 17% of the terrestrial and 10% of the marine environment by 2020. Canada has achieved the marine portion of this target, largely due to its implementation of marine OECMs. This thesis explores Canada’s interpretation of marine OECMs, drawing on 13 semi-structured expert interviews. First, the transformation of the OECM concept across different scales of governance is revealed through Kingdon’s policy-window framework, which demonstrates Canada’s narrow interpretation of marine OECMs as marine refuges. Second, critical perspectives on political ecology and global environmental governance are used to identify the opportunities (to recognize Indigenous-led conservation and expand conservation partners) and constraints (of the Canadian state’s technocratic knowledge regime) introduced by this new designation. Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council

International audience; Although dealing with strictly international maritime areas, the future implementing agreement (ILBI) under UNCLOS currently negotiated raises important challenges as regards the combination and reconciliation of States' individual and collective interests at sea. There is, indeed, a common interest for biodiversity in international maritime areas (biodiversity conservation being a 'common concern of humankind'), which appears not entirely compatible with the individual interest of States at sea, as it focuses mainly on conservation of marine biodiversity, sharing of resources and benefits, access and global integrity of common spaces, rather than on exploitation and geostrategic or individual economical interests. How to concretely reconcile, then, in the international spaces, the individual interests of coastal and non-coastal States and the common interest of the international community? How could the future agreement take those interests into account? The purpose of this article is to suggest a different prism for analysing the gaps and challenges regarding the current law of the sea regime in the field of marine biodiversity and the adoption and content of a new UNCLOS implementing agreement. Among all the available options under scrutiny in the context of the discussions related to the adoption of a new implementing agreement under UNCLOS, some are more likely to reconcile individual and common interests at sea than others. It appears necessary to place the cursor where the equilibrium between those interests is best preserved in order to ensure simultaneously a sufficiently voluntary conclusion and implementation of the future agreement and the effective and sufficient achievement of the treaty objectives.

As part of the AMARE project, the main purpose of this report is to provide advice and practical guidance, for establishing programmes to monitor and assess the distribution and abundance of marine litter in MPAs. The present document build on relevant existing monitoring and assessment practices in the Mediterranean, such as the existing monitoring practices in UNEP/MAP and within the Marine Strategy Framework Directive. The proposed strategy (defining the sampling scheme, the environmental compartment to monitor and the protocols to be used) is also following the recommendations of the UN GESAMP report on monitoring marine litter (GESAMP, 2019). In addition, it is based on the experience of ongoing monitoring and assessment activities under various scientific projects in the Mediterranean Sea (CleanSea, Marelitt, Perseus, Marlisco, Ac4forlitter, INDICIT, MEDseaLitter, Plastic Buster MPA, PANACEA, Life projects, etc.), and also considers the available scientific literature., peer-reviewed

Cartilaginous fish are particularly vulnerable to anthropogenic stressors and environmental change because of their K-selected reproductive strategy. Accurate data from scientific surveys and landings are essential to assess conservation status and to develop robust protection and management plans. Currently available data are often incomplete or incorrect as a result of inaccurate species identifications, due to a high level of morphological stasis, especially among closely related taxa. Moreover, several diagnostic characters clearly visible in adult specimens are less evident in juveniles. Here we present results generated by the ELASMOMED Consortium, a regional network aiming to sample and DNA-barcode the Mediterranean Chondrichthyans with the ultimate goal to provide a comprehensive DNA barcode reference library. This library will support and improve the molecular taxonomy of this group and the effectiveness of management and conservation measures. We successfully barcoded 882 individuals belonging to 42 species (17 sharks, 24 batoids and one chimaera), including four endemic and several threatened ones. Morphological misidentifications were found across most orders, further confirming the need for a comprehensive DNA barcoding library as a valuable tool for the reliable identification of specimens in support of taxonomist who are reviewing current identification keys. Despite low intraspecific variation among their barcode sequences and reduced samples size, five species showed preliminary evidence of phylogeographic structure. Overall, the ELASMOMED initiative further emphasizes the key role accurate DNA barcoding libraries play in establishing reliable diagnostic species specific features in otherwise taxonomically problematic groups for biodiversity management and conservation actions., peer-reviewed

This paper attempts to empirically investigate perceptions regarding marine biodiversity conservation among different stakeholders of the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve, South Africa. The study’s data was collected by following Q methodology in combination with semi-structured interviews and participant observation. Q methodology combines elements from quantitative and qualitative research traditions, providing researchers with a systematic and rigorous means to study human subjectivities. Primary data were gathered from stakeholders who either live, work, or have performed research in the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve. A combination of interpretative discourse analysis and Q factor analysis was employed to identify perceptions. The results reveal that there are two operating discourses with clear stakeholder divisions. The science discourse is characterized by its scientific management-based ecological approach. On the other hand, the livelihoods discourse is primarily concerned about the social implications brought about by Kogelberg as a biosphere reserve. The paper goes on to argue that the meaning people attach to the concept of ‘marine biodiversity conservation’ is relational as it is based on their lived experience. It further highlights the importance of performing context-specific social research of protected areas, as it is difficult for conservation projects to meet both ecological and social needs without understanding the viewpoints of engaged stakeholders and local communities.

This volume contains the main results of the EC FP7 “The Ocean of Tomorrow” Project CoCoNet, divided in two sections: 1) a set of guidelines to design networks of Marine Protected Areas in the Mediterranean and the Black Seas; 2) a smart wind chart that will allow evaluating the possibility of installing Offshore Wind Farms in both seas. The concept of Cells of Ecosystem Functioning, based on connectivity, is introduced to define natural units of management and conservation. The definition of Good Environmental Status, as defined in the Marine Strategy Framework Directive, is fully embraced to set the objectives of the project, by adopting a holistic approach that integrates a full set of disciplines, ranging from physics to bio-ecology, economics, engineering and many sub-disciplines. The CoCoNet Consortium involved scientist sfrom 22 states, based in Africa, Asia, and Europe, contributing to build a coherent scientific community., peer-reviewed

In the Sal Island (Cape Verde) there is a growing involvement, will and investment in the creation of tourism synergies. However, much of the economic potential of the island can be found submerged in the sea: it is its intrinsic 'biodiversity'. Due to this fact, and in order to balance environmental safety and human pressure, it has been developed a strategy addressing both diving and fishing purposes. That strategy includes the deployment of several artificial reefs (ARs) around the island. In order to allocate demand for diving and fishing purposes, we have developed a socio-economic research approach addressing the theme of biodiversity and reefs (both natural and artificial) and collected expectations from AR users by means of an inquiry method. It is hypothesized a project where some management measures are proposed aiming marine biodiversity conservation. Using the methodology named as analytic hierarchy process (AHP) it was scrutinized stakeholders' perception on the best practice for marine biodiversity conservation in the Sal Island. The results showed that to submerge obsolete structures in rocky or mixed areas have a high potential, but does not gathers consensuality. As an overall conclusion, it seems that limitation of activities is the preferred management option to consider in the future.Na Ilha do Sal (Cabo Verde) existe um crescente envolvimento, vontade e investimento na criação de sinergias turísticas. Contudo, muito do potencial económico da ilha está submerso - a biodiversidade marinha. Devido a este facto, e tendo em vista promover a sustentabilidade ambiental associada ao eco-turismo, vem sendo desenvolvida uma estratégia direccionada, quer ao mergulho, quer à pesca. Esta estratégia inclui a implantação de vários recifes artificiais (RA) na Baía de Santa Maria. De modo a alocar a procura para propósitos como o mergulho e a pesca, desenvolvemos um plano de pesquisa socio-económica relativo ao tema da biodiversidade e recifes (naturais e artificiais) e recolhemos as expectativas dos utilizadores de RAs. Assim, foi elaborado um projecto teórico cujo objectivo é a conservação da biodiversidade marinha, no qual são propostas algumas medidas de gestão. Através da utilização do método designado por processo analítico hierárquico (PAH) foi escrutinada a percepção dos utilizadores sobre as melhores práticas para a conservação da biodiversidade marinha na Ilha do Sal. Os resultados mostraram que o afundamento de estruturas obsoletas em áreas rochosas ou mistas parece ter um grande potencial, mas não é consensual. Em conclusão, a limitação de actividades de mergulho afigura-se como uma opção a considerar futuramente.

The dwarf seahorse (Hippocampus zosterae) is widely distributed throughout near-shore habitats of the Gulf of Mexico and is of commercial significance in Florida, where it is harvested for the aquarium and curio trades. Despite its regional importance, the genetic structure of dwarf seahorse populations remains largely unknown. As an aid to ongoing conservation efforts, we employed three commonly applied mtDNA markers (ND4, DLoop and CO1) to investigate the genetic structuring of H. zosterae in Florida using samples collected throughout its range in the state. A total of 1450 bp provided sufficient resolution to delineate four populations of dwarf seahorses, as indicated by significant fixation indices. Despite an overall significant population structure, we observed evidence of interbreeding between individuals from geographically distant sites, supporting the hypothesis that rafting serves to maintain a degree of population connectivity. All individuals collected from Pensacola belong to a single distinct subpopulation, which is highly differentiated from the rest of Floridian dwarf seahorses sampled. Our findings highlight the utility of mtDNA markers in evaluating barriers to gene flow and identifying genetically distinct populations, which are vital to the development of comprehensive conservation strategies for exploited taxa.

In this paper we discuss how a Decision Support System (DSS) for managing the marine environment can be set up. We use the Driving force-Pressure-State-Impact-Respond (DPSIR) framework to analyze which are the major driving forces impacting upon the marine environment in the North Sea. Moreover, a number of potential responses are identified. Furthermore, a preliminary and simplified optimization model has been set up and can be used in a DSS to decide on the best location of marine reserves for the protection of species. The model is based on a bio-economic metapopulation model that can be used to decide which parts of the sea should be opened for fisheries and which should be protected as marine reserve. It accounts for the dispersal of fish and considers both the economic returns from fisheries and the ecological value of marine biodiversity. A number of suggestions are given on how to extend and improve the DSS.

INTRODUCTION: The Dover Strait (Figure 1) connects the North Sea to the English Channel. Here, northern France and South-East England are at their closest. This narrow corridor, one of the world's busiest straits for maritime shipping, is a key economic area for numerous activities, such as leisure and tourism, international ports and shipping, plus the exploitation of living or abiotic marine resources. This area is a significant resource for fisheries because many commercial fish species are abundant there, but also because of the presence of nursery and spawning areas and migratory routes linked to specific environmental characteristics. The vulnerability of these resources, which are subjected to strong anthropogenic pressures, has brought together French and British maritime experts within a common project: to create an atlas of marine resource habitats in the Eastern English Channel. The first phase of the project focuses on the Dover Strait. Why the need for an atlas of marine resource habitats? Because the primary aim of the atlas is to act as a contemporary reference source for the Dover Strait marine environment and provide decision-makers with the necessary information to help in the management of marine living resources. Furthermore, it is essential that France and the United Kingdom have a common vision for the protection of ecosystems quality and for the utilisation of the marine resources shared by these two countries, which are presently suffering the consequences of the decline in the abundance of certain species. Sensible management, assisted by information systems and tools to help decision-making, is the key for the sustainable use of these resources. Finally, the popularisation of these approaches amongst the wider public is also an important factor in increasing the awareness of stakeholders and other users, and to involve them in the preservation and protection of a natural heritage, for a sustainable management of these resources. Why habitats? Because a habitat is an area where the environmental conditions are suitable for an organism, a population or a community to survive and live in a spontaneous state. As a result, any alteration of the environment may have disastrous consequences. Habitats and living marine resources in this geographical area are essential from the point of view of the environment because they contribute to the functioning of this unique ecosystem. This atlas is first of all an assessment of available and usable data for this approach. It presents a descriptive analysis of the environment of the Dover Strait and its resources (benthic assemblages, marine fish species: larvae, juvenile and adult). Also presented are the methods used to analyse these data and to map the suitable habitat for 16 marine fish species., INTRODUCTION: Le Détroit du Pas-de-Calais (figure 1) est à la jonction entre la mer du Nord et la Manche. Rapprochant à l'extrême le Nord de la France et le Sud-Est de l'Angleterre, ce couloir étroit est une des zones où le trafic maritime est le plus intense du monde ; il représente ainsi une zone économique importante utilisée pour de nombreuses activités : tourisme et loisirs, ports internationaux et fret, exploitation de ressources vivantes ou non. C'est un secteur très riche pour la pêche professionnelle car on y trouve de nombreuses espèces commerciales, des zones de nourriceries et de frayères, des voies de migration, liées à des paramètres environnementaux caractéristiques. La fragilité de ces ressources marines, soumises à de fortes pressions anthropiques, a incité les spécialistes français et britanniques du domaine maritime à se regrouper autour d'un projet commun : réaliser un atlas des habitats des ressources marines de la Manche orientale, dont la première phase focalise principalement sur le Détroit du Pas-de- Calais. Pourquoi un atlas sur les habitats de ces ressources ? Parce que le but de ce projet est de fournir aux collectivités un outil d'aide à la décision leur permettant de mieux appréhender la complexité du monde marin afin d'aider, en concertation avec les scientifiques, à la gestion des ressources vivantes marines du Détroit du Pas de Calais et la planification de certains aménagements en évaluant leurs conséquences sur ces ressources. D'autre part, il est essentiel que la France et le Royaume-Uni aient une vision commune de la protection de la qualité des écosystèmes et de l'utilisation des ressources marines partagées par ces deux pays qui subissent les conséquences de la diminution d'abondance de certaines espèces. Il est vrai qu'une gestion raisonnée assistée par des systèmes d'informations et des outils aidant à la décision représente un atout indéniable pour une exploitation durable de ces ressources. Enfin, la vulgarisation de ces approches auprès du grand public est aussi un facteur important afin de sensibiliser tous les acteurs et utilisateurs et les impliquer dans la préservation et la sauvegarde d'un patrimoine naturel pour une gestion durable de ces richesses. Pourquoi les habitats ? Parce que l'habitat est le lieu regroupant l'ensemble des conditions environnementales dans lequel un organisme, une population ou une communauté peut survivre et se maintenir à l'état spontané. Par conséquent, la moindre modification de l'environnement peut avoir des conséquences dramatiques. Les habitats et les ressources marines vivantes de cette région sont essentiels d'un point de vue environnemental car ils participent au bon fonctionnement de cet écosystème unique. Cet atlas fait tout d'abord un état des lieux des données disponibles et utilisables pour cette approche. Il présente une analyse descriptive de l'environnement du Détroit du Pas-de-Calais et de ses ressources (peuplements benthiques, espèces halieutiques larvaires, juvéniles et adultes). Sont aussi présentées les méthodes utilisées pour traiter ces données et pour réaliser la cartographie des habitats préférentiels de 16 espèces halieutiques d'intérêt commercial.