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Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) can cause substantial losses. Compensation for such losses is essential to foster positive community attitudes toward wildlife conservation. Monetary compensation for the loss of human life, injury, crop and property damage, or livestock depredation by wildlife is a common strategy for mitigating HWC. We analyzed inter-specific, spatial, inter-annual and seasonal variation in human-wildlife conflicts, conflict outcome and the associated monetary costs of compensation in Kenya during 2007-2016. A total of 18,794 compensation claims were filed with the Kenya National Compensation Scheme (KNCS) during 2007 - 2016. Snakes made the greatest contribution to the total cases (44.8%, = 8,423), human fatalities (43.1%, = 614) and human injuries (76.9%, = 7,772). Elephant was the second leading conflict species (22.3%, = 4,181) and was responsible for 18.8% ( = 266) of human deaths and over 75% of crop and property damage. Spotted hyena, leopard and lion caused 85% of livestock predation cases. The intensity and outcome of conflicts varied across counties such that most human fatalities occurred in arid Tana River and Wajir counties, whereas most human injuries occurred in Kitui and Wajir counties. The intensity of conflicts was strongly influenced by the agro-climatic potential and percentage of a county under protection, rainfall and temperature and their interactions. In consequence, crop damage was highest in counties with high agricultural potential (Meru and Taita Taveta) but livestock predation was highest in counties with large protected areas (Samburu and Taita Taveta). Human fatality and injury were higher among males than females and adults than children. Over the 10-year period, the Kenya Government spent about 3 billion Kenya shillings on compensation of about 30% of all filed claims. Compensation schemes require sustainable funding mechanisms and effective administration to minimize negative unintended consequences. Key words: Human-wildlife conflicts, compensation, snake bites, attack on humans, livestock predation, crop raiding, rainfall, temperature, human population growth.

Human-wildlife conflicts (HWC) are often caused by human population increase, high livestock and wildlife population densities and changing land use and climate. These conflicts are typically most intense in human-dominated systems where people, livestock and wildlife share the same landscapes and during severe droughts. Consequently, HWC are common in developing countries where wildlife still roam outside protected areas, such as in parts of Africa. We analyze how HWC vary across multiple wildlife species, seasons, years, and regions to quantify their extent, causes and consequences using data collected by the Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) in Narok County of Kenya during 2001–2017. Wildlife species contributed differentially to HWC such that only six species plus non-human primates contributed 90% of all the conflict incidents (n = 13,848) in the 17-year period. Specifically, the elephant (46.2%), buffalo (10.6%), Burchell's zebra (7.6%), leopard (7.3%), spotted hyena (5.8%) and lion (3.3%), collectively contributed 80.8%, whereas non-human primates contributed 11.7% of all the conflicts. The three most common conflict types were crop raiding (50.0%), attacks on humans (27.3%) and livestock depredation (17.6%). Crop raiding was most acute where cereals (wheat and maize) are grown on large scales. Carnivores were more likely to attack livestock species with body sizes comparable to their own. Thus, the leopard (44.0%, n = 3,368) and spotted hyena (37.9%, n = 2,903) killed most sheep and goats whereas the lion (63.1%, n = 531) and spotted hyenas (14.5%, n = 122) killed most cattle. HWC showed evident seasonal and inter-annual fluctuations, reflecting underlying rainfall variation. Accordingly, HWC were highest in 2008–2009 when rainfall was lowest in Narok County. Similarly, crop raiding peaked in the late wet season when crops mature whereas livestock depredation was higher in the wet season when natural prey density is lowest. Land conversion to agriculture and increase in human and livestock numbers were all positively associated with increase in HWC. Effective strategies for reducing HWC should be multi-faceted and integrate variation in the intensity and type of HWC between species, regions, seasons and years. Such strategies should discourage habitat conversion but encourage regulating livestock density. Further, they should promote land use zoning to minimize contacts between people, livestock and wildlife; effective livestock herding methods and predator-proof livestock corrals to minimize livestock depredation and fencing farms at greater risk of crop destruction. Keywords: Human-wildlife conflicts, Land use change, Climate change, Human population growth, Livestock density, Wildlife density

Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a widespread and persistent challenge to conservation. However, relatively few studies have thus far examined long-term monitoring data to quantify how the type, and severity of HWC varies across species, seasons, years and ecosystems. Here, we examine human-wildlife conflicts in Tsavo and Maasai Mara, two premier wildlife conservation areas in Kenya. Using Kenya Wildlife Service (KWS) data (2001-2016), we show that both the type and severity of conflicts vary among species such that the African elephant (Loxodonta africana), is the leading conflict species in both the Tsavo (64.3%, n= 30664) and Mara (47.0%, n=12487) ecosystems. The next four most notorious conflict animals, in decreasing order, are nonhuman primates (Tsavo 11.4%, n=3502; Mara 11.8%, n=1473), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer, Tsavo 5.5%, n=1676; Mara 11.3%, n=1410), lion (Panthera leo,Tsavo 3.6%, n=1107; Mara 3.3%, n=416) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta, Tsavo 2.4%, n=744; Mara 5.8%, n=729). We group the observed conflict incidences (n= 43,151) into four major conflict types, including crop raiding, the most common conflict type, followed by human and livestock attacks and property damage. The severity of conflicts also varies markedly seasonally and inter-annually. Crop raiding peaks in May-July, during and at the end of the wet season when crops are maturing but is lowest in November during the late dry season and beginning of the early rains. Attacks on humans and livestock increased more than other conflict types in both Tsavo (from 2001) and Mara (from 2013). Relatively fewer people in Mara (7.2%, n=901) than in Tsavo (38.2%, n = 11714) felt threatened by wildlife, suggesting that the Maasai people are more tolerant of wildlife. Minimizing HWC is tightly linked to successfully resolving the broader conservation challenges, including enhancing ecosystem connectivity, community engagement and conservation benefits to communities.