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Additional file 5. Additional tables.

Previous studies have shown that persons with Parkinson’s disease (pwPD) share specific deficits in learning new sequential movements, but the neural substrates of this impairment remain unclear. In addition, the degree to which striatal dopaminergic denervation in PD affects the cortico-striato-thalamo-cerebellar motor learning network remains unknown. We aimed to answer these questions using fMRI in 16 pwPD and 16 healthy age-matched control subjects while they performed an implicit motor sequence learning task. While learning was absent in both pwPD and controls assessed with reaction time differences between sequential and random trials, larger error-rates during the latter suggest that at least some of the complex sequence was encoded. Moreover, we found that while healthy controls could improve general task performance indexed by decreased reaction times across both sequence and random blocks, pwPD could not, suggesting disease-specific deficits in learning of stimulus-response associations. Using fMRI, we found that this effect in pwPD was correlated with decreased activity in the hippocampus over time. Importantly, activity in the substantia nigra (SN) and adjacent bilateral midbrain was specifically increased during sequence learning in pwPD compared to healthy controls, and significantly correlated with sequence-specific learning deficits. As increased SN activity was also associated (on trend) with higher doses of dopaminergic medication as well as disease duration, the results suggest that learning deficits in PD are associated with disease progression, indexing an increased drive to recruit dopaminergic neurons in the SN, however, unsuccessfully. Finally, there were no differences between pwPD and controls in task modulation of the cortico-striato-thalamo-cerebellar network. However, a restricted nigral-striatal model showed that negative modulation of SN to putamen connection was larger in pwPD compared to controls during random trials, while no differences between the groups were found during sequence learning. We speculate that learning-specific SN recruitment leads to a relative increase in SN- > putamen connectivity, which returns to a pathological reduced state when no learning takes place

Music-based interventions have emerged as a promising tool in stroke motor rehabilitation as they integrate most of the principles of motor training and multimodal stimulation. This paper aims to review the use of music in the rehabilitation of upper extremity motor function after stroke. First, we review the evidence supporting current music-based interventions including Music-supported Therapy, Music glove, group music therapy, Rhythm- and music-based intervention, and Musical sonification. Next, we describe the mechanisms that may be responsible for the effectiveness of these interventions, focusing on motor learning aspects, how multimodal stimulation may boost motor performance, and emotional and motivational aspects related to music. Then, we discuss methodological concerns in music therapy research related to modifications of therapy protocols, evaluation of patients and study designs. Finally, we highlight clinical considerations for the implementation of music-based interventions in clinical settings. DDEUIT

Supplemental material, Fig.S1 for Resting-state dynamics as a neuromarker of dopamine administration in healthy female adults by Gabriele Bellucci, Thomas F Münte and Soyoung Q Park in Journal of Psychopharmacology

Supplemental material, Fig.S2 for Resting-state dynamics as a neuromarker of dopamine administration in healthy female adults by Gabriele Bellucci, Thomas F Münte and Soyoung Q Park in Journal of Psychopharmacology

Supplemental material, Caption_to_Supplementary_Figure for Resting-state dynamics as a neuromarker of dopamine administration in healthy female adults by Gabriele Bellucci, Thomas F Münte and Soyoung Q Park in Journal of Psychopharmacology

Supplemental material, Supplementary_Materials_1 for Resting-state dynamics as a neuromarker of dopamine administration in healthy female adults by Gabriele Bellucci, Thomas F Münte and Soyoung Q Park in Journal of Psychopharmacology

Introduction The Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB) is one of the most widely used techniques for bariatric surgery. After RYGB, weight loss up to 50%–70% of excess body weight, improvement of insulin-resistance, changes in food preferences and improvements in cognitive performance have been reported. This protocol describes a longitudinal study of the neural correlates associated with food-processing and cognitive performance in patients with morbid obesity before and after RYGB relative to lean controls. Methods and analysis This study is a pre–post case–control experiment. Using functional MRI, the neural responses to food stimuli and a working memory task will be compared between 25 patients with obesity, pre and post RYGB, and a matched, lean control group. Resting state fMRI will be measured to investigate functional brain connectivity. Baseline measurements for both groups will take place 4 weeks prior to RYGB and 12 months after RYGB. The effects of RYGB on peptide tyrosine tyrosine and glucagon-like polypeptide-1 will also be determined. Ethics and dissemination The project has received ethical approval by the local medical ethics committee of the Carl-von-Ossietzky University of Oldenburg, Germany (registration: 2017-073). Results will be published in a peer-reviewed journal as original research and on international conferences. Trial registration number DRKS00012495; Pre-results.

Schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) is a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder characterized by odd or bizarre behavior, strange speech, magical thinking, unusual perceptual experiences, and social anhedonia. Schizophrenia proper has been associated with anomalies in dopaminergic neurotransmission and deficits in neurophysiological markers of self-monitoring, such as low amplitude in cognitive event-related brain potentials (ERPs) like the error-related negativity (ERN), and the error positivity (Pe). These components occur after performance errors, rely on adequate fronto-striatal function, and are sensitive to dopaminergic modulation. Here we postulated that analogous to observations in schizophrenia, SPD individuals would show deficits in self-monitoring, as measured by the ERN and the Pe. We also assessed the capacity of dopaminergic antagonists to reverse these postulated deficits.We recorded the electroencephalogram (EEG) from 9 SPD individuals and 12 healthy controls in two separate experimental sessions while they performed the Eriksen Flanker Task, a classical task recruiting behavioral monitoring. Participants received a placebo or 1 mg risperidone according to a double-blind randomized design.After placebo, SPD individuals showed slower reaction times to hits, longer correction times following errors and reduced ERN and Pe amplitudes. While risperidone impaired performance and decreased ERN and Pe in the control group, it led to behavioral improvements and ERN amplitude increases in the SPD individuals.These results indicate that SPD individuals show deficits in self-monitoring analogous to those in schizophrenia. These deficits can be evidenced by neurophysiological measures, suggest a dopaminergic imbalance, and can be reverted by dopaminergic antagonists.•We assessed self-monitoring in schizotypal personality disorder (SPD) using ERPs.•SPD patients showed reduced amplitude of the error-related negativity (ERN).•Dopamine antagonism improved behavior and enhanced the ERN in patients only.•An inhibited ERN is a potential endophenotype of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.•Results show impaired self-monitoring in SPD associated with dopamine disbalance.

Background: Influenza A infections are a rare cause of movement disorders. Previously described patients have suffered from acute-onset myoclonus and/or dystonia or post-viral parkinsonism. Case Report: We present the case of a 74-year-old female patient with transient generalized chorea due to influenza A-mediated encephalopathy. Discussion: We discuss whether the clinical presentation and the magnetic resonance imaging changes may be attributable to cytokine-mediated encephalopathy or to direct cytotoxic effects of the virus. Additionally, we would like to make clinicians aware of this clinical sign in the context of viral encephalopathy., Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements, Tremor and Other Hyperkinetic Movements

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a neurodegenerative disorder characterized by muscular atrophy, spasticity, and bulbar signs caused by loss of upper and lower motor neurons. Evidence suggests that ALS additionally affects other brain areas including premotor cortex and supplementary motor area. Here, we studied movement execution and inhibition in ALS patients using a stop‐signal paradigm and functional magnetic resonance imaging. Seventeen ALS patients and 17 age‐matched healthy controls performed a stop‐signal task that required responding with a button press to a right‐ or left‐pointing black arrow (go‐stimuli). In stop‐trials, a red arrow (stop‐stimulus) was presented shortly after the black arrow indicating to withhold the prepared movement. Patients had by trend higher reaction times in go‐trials but did not differ significantly in their inhibition performance. Patients showed stronger inhibition‐related activity in inferior, superior, and middle frontal gyri as well as in putamen and pallidum. Error‐related activity, conversely, was found to be stronger in healthy controls, particularly in the insula bilaterally. Patients also showed increased activity in the motor cortex during button presses. The results provide evidence for altered prefrontal and subcortical networks underlying motor execution, motor inhibition, and error monitoring in ALS. Hum Brain Mapp 36:2878–2889, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Recent investigations addressing the role of the synaptic multiadaptor molecule AKAP5 in human emotion and behavior suggest that the AKAP5 Pro100Leu polymorphism (rs2230491) contributes to individual differences in affective control. Carriers of the less common Leu allele show a higher control of anger as indicated by behavioral measures and dACC brain response on emotional distracters when compared to Pro homozygotes. In the current fMRI study we used an emotional working memory task according to the n-back scheme with neutral and negative emotional faces as target stimuli. Pro homozygotes showed a performance advantage at the behavioral level and exhibited enhanced activation of the amygdala and fusiform face area during working memory for emotional faces. On the other hand, Leu carriers exhibited increased activation of the dACC during performance of the 2-back condition. Our results suggest that AKAP5 Pro100Leu effects on emotion processing might be task-dependent with Pro homozygotes showing lower control of emotional interference, but more efficient processing of task-relevant emotional stimuli. (VLID)1678229

A set of cortical and sub‐cortical brain structures has been linked with sentence‐level semantic processes. However, it remains unclear how these brain regions are organized to support the semantic integration of a word into sentential context. To look into this issue, we conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study that required participants to silently read sentences with semantically congruent or incongruent endings and analyzed the network properties of the brain with two approaches, independent component analysis (ICA) and graph theoretical analysis (GTA). The GTA suggested that the whole‐brain network is topologically stable across conditions. The ICA revealed a network comprising the supplementary motor area (SMA), left inferior frontal gyrus, left middle temporal gyrus, left caudate nucleus, and left angular gyrus, which was modulated by the incongruity of sentence ending. Furthermore, the GTA specified that the connections between the left SMA and left caudate nucleus as well as that between the left caudate nucleus and right thalamus were stronger in response to incongruent vs. congruent endings. Hum Brain Mapp 35:367–376, 2014. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

Although the concept of utility is fundamental to many economic theories, up to now a generally accepted method determining a subject's utility function is not available. We investigated two methods that are used in economic sciences for describing utility functions by using response-locked event-related potentials in order to assess their neural underpinnings. For defining the certainty equivalent (CE), we used a lottery game with probabilities of 0.5, for identifying the subjects' utility functions directly a standard bisection task was applied. Although the lottery tasks' payoffs were only hypothetical, a pronounced negativity was observed resembling the error related negativity (ERN) previously described in action monitoring research, but this occurred only for choices far away from the indifference point between money and lottery. By contrast, the bisection task failed to evoke an ERN irrespective of the responses' correctness. Based on these findings we are reasoning that only decisions made in the lottery task achieved a level of subjective relevance that activates cognitive-emotional monitoring. In terms of economic sciences, our findings support the view that the bisection method is unaffected by any kind of probability valuation or other parameters related to risk and in combination with the lottery task can, therefore, be used to differentiate between payoff and probability valuation., Working papers series, ISSN 2628-1724, 2009, Heft 14

What determines the territories of psychology? How have the boundaries of psychological research and practice been developed in history, and how might or should they be changed nowadays? This volume presents new approaches to these questions, resulting from a three-year collaboration among internationally known psychologists, neuroscientists, social scientists and historians and philosophers of science from Germany and the United States under the auspices of the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of Sciences and Humanities. The authors reflect critically on traditional and current views of psychology on the basis of focused historical and contemporary case studies of three broad topic areas: How have psychological concepts been used in disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, or neuroscience, as well as in daily life? Has the use of instruments in psychological research expanded or restricted the discipline’s reach? And how have applications of psychological thinking and research worked in practical contexts? The volume thus presents essays that investigate the separations as well as the interactions between psychology and its neighboring disciplines and, moreover, essays that try to overcome disciplinary distinctions in exemplary ways. The contributions aim to make historical and philosophical studies of psychology relevant to contemporary concerns, and to show how psychology can profit from better interdisciplinary cooperation, thus improving mutual understanding between different scientific cultures.

Dynamic adaptations of one"s behavior by means of performance monitoring are a central function of the human executive system, that underlies considerable interindividual variation. Converging evidence from electrophysiological and neuroimaging studies in both animals and humans hints atthe importance ofthe dopaminergic system forthe regulation of performance monitoring. Here, we studied the impact of two polymorphisms affecting dopaminergic functioning in the prefrontal cortex [catechol-O-methyltransferase (COMT) Val108/158Met and dopamine D4 receptor (DRD4) single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-521] on neurophysiological correlates of performance monitoring. We applied a modified version of a standard flanker task with an embedded stop-signal task to tap into the different functions involved, particularly error monitoring, conflict detection and inhibitory processes. Participants homozygous for the DRD4 T allele produced an increased error-related negativity after both choice errors and failed inhibitions compared with C-homozygotes. This was associated with pronounced compensatory behavior reflected in higher post-error slowing. No group differences were seen in the incompatibility N2, suggesting distinct effects of the DRD4 polymorphism on error monitoring processes. Additionally, participants homozygous for the COMTVal allele, with a thereby diminished prefrontal dopaminergic level, revealed increased prefrontal processing related to inhibitory functions, reflected in the enhanced stop-signal-related components N2 and P3a. The results extend previous findings from mainly behavioral and neuroimaging data on the relationship between dopaminergic genes and executive functions and present possible underlying mechanisms for the previously suggested association between these dopaminergic polymorphisms and psychiatric disorders as schizophrenia or attention deficit hyperactivity disorder.

BACKGROUND: When subjects use cues to prepare for a likely stimulus or a likely response, reaction times are facilitated by valid cues but prolonged by invalid cues. In studies on combined expectancy effects, two cues can independently give information regarding two dimensions of the forthcoming task. In certain situations, cueing effects on one dimension are reduced when the cue on the other dimension is invalid. According to the Adjusted Expectancy Model, cues affect different processing levels and a mechanism is presumed which is sensitive to the validity of early level cues and leads to online adjustment of expectancy effects at later levels. To examine the predictions of this model cueing of stimulus modality was combined with response cueing. RESULTS: Behavioral measures showed the interaction of cueing effects. Electrophysiological measures of the lateralized readiness potential (LRP) and the N200 amplitude confirmed the predictions of the model. The LRP showed larger effects of response cues on response activation when modality cues were valid rather than invalid. N200 amplitude was largest with valid modality cues and invalid response cues, medium with invalid modality cues, and smallest with two valid cues. CONCLUSION: Findings support the view that the validity of early level expectancies modulates the effects of late level expectancies, which included response activation and response conflict in the present study. peerReviewed

Beim Musizieren ist das Gehirn des Musikers in vielfältiger Weise extremen Anforderungen ausgesetzt. Das Musikergehirn kann daher als Modell für das Studium der trainingsbedingten Veränderbarkeit des Nervensystems herangezogen werden. In diesem Artikel werden Beispiele für solche plastischen Veränderungen dargestellt., Magdeburger Wissenschaftsjournal, ISSN 0949-5304, 2003, Heft 1-2

In the auditory modality, there has been a considerable debate about some aspects of cortical disorders, especially about auditory forms of agnosia. Agnosia refers to an impaired comprehension of sensory information in the absence of deficits in primary sensory processes. In the non-verbal domain, sound agnosia and amusia have been reported but are frequently accompanied by language deficits whereas pure deficits are rare. Absolute pitch and musicians’ musical abilities have been associated with left hemispheric functions. We report the case of a right handed sound engineer with the absolute pitch who developed sound agnosia and amusia in the absence of verbal deficits after a right perisylvian stroke. His disabilities were assessed with the Seashore Test of Musical Functions, the tests of Wertheim and Botez (Wertheim and Botez, Brain 84, 1961, 19–30) and by event-related potentials (ERP) recorded in a modified 'oddball paradigm’. Auditory ERP revealed a dissociation between the amplitudes of the P3a and P3b subcomponents with the P3b being reduced in amplitude while the P3a was undisturbed. This is interpreted as reflecting disturbances in target detection processes as indexed by the P3b. The findings that contradict some aspects of current knowledge about left/right hemispheric specialization in musical processing are discussed and related to the literature concerning cortical auditory disorders.

Ischemic stroke is the most common cerebrovascular disease, and its diagnosis, treatment, and study relies on non-invasive imaging. Algorithms for stroke lesion segmentation from magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) volumes are intensely researched, but the reported results are largely incomparable due to different datasets and evaluation schemes. We approached this urgent problem of comparability with the Ischemic Stroke Lesion Segmentation (ISLES) challenge organized in conjunction with the MICCAI 2015 conference. In this paper we propose a common evaluation framework, describe the publicly available datasets, and present the results of the two sub-challenges: Sub-Acute Stroke Lesion Segmentation (SISS) and Stroke Perfusion Estimation (SPES). A total of 16 research groups participated with a wide range of state-of-the-art automatic segmentation algorithms. A thorough analysis of the obtained data enables a critical evaluation of the current state-of-the-art, recommendations for further developments, and the identification of remaining challenges. The segmentation of acute perfusion lesions addressed in SPES was found to be feasible. However, algorithms applied to sub-acute lesion segmentation in SISS still lack accuracy. Overall, no algorithmic characteristic of any method was found to perform superior to the others. Instead, the characteristics of stroke lesion appearances, their evolution, and the observed challenges should be studied in detail. The annotated ISLES image datasets continue to be publicly available through an online evaluation system to serve as an ongoing benchmarking resource (www.isles-challenge.org).

BACKGROUND: Determinations of thyrotropin (TSH) and free thyroxine (FT4) represent the gold standard in evaluation of thyroid function. To screen for novel peripheral biomarkers of thyroid function and to characterize FT4-associated physiological signatures in human plasma we used an untargeted OMICS approach in a thyrotoxicosis model. METHODS: A sample of 16 healthy young men were treated with levothyroxine for 8 weeks and plasma was sampled before the intake was started as well as at two points during treatment and after its completion, respectively. Mass spectrometry-derived metabolite and protein levels were related to FT4 serum concentrations using mixed-effect linear regression models in a robust setting. To compile a molecular signature discriminating between thyrotoxicosis and euthyroidism, a random forest was trained and validated in a two-stage cross-validation procedure. RESULTS: Despite the absence of obvious clinical symptoms, mass spectrometry analyses detected 65 metabolites and 63 proteins exhibiting significant associations with serum FT4. A subset of 15 molecules allowed a robust and good prediction of thyroid hormone function (AUC = 0.86) without prior information on TSH or FT4. Main FT4-associated signatures indicated increased resting energy expenditure, augmented defense against systemic oxidative stress, decreased lipoprotein particle levels, and increased levels of complement system proteins and coagulation factors. Further association findings question the reliability of kidney function assessment under hyperthyroid conditions and suggest a link between hyperthyroidism and cardiovascular diseases via increased dimethylarginine levels. CONCLUSION: Our results emphasize the power of untargeted OMICs approaches to detect novel pathways of thyroid hormone action. Furthermore, beyond TSH and FT4, we demonstrated the potential of such analyses to identify new molecular signatures for diagnosis and treatment of thyroid disorders. This study was registered at the German Clinical Trials Register (DRKS) [DRKS00011275] on the 16th of November 2016.

The hypothalamus and insular cortex play an essential role in the integration of endocrine and homeostatic signals and their impact on food intake. Resting-state functional connectivity alterations of the hypothalamus, posterior insula (PINS) and anterior insula (AINS) are modulated by metabolic states and caloric intake. Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of how these factors affect the strength of connectivity between hypothalamus, PINS and AINS is missing. This study investigated whether effective (directed) connectivity within this network varies as a function of prandial states (hunger vs. satiety) and energy availability (glucose levels and/or hormonal modulation). To address this question, we measured twenty healthy male participants of normal weight twice: once after 36 h of fasting (except water consumption) and once under satiated conditions. During each session, resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) and hormone concentrations were recorded before and after glucose administration. Spectral dynamic causal modeling (spDCM) was used to assess the effective connectivity between the hypothalamus and anterior and posterior insula. Using Bayesian model selection, we observed that the same model was identified as the most likely model for each rs-fMRI recording. Compared to satiety, the hunger condition enhanced the strength of the forward connections from PINS to AINS and reduced the strength of backward connections from AINS to PINS. Furthermore, the strength of connectivity from PINS to AINS was positively related to plasma cortisol levels in the hunger condition, mainly before glucose administration. However, there was no direct relationship between glucose treatment and effective connectivity. Our findings suggest that prandial states modulate connectivity between PINS and AINS and relate to theories of interoception and homeostatic regulation that invoke hierarchical relations between posterior and anterior insula., NeuroImage, 217, ISSN:1053-8119, ISSN:1095-9572

The auditory system can detect occasional changes (deviants) in acoustic regularities without the need for subjects to focus their attention on the sound material. Deviant detection is reflected in the elicitation of the mismatch negativity component (MMN) of the event-related potentials. In the studies presented in this thesis, the MMN is used to investigate the auditory abilities for detecting similarities and regularities in sound streams. To investigate the limits of these processes, professional musicians have been tested in some of the studies. The results show that auditory grouping is already more advanced in musicians than in nonmusicians and that the auditory system of musicians can, unlike that of nonmusicians, detect a numerical regularity of always four tones in a series. These results suggest that sensory auditory processing in musicians is not only a fine tuning of universal abilities, but is also qualitatively more advanced than in nonmusicians. In addition, the relationship between the auditory change-detection function and perception is examined. It is shown that, contrary to the generally accepted view, MMN elicitation does not necessarily correlate with perception. The outcome of the auditory change-detection function can be implicit and the implicit knowledge of the sound structure can, after training, be utilized for behaviorally correct intuitive sound detection. These results illustrate the automatic character of the sensory change detection function. Kuulojärjestelmä analysoi akustisia tapahtumia jäsentääkseen meitä ympäröiviä ääniä. Kuulohavaintoon liittyvät kyvyt eivät ole staattisia, vaan niitä voidaan muokata harjoittelulla. Esimerkiksi viulisti pystyy erottamaan paljon pienempiä sävelkorkeuseroja kuin joku, jonka korva ei ole samalla tavalla kehittynyt harjoittelussa. Tästä syystä muusikot ovat mielenkiintoinen kohderyhmä kuulohavaintoon liittyvien kykyjen tutkimuksessa. Osa kuuloprosesseista tapahtuu automaattisesti, vaikka emme ole edes aina tietoisia meitä ympäröivistä äänistä. Joskus emme tarkkaile ääntä kuinnes se yhtäkkiä muuttuu. Toisinaan taas emme ole täysin tietoisia äänen muutostakaan, mutta tarkoittaako tämä sitä, että se ei voi vaikuttaa toimintaamme? Tämän väitöskirjan tutkimuksissa aivosähkökäyrää eli EEG:tä mitattiin pään pinnalle kiinnitetyistä elektrodeista. EEG:llä mitatuista sähkökentistä voidaan päätellä, milloin kuulojärjestelmä on löytänyt satunnaisen muutoksen äänisarjassa, joka on muuten säännöllinen. Tämä ilmenee negatiivisena heilahduksena, jota kutsutaan MMN-vasteeksi (engl. mismatch negativity). MMN-vaste syntyy, vaikka koehenkilöt eivät tarkkailisi ääniärsykkeitä, ja tästä syystä sitä voidaan käyttää kuulojärjestelmässä automaattisesti tapahtuvan äänten käsittelyn tutkimiseen. Havaitsemme merkitystä yhdistämällä samankaltaisia ääniä ja erottamalla niitä erilaisista äänistä. Tätä kutsutaan ryhmittelyksi. Tämän väitöskirjan tulosten mukaan kuuloaineiston ryhmittelytoiminto on kehittyneempi muusikoilla kuin muilla. Väitöskirjassa myös näytetään, että muusikoiden löytää neljän äänen säännönmukaisu uden muille merkityksettöm ästä äänisarjasta. Tämä viittaa siihen, että osa kuuloprosesseista, joita käytetään musiikin jäsentämiseen, on automatisoitunut muusikoilla. Tämä on hyödyllistä prosessointiresurssien kannalta, sillä näin niitä jää korkeampien toimintojen käyttöön. Tämän väitöskirjan viimeisessä tutkimuksessa tarkasteltiin automaattisen poikkeavuuden käsittelyn ja tietoisen havaitsemisen suhdetta. Tutkimus osoitti, että MMN-vasteen syntyminen ei välttämättä satu yhteen tietoisen havainnon kanssa. Vaikka aivot löysivät satunnaiset muutokset ääniärsykkeissä, koehenkilöt eivät tietoisesti havainneet muutoksia. Ero sen välillä, mitä aivot käsittelivät ja mitä ihmiset tietoisella tasolla havaitsivat, osoittaa, että koehenkilöillä oli implisiittistä tietoa äänten rakenteesta. Kun koehenkilöitä sitten harjoitettiin kuulemaan muutoksia esittämällä yhtäaikaisesti visuaalinen vihje, puolet heistä oppi löytämään satunnaiset muutokset, pystymättä kuitenkaan kertomaan, miten ne erosivat muista äänistä. Toisin sanoen, he pystyivät löytämään poikkeamat intuitiivisesti. Tulokset osoittavat, että implisiittistä tietoa voidaan hyödyntää oikeiden intuitiivisten päätösten tekemisessä.